Managing Learning

Prof. Dr. Markus Reihlen

» www.leuphana.de
Objectives of this Session

1. Understanding different
approaches to learning
2. Knowing and applying Aryris and
Schön’s theory of organizational
learning
3. Understanding the design
parameter of a learning
organization
4. Describing and explaining the link
between errors and learning and
innovation in various contexts

Prof. Dr. Markus Reihlen 1

Leuphana University of Lüneburg
 Why do organizations need to learn?

Charles Darwin:

“It is not the strongest of the

species that survives, nor
the most intelligent, but the
most responsive to change”

Prof. Dr. Markus Reihlen 2

Leuphana University of Lüneburg
 What skills are required for the responsive
organization?

Prof. Dr. Markus Reihlen 3

Leuphana University of Lüneburg
 Three Orientations to Learning
Aspect Behaviorist Cognitivist Social and situational

Learning theorists Thorndike, Pavlov, Koffka, Kohler, Lewin, Bandura, Lave and
Watson, Guthrie, Hull, Piaget, Ausubel, Wenger, Salomon,
Tolman, Skinner Bruner, Gagne Vygotski

View of the learning Change in behavior Internal mental process Interaction in social
process (including insight, contexts. Movement
information processing, from the periphery to
memory, perception) the centre of a
community of practice

Locus of learning Stimuli in external Internal cognitive Learning is in

environment structuring relationships between
people – interaction
systems.
Managing learning Produce behavioral Develop capacity and Establish communities
change in desired skills to learn better, of practice in which
direction, behavioral learning how to learn conversation and
objectives participation can occur

Prof. Dr. Markus Reihlen Source: Adapted with modifications from Merriam and Caffarella (1991) Learning in Adulthood.
A comprehensive guide, San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, p. 138.
4
Leuphana University of Lüneburg
 The mind of the manager

Application level Cognitive activities

(Mental reasoning)

Operating systems level Cognitive maps

(Mental models)

Hardware level Cognitive abilities

(Mental Faculties)

Source: Adapted from de Wit, B.; Meyer, R.: Strategy: Process, Content, Context, 3rd Ed., Thomson: London, 2004,
p. 52
Prof. Dr. Markus Reihlen 5
Leuphana University of Lüneburg
 Three Orientations to Learning
Aspect Behaviorist Cognitivist Social and situational

Learning theorists Thorndike, Pavlov, Koffka, Kohler, Lewin, Bandura, Lave and
Watson, Guthrie, Hull, Piaget, Ausubel, Wenger, Salomon,
Tolman, Skinner Bruner, Gagne Vygotski

View of the learning Change in behavior Internal mental process Interaction in social
process (including insight, contexts. Movement
information processing, from the periphery to
memory, perception) the centre of a
community of practice

Locus of learning Stimuli in external Internal cognitive Learning is in

environment structuring relationships between
people – interaction
systems.
Managing learning Produce behavioral Develop capacity and Establish communities
change in desired skills to learn better, of practice in which
direction, behavioral learning how to learn conversation and
objectives participation can occur

Prof. Dr. Markus Reihlen Source: Adapted with modifications from Merriam and Caffarella (1991) Learning in Adulthood.
A comprehensive guide, San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, p. 138.
6
Leuphana University of Lüneburg
 Learning in a Community of Practice

§ The concept of a community of practice refers to the process of

social learning when people who have common goals interact as they
strive towards those and share common resources and goals.

Domain Community Practice

§ Common interest field in § Members participate at § They develop a shared
a particular domain social activities and repertoire of
discussions resources: background
§ Members share common
literature, best practice
competencies § Members help each other
cases, methods, ways
and share information
§ Members are engaged in of addressing recurring
advancing the field of the § Creating of close, trustful, problems—in short a
domain learning relationships shared practice

Prof. Dr. Markus Reihlen 7

Leuphana University Lüneburg
 Three Orientations to Learning
Aspect Behaviorist Cognitivist Social and situational

Learning theorists Thorndike, Pavlov, Koffka, Kohler, Lewin, Bandura, Lave and
Watson, Guthrie, Hull, Piaget, Ausubel, Wenger, Salomon,
Tolman, Skinner Bruner, Gagne Vygotski

View of the learning Change in behavior Internal mental process Interaction in social
process (including insight, contexts. Movement
information processing, from the periphery to
memory, perception) the centre of a
community of practice

Locus of learning Stimuli in external Internal cognitive Learning is in

environment structuring relationships between
people – interaction
systems.
Managing learning Produce behavioral Develop capacity and Establish communities
change in desired skills to learn better, of practice in which
direction, behavioral learning how to learn conversation and
objectives participation can occur

Prof. Dr. Markus Reihlen Source: Adapted with modifications from Merriam and Caffarella (1991) Learning in Adulthood.
A comprehensive guide, San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, p. 138.
8
Leuphana University of Lüneburg
 Selected Assumptions of the Argyris & Schön
Approach
§ Organizational learning
§ refers to an organization‘s sensemaking, know-how, and
practices;
§ is normative and practice-orientated;
§ is focussed on
§ individual practitioners and
§ how they inquire in interaction with one another in an effort
to produce productive organizational learning (organizational
inquiry)

Prof. Dr. Markus Reihlen 9

Leuphana University of Lüneburg
 Theories of Action: Theory-in-use and Espoused
Theory

Espoused Theories
“When someone is asked how he would behave under certain circumstances,
the answer he usually gives is his espoused theory of action for that situation.
This is the theory of action to which he gives allegiance, and which, upon
request, he communicates to others.

Chris Argyris

Theories-in-use

However, the theory that actually governs his actions is this

theory-in-use.” (Argyris and Schön 1974: 6-7)

Model I versus Model II Theories-in-use

Donald Schön

Prof. Dr. Markus Reihlen 10

Leuphana University of Lüneburg
 Single and Double Loop Learning

Match

Governing Action
Consequences
Values Strategies

Mismatch

Single
Loop learning

= Adaptive learning
Double Loop
Learning

= Reflective learning

Prof. Dr. Markus Reihlen 11

Leuphana University of Lüneburg
 Model I Theory-in-use Characteristics

The governing Values of Model I

§ Win, do not lose
§ Suppress negative feelings
§ Emphasize rationality

Primary Strategies
§ Control environment and task unilaterally
Usually operationalized by:
§ Advocating courses of action which discourage inquiry
e.g.. "Lets not talk about the past, that's over."
§ Treating ones' own views as obviously correct
§ Face-saving moves such as leaving potentially embarrassing facts
unstated

Consequences
§ Defensive relationships
§ Low freedom of choice
§ Reduced production of valid information
§ Little public testing of ideas

Source: Taken from Argyris, Putnam & McLain Smith (1985, p. 89)
Prof. Dr. Markus Reihlen 12
Leuphana University of Lüneburg
 Problems of Model I Behavior

§ Establishing Defensive Routines

§ Skillfully designed to prevent their members from experiencing
embarrassment or threat. Such routines are overprotective and
anti-learning; e.g.,
§ “John, be creative; but be careful”
§ “Mary, you are in charge, but check with William”

§ The underlying logic at work:

§ State a message that is inconsistent.
§ Act as if it is not inconsistent.
§ Make all this undiscussable.
§ Make the undiscussability undiscussable.
§ Again, act as if you are not doing so.

Prof. Dr. Markus Reihlen 13

Leuphana University Lüneburg
 Spiegel Interview with Suhrkamp Publisher Unseld-Bekéwicz

§ Spiegel: “And what about the future? Are there still young
people reading?”

§ Unseld-Bekéwicz: “A new medium has never replaced an old

one. Otherwise photos would have replaced paintings. Old
media will be freed from old functions by new media. For
newspapers the internet may be considered a threat, but not
for uns. Books are increasingly attractive for young people.
The virtual nonsense of the 1990s chokes on its nothingness.”

Prof. Dr. Markus Reihlen 14

Leuphana University Lüneburg
 Model I Behavior and the US-Response to the
Coronavirus Challenge

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YIKRMK9idFY
Prof. Dr. Markus Reihlen 15
Leuphana University Lüneburg
 Model II Theory-in-use Characteristics

The governing Values of Model II

§ Valid information
§ Free and informed choice
§ Internal commitment

Primary Strategies
§ Sharing control
§ Participation in design and implementation of action
Usually operationalized by:
§ Attribution and evaluation illustrated with relatively
directly observable data
§ Surfacing conflicting view
§ Encouraging public testing of evaluations

Consequences
§ Minimally defensive relationships
§ High freedom of choice
§ Increased likelihood of double-loop
learning

Source: Adapted from Anderson, L. (1997) Argyris and Schön's theory on congruence and
Prof. Dr. Markus Reihlen learning, see on line http://www.scu.edu.au/schools/gcm/ar/arp/argyris.html 16
Leuphana University of Lüneburg
 What organizational conditions
facilitate double-loop learning?

Prof. Dr. Markus Reihlen 17

Leuphana University of Lüneburg
 Learning Organizations as Self-Organizing Systems

Learning to
learn

Requisite
variety
Holographic
organization
Redundancy
of functions

Minimal critical
specification

Scource: Morgan, G. (1986) Images of Organization, Sage.

Prof. Dr. Markus Reihlen 18

Leuphana University of Lüneburg
 The Pixar Story

Prof. Dr. Markus Reihlen

Leuphana University of Lüneburg https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=86GBn_pbVj8 19
How Pixar Fosters Collective Creativity
What do these movies have in common?
Capability Creating Practices at Pixar

22
 Create a Peer
Culture

Empower your
Creatives

4/21/21 23
 Get more out of
post-mortems

Craft a Learning
Environment

Free up
communication

21.04.21 24
Learning Practices at Pixar

Empower your
creatives

Get more out of Create a peer

post-mortems culture

Craft a learning Free up

environment communication

25
 Video Honda - Failure

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xOVig5H7UbM

Prof. Dr. Markus Reihlen 26

Leuphana University of Lüneburg
 Two approaches to error management

APPROACH 1: APPROACH 2:
Error Prevention Error Resilience

Tenure

Action Error Consequence

Low-balling

Prof. Dr. Markus Reihlen

Leuphana University of Lüneburg 27
 Multi-Level Model of Error Management

Organizational Structures
Organizational Level: • Quality and Risk Management
Structures and Systems System
• Learning and Development System
• Multidimensional Matrix
Organization

Prevention Procedures Resilient Practices

Team Level: • Workpaper Reviews • Realizing What Is Going On Audit

Formal Procedures
• Feedback • Cool-Headed Error Handling Quality
and Informal
Practices • Job Rotation • Triangulation in Practice
• Informed Decision Making

Error Orientation

Individual Level: • Error Anticipation

Coping Skills • Error Coping

Source: Seckler, C., Gronewold, U., & Reihlen, M. (2017). An error management perspective on
audit quality: Toward a multi-level model. Accounting, Organizations and Society, 62, 21-42.
Prof. Dr. Markus Reihlen 28
Leuphana University of Lüneburg
 Features of Learning Organizations

TRANSFORMATIONAL
LEADERSHIP

DISPERSED KNOWLEDGE
STRATEGIES WORKERS

LEARNING
ORGANIZATION

INTEGRATING HORIZONTAL
MECHANISM STRUCTURES

EGALITARIAN
ENVIRONMENT CULTURE

Prof. Dr. Markus Reihlen 29

Leuphana University of Lüneburg
What do you think you should take home
from this session?

Prof. Dr. Markus Reihlen

Leuphana University of Lüneburg 30
References
§ Argyris, C. (1990). Overcoming organizational defenses: Facilitating
organizational learning. Allyn & Bacon.
§ Argyris, C., & Schön, D. A. (1978). Organizational Learning: A Theory of
Action Perspective. Reading, Mass.; Menlo Park. Cal.
§ Morgan, G. (1998). Images of organization: The executive edition.
Thousand Oaks, CA.
§ Reihlen, M., & Ringberg, T. (2013). Uncertainty, pluralism, and the
knowledge-based theory of the firm: From J.-C. Spender’s contribution to a
socio-cognitive approach. European Management Journal, 31(6), 706-716.
§ Ringberg, T., & Reihlen, M. (2008). Towards a socio-cognitive approach to
knowledge transfer. Journal of Management Studies, 45(5), 912-935.
§ Seckler, C., Gronewold, U., & Reihlen, M. (2017). An error management
perspective on audit quality: Toward a multi-level model. Accounting,
Organizations and Society, 62, 21-42.
§ Wenger, E. (2000) Communities of practice and social learning systems. 7
(2): 225–246.

Prof. Dr. Markus Reihlen

Leuphana University of Lüneburg 31