HUMAN BODY

Anatomical Positions

Skeletal muscles
● Acts on the skeleton
● Under voluntary control
● Plays a key role in numerous
activities such as maintenance of
posture, locomotion, speech, and
Supination Pronation respiration

● Supine: face upward position of the Organization of Skeletal Muscle

body; lying on the back
● Prone: face downward; lying on the
stomach

Anatomical Planes
1. Frontal Plane
● divides the body into into
anterior and posterior
● Where lateral movements
occur
2. Sagittal Plane ● Muscles are attached to the bone
● divides the body into left on either side of the joint
and right ● Origin: proximal attachment of the
● In which forward and muscle
backward movements occur ● Insertion: distal attachment of the
3. Transverse plane muscle
● Divides the body into ● Tendons: connective tissue which
superior and inferior parts connects the muscle to the bone
● In which rotational
movements occur

● Agonist: “prime movers” or the
flexor muscle
● Antagonist: muscles that acts
opposite of the agonist; extensor
muscle
● Synergist: “secondary movers”
Muscle Action
● Isometric action: a muscle exerted
tension while maintaining a
constant length
● Concentric action: a muscle exerts
tension while it is shortening
● Eccentric action: a muscle exerts
tension while it is lengthening
Structure of a Skeletal Muscle
● Each muscle is composed of
muscles fibers
● Endomysium: a connective tissue
layer that surrounds each muscle
fiber
● Fascicles: individual muscle fibers
grouped together
● Perimysium: another connective
tissue layer that surrounds a
fascicle
○ Each perimysium contains
blood vessels and nerves
that supply the individual
muscle fibers
○ The fascicles are joined
together to form the muscle
● Epimysium: connective tissue
sheath that surrounds the muscle
○ At the end of the muscle, the
connective tissue layers
come together to form a
tendon, which attaches the
muscle to the skeleton
● Myotendinous junction: a
specialized region of the tendon
where the ends of the muscle fibers
interdigitate with the tendon for
the transmission of the force of
contraction of the muscle to the
tendon to effect movement of the
skeletal muscle
Microstructure of the Skeletal muscle
● Myofibrils: bundles of filaments
found in each skeletal muscle fiber
and are composed of sarcomeres
● Sarcomeres: represents the
smallest functional unit of the
muscle and contains the
contractile proteins (myofilaments)
 that are responsible for developing Interact with actin
tension during muscle actions filaments, forming cross-
○ There are 3 myofilaments bridges
within each sarcomere:
■ Actin
■ Myosin
■ titin
● Z lines: separates each sarcomere
from one another
○ Contains a number of
proteins that serve different
functions, such as
supporting structures and
contractile elements
● I band: light band on either side of
the Z lines
○ Contains thin filaments
Sliding Filament Theory
composed primarily of the
● The interaction between the
protein actin
crossbridge the thick myofilament
○
of myosin and the thin
● A band: found between the between
myofilament of actin
two I bands within a sarcomere
● Thin filaments of the sarcomere
○ Contains thick filaments
slide toward the M line, alongside
composed primarily of the
thick filaments
protein myosin
● The width of the A zone stays the
● H band: a light area in the center of
same
the sarcomere
● Z lines move closer together
○ Represents the portion of
the A band that contains
myosin thick filaments but
Control of Skeletal Muscle Activity
no thin actin filaments
1. Action potential (responsible for
● M line: a dark line at the center of
activating a muscle) is
the sarcomere and includes
transmitted by a motor neuron to
proteins that appear to be critical
the neuromuscular junction.
for organization and alignment of
2. The neurotransmitter acetylcholine
the thick filaments in the
is released into the synaptic cleft.
sarcomere
3. Acetylcholine diffuses across the
synaptic cleft and attaches to
receptors located on the
Myosin Action
sarcolemma, which open Na+ -K+
● During contraction, myosin heads:
channels.
4. An influx of Na+ into the muscle
fiber and an efflux of K+ from the
 muscle fiber follows, resulting in
the development of an end-plate
potential that generates a muscle
fiber action potential
2. Glycolysis
BIOENERGETICS
Anaerobic System
● Without oxygen
1. Phosphagen / ATP-PC system
● The donation of a phosphate
group and its bond energy
from PC to ADP to form ATP
● The reaction is catalyzed by
the enzyme creatine kinase
● Muscle cells store only
small amounts of PC thus,
the total amount of ATP that
can be formed via this
reaction is limited.
● This system provides energy
for muscular contraction at
the onset of exercise and
during short-term, high-
intensity exercise
● PC reformation requires ATP
and occurs only during
recovery from exercise
● Involves the breakdown of
glucose or glycogen to form
2 molecules of pyruvate or
lactate
● It is an anaerobic pathway
used to transfer bond
energy from glucose to
rejoin Pi to ADP
● This occurs in the
sarcoplasm of the muscle
cell
● It produces a net gain of 2
molecules of ATP and 2
molecules of pyruvate or
lactate per glucose molecule
 final hydrogen
acceptor at the end
of the electron
transport chain
○ Entry into the citric
acid cycle requires
the formation of
acetyl-CoA which can
be formed from the
breakdown of
carbohydrates, fats,
or proteins.
○ Each turn of the
citric acid produces
2 ATP molecules
directly and 2 CO2
molecules

Aerobic System
● Occurs inside the mitochondria
● Oxidative phosphorylation
● Involves the interaction of two
cooperating metabolic pathways
1. Citric acid cycle (Krebs
cycle)
○ Its function is to
complete the
oxidation (hydrogen
removal) of
carbohydrates, fats,
or proteins using
NAD+ and FAD as
hydrogen (energy)
carriers 2. Electron transport chain
○ Hydrogen contains (ETC)
the energy in the ○ Molecules within the
food molecules that ETC function to
can be used in to pump H+ from the
reform ADP + PI to mitochondrial matrix
reform ATP into the
○ Oxygen does not intermembrane
participate in this space
reaction but it is the
○ This results in an
increased
concentration of H+
ions in the
intermembrane
space and therefore
a large H+ gradient
between the
intermembrane
space and the matrix
of the mitochondria
○ The movement of H+
through the ATP
synthase provides
the energy required
to produce ATP
○ Oxygen is the
ultimate electron
acceptor in the ETC
because oxygen has
a high capacity to
accept electrons and
it allows the ETC and
oxidative
phosphorylation to
continue
○ ETC produces ATP
and water