Course Code: AQU 211 Credit Hours: 2 (1+1)

INTRODUCTORY ICHTHYOLOGY
INTRODUCTION: DEFINITION OF FISH, ICHTHYOLOGY
AND OTHER RELATED TERMS, ECONOMIC
IMPORTANCE OF FISH

Presented By
RAVINDRA KUMAR YADAV
Assistant Professor

IAAS, Sundarbazar, Lamjung

Date: 2071-04-27
 Fig 1. Diagrammatic Representation of general fish showing external parts.

➢Fishes are cold blooded aquatic vertebrates which

breathe by means of pharyngeal gills and propelling
and balancing themselves by means of fins. Fish
usually have streamlined body but some are
elongated, snake like and dorsoventrally suppressed.
➢ They have a paired and unpaired fins supported by soft
and spiny fin rays. The Dorsal, anal and caudal fins are
unpaired while pectoral and pelvic fins are paired.

➢ The size of fish varies from few cm to 18 meter or more

in long. The smallest fish of nepal is Hora hora (2.5
cm) and largest fish of the world is Rhinocodon typus
(70 feet) and smallest is paedocypris progenetica (7.9
mm).

➢ Fishes are the first successful class of chordates. Due to

their success they are found in large number of genera
and species, not only at present but also found in the
past. There are over 22,000 species of fish, comprising
more than 50% of all are vertebrate species.
➢ Fish are found in both fresh and salt water worldwide,
and are a very important food source for many nations.
They constitute economically very important group of
animal kingdom being used as food, fish liver is an
important source of oil containing vitamin A, D and
less amount of vitamin E.

➢ About 50,000 living species of fishes are found in the

entire world.
 Ichthyology and related term
➢ Ichthyology (Definition) - Ichthyology is the study of
the physiology, history, economic importance, etc, of
fishes.

➢ Science Dictionary (Definition)- Ichthyology is the

scientific study of fish, which is Part of a series on
Zoology. Or Ichthyology is special branch of zoology
in which we study about fishes.

Fig 2. Coelacanth
➢ Ichthyology is the scientific study of fishes, including,
as is usual with a science that is concerned with a large
group of organisms, a number of specialized
subdisciplines: e.g. Taxonomy, Anatomy (or
Morphology), Behavioral science (Etiology), Ecology,
Physiology, Pathology and Genetics etc. Because of the
great importance of fishes as human food, economic
ichthyology is a significant segment of the field.

➢ Ichthyology (from Greek: ἰχθύς, ikhthus, "fish"; and

λόγος, logos, "study") is the branch of zoology devoted
to the study of fish.
➢ The main branches of Ichthyology are Morphology,
Physiology, Pathology, Genetics etc.

➢ Due to diversity of shapes, sizes and distribution of

fishes in different habitat are great variation, so, that
have been facing problem in classification of fishes.

➢ They have been also faced problem in ecology,

behavior, genetics and physiology of fish, so that many
imperfections in existing knowledge as well as
challenge of this group of animals.
➢This includes skeletal fish (Osteichthyes),
cartilaginous fish (Chondrichthyes), and
jawless fish (Agnatha).

➢The modern fish relates to Agnatha and

Gnathostomata are division of vertebrates.
These are considered as ancestor of modern
fishes. In broad sense the first vertebrate was
fishes. Actually the first fish were primitive
jawless forms known as Agnatha. From these
early aganth vertebrate the Gnathostomata or
jawed vertebrate evolved. This Agnatha is
divided full under two groups the
Ostracodermi and Cyclostomata.
➢ According to fossil record Agnatha was found in
Silurian and Devonian period, nearly about 4-5 million
of years ago. The best example of fish was cephalaspis
resembles the character of modern fishes. The head
was covered with head shield and trunk and tail were
much like those of a modern fish. On each side of the
body were paired appendages.

➢ The head of cephalaspis was covered with head shield

and the body contain dorsal, pectoral and caudal fins,
the forward part of trunk was covered with transverse
band like scales which pass into more typical scale to
the tail. The endoskeleton was completely ossified as
modern fishes. A striking peculiarity was of the
electric organs as modern fishes.
➢ Others ostracoderms like Birkenia species body was
covered with transverse scales with spiny nature,
presence of paired appendages resembling with
modern fish perciformes order. At the close of
Devonian period the ostracoderms were disappeared,
the fossils fail to show such link. Cyclostomes are free
swimming, jawless, limbless vertebrates are relates to
the ostracoderms.

➢ It includes Petromyzone, lamprey and hage fishes,

these include long cylindrical body with presence of
large dorsal and caudal fin. Gnathostomes are close
relation to the present sharks and generally considered
to the primitive fishes.
Fig 2. Petromyzone Fig 3. Cephalaspis

Fig 4. Birkenia species (A) and (B)

 FISHES-ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE
Fishes are very important to man economically.
1. As food,
2. Fish by-products
3. Biological Control (To control diseases)
4. Recreational Value
5. Industrial value
6. Decorative Value
7. Other uses
1. Fishes as Food: -
➢ Fishes have formed an important item of human
diet from the time man appeared on earth, and
are primarily caught for this purpose.

➢ Fish diet provides proteins, fat and vitamins A and D.

They have a good taste and are easily digestible.

➢ They are also preserved by smoking, salting and

freezing in ice. Refrigeration and quick freezing is a
good method of preserving the fish for future
consumption.
➢ Fish is good food to man: The flesh of fish is rich in
proteins and fat. It contains vitamins A and D and
minerals. Much of the flesh can be digested by man.
Food fishes are both marine and fresh water. Ex: -
Labeo, Catla, Trygon, etc.
2. Fish By-Products:
i. Fish Oil:
❖ The most important fishery by-product industry is that of
the fish oil, which is of two kinds Fish liver oil and Fish
body oil. The oil extracted from the whole body of the
fish is called fish body oil, while that obtained from the
liver of certain fish is called the fish liver oil.

❖ Liver oil contains vitamins A and D, while the body oil

contains them in traces only. The refined oil from the
liver of fishes has a medicinal use, being the source of
vitamins A and D.

❖ The body oil from fish has many uses, such as painting,
varnishing, soap, candle, leather and steel industries.
❖Liver oil is prepared from the liver of several species,
including sharks and rays.

❖ Liver oil contains 55-75% fat, 5-10% protein and the

rest water, and is of considerable medicinal value.

❖Fish Body oil is obtained from the entire body of fish

and not from liver exclusively. This Body oil is used
for various purposes as given below:

❖Use in manufacture of paints & Varnishes,

❖Use in manufacture of cheap soaps,

➢Use in dressing of leather & Tanning of
skin,
➢Use in manufacture of lubricants &
candle,
➢Use in steel and iron industry,
➢Use in manufacture of printing of inks
and plastics,
➢Use for smearing the surface of boats for
longer preservation.
➢Fish Liver oil: - From the liver of the
many fishes oil is extracted.

A. Cod liver oil: - It is extracted from liver of the

cod fishes.
B. Shark liver oil: - It is extracted from the liver of
the shark.
These oils contain A and D vitamins.

➢ The Extracted shark liver oil from Bombay duck is

used in Paints.
ii. Fish as food for livestock:

➢ Fish used as artificial food for poultry, pig and

cattle.

➢ The cooked material of fish is pressed to remove

moisture and dried in the sun at suitable
platforms. Such a dried fish product is called “fish
meal” and is a highly nutritive product that makes
an excellent feed for poultry, pig and cattle.

➢ Fish meal contains 55-70% protein, 2-15% oil/fat and

10-20% minerals.
➢Fish meal: - Many fishes are dressed, cooked,
dried and they are made into fine powder.
This is called fish meal. It is used by weak and
convalescent people.
➢ The protein of fish meal has high digestibility
coefficient, and contains practically all the
essential aminoacids.

➢ The fish meal is also very rich in vitamins i.e. A, B,

D, E, K and B12 along with minerals which include
calcium (about 5%), phosphorous (4%) and
iodine.

➢ These constituents make fish meal particularly

important for growing cattles, for it promotes
tissue and bone building.
iii. Fish Manure and Guano:
➢ Low grade fish that are unfit for human consumption
are used to prepare fish manure for the fields. It is a
by-product of curing yards, fish glue industries and oil
extracting plants in which trash fish or spoil fish have
been employed. These residues are sun dried, ground
and are converted into manure, which contains a high
percentage of nitrogen and phosphate.

➢ The head, tail and body covering is used to prepare

proven manure and contains about 6% nitrogen and
3.4% phosphate with an appreciable amount of lime.
Fish guano is prepared from the material left over after
extracting oil from the fish. It has content of nitrogen
(8-10%), and has been found several times more
effective than animal manure.
 Fertilizers: -
➢The ‘fish waste’ materials have more calcium,
protein, phosphorous and other substances.
These materials are grined into powder. It is
used as fertilizer to Grape gardens, Coffee and
Tea plants.
iv. Fish Glue and Isinglass:
Liquid glue is prepared from the connective tissue
as an adhesive for paper, wood, leather and glass.
The air bladder of fishes is used for preparing
isinglass, which is a shining powder and is used
for clearing wine, beer, making edible jelly and in
the preparation of adhesive material. The air
bladder is removed from fish, washed in cold
water and flattened by beating it on a piece of
wood. The bladder is then dried in the sun, and is
exported for the preparation of isinglass.
Isinglass :- It is a pure gelatin substance. it is
obtained from air bladder of the fishes. it is
used to clarify wines.
V. Fish Leather: The skin of several fishes like
the sharks and rays are used for making
polishing and smoothing material. The dried
and treated skin is also used for preparing
ladies shoes, money bags, suitcases, belts etc.

Shagreen :- It is dried skin of sharks. It is used as an

Abrasive.
vi. Fish Fin:
The fins of sharks are exported to
china where they are used for
preparing soup.
3. Biological control (To control disease):
Many species of fishes are larvivorous in habit
and prey upon insect larvae, for example
Puntius sp., Oxygaster sp., Barilius sp., Danio
sp., Colisa sp., Rasbora sp., Esomus sp. Etc.
Many diseases are born by mosquitoes, hence
the larvivorous fishes are introduced in the
water of the instead area. Larvivorous fishes
feed upon larval phase of parasitic pathogens
and help to control successfully the
population of mosquitoes too.
• Controlling Diseases:-Some of the fishes
like Gambusia barbus will eat the larval forms
of mosquitoes. Thus they prevent the spread
of malaria disease.
4. Recreational Value:
Fishing forms an important out door game for
millions of people. In Nepal, sportsmen catch
various species of Schizothorax, Tor tor,
Bagarius bagarius, Catla and other carps.
Fishing in crystal clear water of verdant river
valleys gives inner thrill and jest for outdoor
life.
5. Industrial value:
Fish fills the protein gap by providing a rich
source of fish food and millions of people are
engaged yearly in the fishing and take this as
profession-cum-hobby. Besides fishermen,
many people are involved in marketing or
engaged in subsidiary industries such as
refrigeration, preservation, canning, and in the
manufacture of fish products and by products.
6. Decorative Value:
Besides fishermen and people engaged in
fishing industry, many people are involved in
keeping fish in aquarium. Many species of
beautifully coloured fishes are kept in aquaria,
ponds and lakes and used for ornamentation.
Juvenile fishes are maintained by stockists
who offer several varieties for this purpose
and earn their livelihood from this trade.
7. Other Uses of fishes: Fish also used to
make food items like fish macaroni, fish sauce,
fish biscuits etc.

i. Fish flour:
It is superior quality of fish meal, produced under
strict control and care, which is used for human
consumption. It is considered an ideal protein
source to supplement diet. It can be mixed with
wheat flour (10% fish flour and 90% wheat flour)
and is used for enriching the nutritive value of
bread, biscuits, cakes etc. The product is
manufactured in South Africa, Morocco, U. S. A.,
Chile and India. It is also known as hydrolysed
protein of fish.
ii. Fish Biscuits:
This product is manufactured in Chile and
Morocco and used as Biscuits of this type in
breakfast. Fish flour is blended with biscuit
mixture prior to baking.
Harmful fishes:
Some fishes are harmful also. Certain sharks are
extremely dangerous in the sea and injure
fisherman and damage their nets. Many sharks
attack have proved fatal and some such as sting
ray (Trygon) has poisonous sting and cause
painful bite, which might prove to fatal. Some
electric fishes such as Torpedo are capable of
generating electric shock to man. Like marine
fishes, fresh water fishes are also carry different
types of toxic substances and these cause food
poisoning.
The reasons are as follows:
Tetradoxin:
Tetradoxin poisons presents in Tetradon species
in skin, liver and eggs. These fishes when
consumed lead to gastro-intestinal disorder,
neurological disorder such as paralysis,
convulsion and respiratory failure.

Ootoxin:
Such type of toxic substance found eggs of
Schizothorax and Cyprinus species. Consumption
of eggs without proper cooking cause headache,
diarrhea, vomiting and fever also.
Haemotoxin:
Anguilla species have been reported to carry
hamotoxin in blood. The use of such fish without
proper cooking may cause vomiting and diarrhea.

Zootoxin:
Certain fishes like mangur (Clarias batrachus),
Singhe (Heteropneustes fossilis) etc. carry
zootoxin in the body. It bites by pectoral spine is
very painful bite cause swelling of biting space
along with fever. With proper cooking such fishes
do not carry toxic substances and is good for
health.
 Economic importance of Fishes
Fishes have number of economic importance along with
some harmful effects which are described as follows:

Useful Fishes:

1. As food:
Using fishes (freshwater, sea fish) as our meal is of the
most economic importance. It is highly rich in protein &
vitamin A & D & also a source of phosphorous. Among
marine food fishes salmon, cod, halibut, herrings, eels,
tuna, mackerel & sardines & freshwater food fishes catfish,
trout, bass, perch & mullet are very important. In India,
species of food fishes like Labeo, Catla, Notopterus, Mystus
etc are very popular. In other different country
cartilaginous sharks & rays also take as food.
• 2. Fish oil:
• It has been a great importance where large
amount of commercial oil are provided by
fishes. Fishes such as sharks, rays, cod,
salmon, sardines, herrings, mackerels etc are
used to extract oil from their liver & other
body parts. Liver oil is enriched in Vitamin A &
D. Large amount of unrefined oil of fishes is
used in the field of manufacture for making
paints, pesticides, soaps, medicines etc.
• 3.Fish skin & leather:
• There are a huge importance in the field of
manufacture where shark skin leather is used
in making shoes & handbags. Carpenters &
metal workers use unpolished, blunt skins of
sharks & rays. There is a product called
shagreen made from shark skin tanned with
placoid scale upon it. It is used in many
different fields like polishing woods & ivory
where it uses as abrasive, as jewel box, fine
books & sword handle covers.
• 4. Fish meal & Fish manure:
• Small fragments of fishes from canning
factories or unacceptable & unmarketable
fishes are ground, dried & treated in fish
meals which are used as food in poultry, pigs,
and cattle & for other domestic animals.
• 5.Medicines & disease control:
• In order to control mosquito larvae fishes such as
top minnows (Gambusia affinis, Trichogaster,
Esomus, Barbus, Panchaz etc) are used. As these
fishes eagerly feed on mosquito larvae, they are
transmitted & distributed to the pond, lakes &
water reservoirs so that diseases like malaria can
be controlled. It is observed that different fishes
& bye-product made from them are used as
Ayurvedic medicines which help in treatment of
duodenal ulcers, skin disease, night blindness,
weakness, loss of appetite, cough & cold,
Bronchitis, asthma, tuberculosis etc.
• 6. Sport & recreation:
• It is observed that fishes have been used in sport
fishing by people or fishing parties of different
countries. It is a very popular process of
recreation & the source of food. Freshwater
perch & trout and marine tarpon are widely used
as hunting fishes. It is a very common habit of
having different local or foreign fishes like Gold
fish (carassius auratus), Angel fish (Pterphyllum),
Sword tail guppy (Xiphophorus), Minnow
(Gambusia affinis) in aquarium because they are
so colorful & elegant.
• 7. Scientific study:
• For practical demonstration in zoological
laboratories fishes like Dogfish (Scoliodon),
Perch (Perce) & Carp (Labeo) are used in
dissection. They are used in different field (like
genetics, embryology, animal behavior,
pharmacology) of research work.
• Harmful Fishes:
• 1. Destructive:
• All the cartilaginous fishes are harmful to the
marine life. They are highly predaceous &
always feed in large amount on other marine
animals like crab, lobsters, squid etc. They are
so harmful for eggs, newly hatched larvae,
young ones & even adult fishes which are
used as food by us.
• 2. Injurious:
• It is observed that in many cases large sharks &
swordfishes may overturn a small or medium size boat
& causes serious injury or may even kill the fisherman.
In shallow water bodies all sharks (small/big) are highly
dangerous for the bathers & skin divers. Cartilaginous
electric ray (Torpedo) is another high risk for swimmers
or fisherman because they have electric organs which
are very harmful & may even cause death.

• 3. Poisonous:
• In different cartilaginous fishes like Stingray (Trygon) &
Eagle ray (Myliobatis) poisonous glands are present
which imposes painful wounds & may sometimes
ending in death by their toxic stings or spines.
•
Institute of Agriculture and Animal Science, Sundarbazar, Lamjung

TAXONOMYY OF ECONOMICALLY
IMPORTANT FISHES OF NEPAL: GENERAL
CHARACTERS AND CLASSIFICATION OF
CLASS PISCES (UP TO ORDERS)

Presented By
RAVINDRA KUMAR YADAV
Assistant Professor
IAAS, Sundarbazar, Lamjung

Date: 2071-04-30
INTRODUCTION
Pisces are the first successful class of chordates, found almost
wherever there is water, found in sunlight mountains torrential
streams, stagnant water of ponds and lakes. They constitute
economically a very important group of animals.
 General Characters:

➢ 1.Fishes are aquatic, cold-blooded vertebrates.

➢ 2. Body of fish is generally fusiform and streamlined but in

globiform, puffers the body is globe shape and in eels is of
serpentine form. Inspite of many variations in shape the ground
plan of body is bilateral symmetrical with prominent lateral line
system.

➢ 3. The body of the fish generally covered by tough skin armoured

by variety of scales with anterior cephalization.

➢ 4. The appendages of the fish comprise of the fins, which are

generally paired (pectoral and pelvic fins) unpaired dorsal, anal
and caudal fins. All supported by dermal fin rays. These fins
constitute the main locomotary organs.

➢ 5. Mouth generally situated anteriorly in the head and
the anus is in the second half of the over all length of
the individual behind the bases of the pelvic fins & just
in front of the anal fin.

➢ 6. Respiratory organs generally in the form of gills and

other accessory respiratory organs.

➢ 7. Nostrils are paired and do not open into the

pharynx, except in lung-fishes and lobed fishes.

➢ 8.Skeletal of the fishes are in form of notochord,

connective tissues, bones, cartilage & non-bony scales.
➢ 9. The digestive tract of fish is well developed (with
mouth, oral cavity, pharynx, oesophagus, stomach,
intestine & anus).

➢ 10. Heart is generally valved pump with one auricle &

one ventricle, which is of venous type that forces the
blood forward towards the gills for aeration.

➢ 11.The kidneys of fish are paired, longitudinal

structures that lie above the body cavity.
➢ 12.Brain is well developed with ten pairs of cranial
nerves.

➢ 13. Middle ear is completely absent but internal ear

with well-developed semi-circular canals.

➢ 14. Sexes are separate (male with claspers).

➢ 15.Some are viviparous and many are oviparous.

➢ 16.Generally fertilization is external (In some carps
fertilization is internal).

➢ 17.Eggs are large with much yolk. Development is

direct (without any metamorphosis).
 PISCES-CLASSIFICATION OF FISHES
Phyllum – Chordata - Presence of notochord
Sub – phylum – Craniata - Presence of brain box
Division – Gnathostomata - True jaw present
Super class – Pisces - Aquatic habitat
Streamlined body
Respiration by means of gills
Locomotion by means of fins
Body covered by scales
❖The Super class Pisces are aquatic
Gnathostomes having gills as the respiratory
organs and fins for locomotion. These are
divided into seven classes: Pterichthys,
Coccostei, Acanthodii, Elasmobranchii,
Holocephali, Dipnoi and Teleostomi. Of these,
the first three classes are completely extinct
and are collectively called as Placoderms.
❖Muller, Goodrich, Berg, Romer etc, classified
the Pisces. There is no agreement among
many authors with respect to the classification
of fishes.
Living groups of fishes are as follows:

Class 1. Chondrichthys or Elasmobranchi:

➢ Generally found in seawater and include largest fishes that
over lived.
➢ The exoskeleton is in the form of placoid scales.
➢ Endoskeleton is cartilaginous (with some calcification but
no ossification in living forms).
➢ Placoid scales on the body or the skin is naked.
➢ There are 5 to 7 pairs of gills and gill clefts without
operculum.
➢ There is no air bladder.
➢ A cloaca is present.
➢ External gill openings are separate. They are not covered by
operculum.
➢ Heterocercal caudal fin is seen.
➢ Males show claspers for copulation.
 Ex:- Scoliodon, Sphyrna (Hammer headed shark), Stegostoma (Tiger shark).

Ex :- Pristis (Saw fish), Rhinobatus (Guitar fish), Torpedo (Electric ray), Raja (Skates), Trygon (sling rays),
Myliobatis (Eagle rays)
 Class 2. Holocephali :
➢ It includes chimaera. These are called devil fishes. Chimaera
also called king of Herrings, Chimara
➢ Deep sea and carnivorous fishes.
➢ Endoskeleton is cartilaginous.
➢ Gills are in 4 pairs with operculum.
➢ Teeth are in the form of grinding plates.
➢ There is no cloaca.
➢ Skin is usually naked with denticles found over head and
claspers.
➢ Mouth is small bounded by fleshy lips.
➢ Male with claspers.
➢ Mainly dorsal fin is covered through out trunk region.
➢ Long cylindrical tail present.
Fig. Chimera
 Class 3. Dipnoi:
➢ These are found in freshwater.
➢ These are lungfishes, air bladder serving for aerial
respiration.
➢ Operculum is present and there is only one
external branchial aperture.
➢ Paired fins are lobate with jointed median axis.
➢ Notochord is persistent.
➢ Internal nostrils are present.
➢ A cloaca is present.
➢ Caudal fin is diphycercal, confluent with dorsal
and anal fins.
Fig: 1. Neoceratodus (Australian lung fish), 2. Protopterus
(African lung fish) & 3. Lepidosiren (South American lung
fish).
 Class 4. Osteichthyses a Telostomi:
➢The endoskeleton is bony.
➢A pair of gill openings confluent in the form of
a single ventral slit or non-confluent as two
lateral slits. Outer edges of the gills are free
while their bases attached to bony arches.
➢There are four pairs of gill arches, the fifth pair
modified into tooth bearing lower pharyngeal.
➢The gill is covered with gill cover (operculum).
➢Branchial lamellae are supported by a double
row of branchial rays.
Class Teleostomi is divided into two sub-classes.

1. Crossopterygii
2. Actinopterygii

Sub Class-1: Crossoptenygii

➢ The crossopterygii is characterized by presence of lobe
like paired fins covered with scales.
➢ There are two dorsal fins.
➢ The internal nares are present.
➢ This subclass is not represented in Nepal.
• Ex. Latimeria
➢ In this sub-class bony fishes are included which show
lobed and massive fins.
Fig. Latimeria
 Sub-class 2: Actinopterigii
➢ These fishes will live in fresh water or marine
water. They not show internal nostrils. This
subclass is divided into three super orders.
➢ The Actinopterygii is characterized by single
dorsal fin in lower forms.
➢ The internal nares are completely absent.
➢ The external nostrils are present relatively high
up in head.
➢ One or two dorsal fins are present.
➢ Body covered with cycloid, ctenoid and ganoid
type of scales or naked.
➢ The scales are not of cosmoid type.
➢Berg (1947) has divided the sub-class
Actinopterygii into a series of about 59
orders. Out of these only 11 orders are
represented in fresh water of Nepal. A recent
change have been made on the nomenclature
and systematic position of the fishes found in
Nepal according to new classification after
Jayaram, 1999 (reviewed by Shrestha, 2001).
At present a total of 182 species belonging to
93 genera under 31 families and 11 orders
existing in natural water bodies of Nepal.
 Order 1. Clupeiformes:
➢ The fishes of this order have generally keeled
abdomen with single serration.
➢ The anal fin is short.
➢ The gill membrane is completely free.
➢ The abdomen has scutes.
➢ The lateral line is absent.

Family: Clupeidae Ex. Gudusia chapra (Suia- Nepali)

Family: Engraulididae Ex. Setipinna phasa (Gankabai-
Nepali)
Fig 1. Gudisia Chapra (Suia)
 Order 2. Cypriniformes:
➢ The body is oblong, compressed with small to
large scales.
➢ The head is without scales.
➢ The mouth is usually protractile and always
toothless.
➢ There is a single dorsal fin. There is no adipose fin
except in cobitins.
➢ The pelvic fins are usually abdominal in location.
➢ The lateral line is present in majority of fishes.
➢ Fishes belonging to this order are called major or
minor carps.
➢ Family: Cyprinidae E.g. Labeo rohita (Rohu- Nepali), L. dero
(Gurdi), Catla catla (Catla or Bhakur), Cirrhinus mrigala
(Naini or mrigal), Tor tor or Tor putitora
(Sahar),Neolissocheilus hexagonolepis (Katle), Puntius chola
(Sidre or Pothia), Garra gotyla (Buduna), Barilius vagra
(Faketa), Schizothorax richardsoni (Asla), Chela laubuca
(Deduwa), Brachydanio rerio (Zebra) etc.

➢ (Brachydanio rerio is the smallest fish of Nepal. Maximum

size is 26 mm).

Family: Cobitidae E.g. Botia almorhae (Baghi)

B. lohachata (Getu or Baghe)
Family: Bolitoridae E.g. Nemacheilus corica (Gadela)
Family: Psilorhynchidae E.g. Psilorhynchus balitora (Tite Machha)
P. Sucatio
Fig. Labeo rohita (Rohu)
 Order 3. Anguilliformes:
➢ The fishes included in this order have cylindrical,
much elongated and serpentine body.
➢ Dorsal fin is without spine. Dorsal and anal fins
are very long and usually confluent behind.
➢ The origin of dorsal fin is far behind pectoral
origin. Minute scales are present on the body.
➢ Gill openings situated in the pharynx in the form
of moderate slits near base of pectoral fins.
➢ Family: Anguillidae Ex:Anguilla bengalensis,
(Rajbam), Anguilla anguilla.
Fig. Anguilla bengalensis (Raj bam)
 Order 4. Beloniformes :
➢The member of this order have upper jaw and
lower jaw well produce.
➢The body is elongated but cylindrical.
➢The pectoral fins are elongate and winglike.
➢The dorsal fin placed far posterior of the body
without spines.
➢Both jaws are extended into long beaks with
sharp teeth.
Fig. Xenetodon cancilla (Chuche bam or Kauwa machha)

Family: Belonidae Ex : Xenetodon cancilla

(Chuche bam or Kauwa machha)
 Order 5: Symbranchiformes:
➢ The body is cylindrical, much elongated and eel-shaped
or snake like devoid of scales and tapering towards the
tail region.
➢ Air bladder is completely absent.
➢ The dorsal and anal fins are vestigial or absent.
➢ The pectoral and pelvic fins are present or absent.
➢ The scales (when present) are small, oval and confined
to caudal region.
➢ The gill openings are confluent and there is a single
transverse gill slit on ventral surface.
➢ The eyes are small or degenerate.
➢ Respiration is chiefly buccopharyngeal and cutaneous.
➢ Skin with mucous glands.
➢ Barbells are absent.
➢ Family: Synbranchidae Ex. Monopterus cuchia (Andha bam),
➢ Family: Mastacembelidae Eg. Mastacembelus armatus (Bam)
Macrognathus pancalus (Bam)

Fig. Monopterus cuchia

 Order 6. Perciformes:
➢ The scales are present on the head and body.
➢ In some fishes (Channa), head is covered with plate like
scales.
➢ The jaws are provided with teeth.
➢ Accessory respiratory organs present.
➢ Some fishes climb tree, or it is called climbing perch.
➢ The dorsal fin mostly occurs in two parts: one spinous
and the other with soft rays, continuous or separate.
➢ The pelvic fins are thoracic, sub-abdominal with or
without spines.
➢ The caudal fin is forked or absent.
Fig. Anabus testudineus (A) and (B)

Fig. Chhana punctatus (A) and (B)

➢ Family : Ambassidae/ Chandidae E.g. Chanda nama (Nata or
Channa)
➢ Family: Anabantidae Eg: Anabas testudineus (Kabai or
Climbing perch)
➢ Family: Belontidae E.g. Colisa fasciatus (Kotari), C. lalia, C.
sota.
➢ Family: Channidae E.g. Channa punctatus (Bhoti or Garai)
C. marulius (Bhaura)
C. striaus (Saura)
➢ Family: Gobidae E.g. Glossogobius giuris (Bulla)
➢ Family: Gobidae E.g. Glossogobius giuris (Bulla)
➢ Family: Nandidae Nandus nandus (DHewari)
➢ Family: Sciaenidae Johnius cottor (Bhola)
Channa sps. (Hile machha)
 Order 7. Tetradontiformes :
➢ The body is sort rounded and globular in inflated
condition.
➢ The skin covering or scales are modified into small or
large spines.
➢ The gill-slits or openings are restricted to lateral slits.
➢ The teeth are fused into a beak like dental plate.
➢ The nasal organ is short rounded tube with a terminal
opening.
➢ Air bladder is present or absent.
➢ Ventral fins absent.
➢ All fins are rounded in shapes.
➢ Head and body covered with greenish black color.
 Fig. Tetradon cutcutia (Phokcha or Phulaha Machha)

➢ Family: Tetraodontidae Ex: Tetradon cutcutia (Phokcha or

Phulaha Machha), Diodon (Porcupine fish).
 Order 8. Cyprinodontiformes:
➢ The body is short or compressed with scales.
➢ Scales are present on head and tail region.
➢ The upper jaw is protractile in many species.
➢ The adipose fin is absent.
➢ Small sized fishes with ventral fins abdominal.
➢ There are no spines in dorsal and anal fins and single
dorsal fin.
➢ Caudal fins are rounded.
➢ Lateral line system is chiefly on head; not on the body.
➢ Larvivorous in habit.
➢ White spot on the head region.
 Fig. Aplocheilus puanchax (Tikuli machha)

Family: Aplocheilidae E.g. Aplocheilus puanchax (Tikuli

machha)
Family: Poecilidae E.g. Gambusia afinis
 Order 9. Osteoglossiformes:
➢ The body is broad, strongly compressed with fine scales on
head as well.
➢ The ventral fins are much reduced.
➢ The dorsal fin is short.
➢ Anal fin is very long.
➢ The anal fin is much elongate and confluent with a small
caudal fin.
➢ Caudal region is long and tapering.
➢ Maxillaries well toothed forming the greater part of the
upper jaw.
➢ Pectoral fins are depressed.
➢ The barbells are absent.
➢ The lateral line is present.
➢ Body covered with minute cycloid scales.
Family: Notopteridae Ex: Notopterus notopterus
(Golhai)
Notopterus chitala (Chitala)
Chitala hitala (Moi)

Fig. Notopterus chitala (Chitala)

 Order 10. Mugiliformes:
➢ The body is oblong to elongate, compressed, may
be depressed anteriorly to a little extent.
➢ There are two dorsal fins which are short and
widely separated, first with spines.
➢ The pelvic fins are sub-abdominal with a spine.
➢ The lateral line is absent.
➢ It is represented by only one family and 2 fish
species in Nepal.
➢ Family: Mugilidae Eg: Sicamugil cascasia (Rewa),
Rhinomugil corsula.
Fig 1. Rhinomugil corsula. Fig 2. Sicamugil cascasia (Rewa)
 Order 11. Siluriformes:
➢ The body is naked or with bony plates (Scutes), never
with true scales.
➢ The maxillae are usually much reduced serving as
bases of maxillary barbells. Nearly one to four pairs of
barbells are present.
➢ The first ray of pectoral and last ray of dorsal fin is
modified as hard pungent spines or thick rays.
➢ Dorsal fin enlarges in some species while other adipose
fin are also present.
➢ Carnivorous in habit.
➢ Poison glands are present in some species in base of
pectoral region.
➢ Accessory respiration organs present in some species.
➢ Barbells are long and filamentous.
Ex: Wallago attu, Heteropneustes fissilis etc.
Family: Amblycipitidae E.g. Amblyceps mangois
Family: Bagridae E.g. Mystus bleekeri (Tengra)
M. tengara (Tengri)
Rita rita (Rita or Belaunda)
Family: Chacidae E.g. Chaca chaca (Kircire or Pauwa)
Family: Claridae E.g. Clarias batrachus (Mangur or Mungri)
Family: Heteropneustidae E.g. Heteropneustes fossilis (Singhi or
Kande)
Family: Olyridae E.g. Olyra longicaudata
Family: Scheibeidae E.g. Ailia coila (Sutara or Patanga)
Clupisoma garua (Jalkapur)
Family: Siluridae E.g. Wallago attu (Buhari)
Ompok bimaculatus (Lalmuha or Chachara)
Family: Sisoridae E.g. Bagarius yarellii (Gonch or Thend)
Gagata sexualis (Tengana)
Glyptothorax indicus (Kotel)
Sisor rhabdophoru
(Bagarius yarellii is the largest fish of Nepal.
Maximum size is 250 kg- caught from karnali
river)

Fig 1. Wallago attu (Buari)

• Fig 2. Heteropneustes fissilis (Singhi)
• According to new Classification of Nepalese
fishes by Shrestha (2008) consisting of 11
orders and 232 fish species, the
Salmoniformes Order is also represented in
the sub-class Actinopterygii into a series of 11
orders found in Nepal instead of Mugiliformes
order. So, the Orders Mugiliformes and
Salmoniformes represent in the sub-class
Actinopterygii into a series of 11 orders found
in Nepal.
 Order. Salmoniformes:
➢ Long cylindrical body.
➢ Head region absence of scales.
➢ Fishes are carnivorous in habit.
➢ An adipose fin present.
➢ Body covered with seven different color and
mainly dominance of black of brown dotted color.
➢ The lateral line complete.
➢ Large opening of mouth absence of barbells.
Ex. Oncorhynchus mykis, Salmo trutta etc.
Fig. Oncorhynchus mykis (Rainbow Trout)

Fig. Salmo trutta

 Institute of Agriculture and Animal Science, Sundarbazar,
Lamjung

MORPHOLOGY OF FISH: EXTERNAL FEATURES,

SHAPE AND SIZE, STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS
OF SKIN, SCALES AND FINS
Presented By
RAVINDRA KUMAR YADAV
Assistant Professor

IAAS, Sundarbazar, Lamjung

Date: 2071-04-26
 External feature of fish
MORPHOLOGY OF A BONY FISH
❑The different types of water system of the world
there exist a large number of fish species different
widely shape, size and habit. Body is generally
fusiform and streamlined. Proper global shape found
in globiformes and tetradontiformes and eel of
serpentine form.

❑In spite of much variation in shape, the ground plan

of body organization in fishes is bilateral symmetry,
as for the vertebrates generally. The right and left
half of the body are basically mirror image of one
another. The size of fish ranges from few inches to
18 meter or more. Entire body of fish dived into
head, trunk and tail.
Head:
➢ The region from the snout to the posterior edge of
the operculum is head. Head region consists of
mouth, eyes, operculum, and barbells etc.
➢ Mouth is terminal in tilapia, sub-terminal in Labeo
and ventral in Schizothora, Garra species etc. Mouth
encircled with sensory barbells in majority of fishes.

➢ The large eyes are situated on lateral side of the

head. Eyes are very rudimentary in some fishes
which live deep water or muddy water ex.
Mastacembellus, Monopterus species.

➢ Either side of head region bony structure known as

operculum and beneath each operculum lies
respiratory organs.
Trunk:
➢ It is thick middle part of body, on either side of trunk lateral line
present or extends from operculum to base of the caudal fin
which may be continuous or discontinuous or absent. The
trunk bears fins including paired or unpaired fins.

➢ Dorsal surface of the body consists of large dorsal fin

supported by fin rays.

➢ In some fishes only one unpaired dorsal fin present while in

some fishes second dorsal fin are also present.In Some fishes
instead of second dorsal fin, adipose fin present without
supporting fin rays.

➢ Just behind the operculum a pair pectoral fin lies on either side
just behind the operculum. Mid-ventral of the body a pair of
pelvic or ventral fin is present in majority of fishes.

➢ At the end of trunk lie series of three aperture, anus and

middle genital and posterior urinary.
Tail region:
➢ The tail forms one third of the body. It is laterally
compressed and narrow behind.

➢ At the ends bearing un paired homocercal caudal fin

in majority of fishes. While in some fishes caudal fin
may heterocercal or diphycercal or protocercal type.
The single unpaired anal fin lies just behind the
anus.
 (MORPHOLOGY OF FISH, Part- 2)
EXTERNAL ANATOMY OF FISH: STUDY OF LOCATIONS
AND FUNCTIONS OF EXTERNAL ORGANS
External Anatomy (Location and Functions of External Organs
of Fish):
Barbell – A fleshy sensory appendage on the head,
usually on the snout, around the mouth or on the chin.

Dorsal Fin – The median fin which is located on the

back. There are many variations of this fin in fish.

Pectoral Fins – A pair of fins generally located in the

shoulder region of the fish.

Pelvic Fins – A pair of fins generally located on the

lower part of the body around the pelvic girdle. These
fins can vary in their placement on the body in
different fish species.
Anal Fin – The median fin which is located on the
mid-ventral line behind the anus.

Caudal Fin – The median fin which is located at

the rear end of the body.

Caudal Peduncle – The rear, usually slender, part

of the body between the caudal fin base and the
base of the last dorsal- and anal-fin rays.

Gill Cover (Operculum) – The various bones

which cover the gills and open and close at the
rear during respiration.
Gill Rackers – Structures which project
forward from the gill arches, like the teeth of a
comb. Very fine to coarse in appearance based
on what the fish eats.

Lateral Line – A canal along the body filled

with sensory organs that detect pressure
changes.
Ray – One of the supporting elements, which
is soft or spiny, in a fin.

Snout – Portion of the head in front of the

eyes and above the mouth.

Tail – The portion of the body behind the

anus.
Fig 1. Diagrammatic Representation of External
Anatomy of fish.
Brain:
Fish have multi-lobed brains with the cerebellum
being the prominent structure. This part of the brain
controls many important functions such as sensing
pressure, maintaining balance, and regulating muscle
movement.

Fig 2. Diagrammatic Representation of Fish Brain.

Fins:
Fins are one of the most distinctive features of a fish and
serve as a means for the fish to move, whether it is
swimming, gliding or crawling along the bottom. Fins
located in different places on the fish serve different
purposes, such as moving forward, turning, and
maintaining an upright position.

Lateral Line:
Fish also possess a lateral line, which runs the length of
each side of their body and is sensitive to differences in
water pressure caused by approaching objects. This sensory
structure allows them to detect predators and prey as well
as orient themselves in their environment. It is also the
structure that allows schooling fish to move as a single unit
and keeps fish in aquaria from running into the glass.
Scales:
Most fish possess scales although type and
size of the scales varies by species. Scales help
protect fish from damage to their skin as they
come in contact with rocks or sediment and
act as a barrier for potentially harmful
bacteria and parasites. Some scales can also
help fish move more efficiently through the
water, thus expending less energy.
Fig 3. Different types of scales having different fishes.
Spine:
The primary structural framework upon which the
fish's body is built; connects to the skull at the front of
the fish and to the tail at the rear. The spine is made up
of numerous vertebrae, which are hollow and house
and protect the delicate spinal cord. In bony fish, most
fins have spines or rays. Spines are generally stiff and
sharp while rays are relatively soft, flexible and
segmented.

Spinal Cord: Connects the brain to the rest of the body

and relays sensory information from the body to the
brain, as well as instructions from the brain to the rest
of the body.
Eye:
Fish see through their eyes and can detect color. The eyes
are rounder in fish than mammals because of the refractive
index of water and focus is achieved by moving the lens in
and out, not distorting it as in mammals.

Nostril:
The nostrils or nares of almost all fishes do not connect to
the oral cavity, but are pits of varying shape and depth.
Paired nostrils, or nares, in fish are used to detect odors.

Barbell:
The head may have several fleshy structures known as
barbells, which may be very long and resemble whiskers.
Many fish species also have a variety of protrusions or
spines on the head.
Mouth:
The mouths shape is a good clue to what fish eat. The
large size of mouth, it is the bigger than the prey it can
consume.

Teeth:
Fish chain pickerel and gar have obvious canine-shaped
teeth. Other fish have less obvious teeth, such as the
cardiform teeth in catfish which feel like a roughened
area at the front of the mouth or vomerine teeth that
are tiny patches of teeth, for example, in the roof of a
striped bass' mouth. Fish may or may not have teeth
depending on the species. Grass carp and minnous
have pharyngeal teeth modified from their gill arches
for grinding that are located in the throat.
Vent:
The vent is the external opening to digestive
urinary and reproductive tracts. In most fish it
is immediately in front of the anal fin.

Rectum: Intestine leads into the anal region.

Muscles: Provide movement and locomotion.

This is the part of the fish that is usually eaten,
and composes the fillet of the fish.
 Skin: Structure and Functions
Structure:

The skin forms external covering of the body

and performs various important functions in
fishes.
• The skin of fishes is quite firmly attaches and
is hard and rough and is composed of two
layers: epidermis (outer layer) and dermis
(inner layer). A thick basement membrane is
present between the dermis and epidermis.
• The epidermis is ectodermal in origin and
consists of several layers of flattened and
moist cells which secrete mucous to make skin
slimy and frictionless.

• The deepest layer (base layer) of epidermis is

made up of columnar cells, called stratum
germinativum in which cells are always
multiplying by mitotic division to replace the
outer worn out cells.

• A superficial layer of dead horny cells, called

stratum corneaum (slough) is absent in fishes.
• The epidermis of fishes contains large mucous
cells or becker’s cells (produce mucous) and
chromatocytes (impart color in fish). The
chromatocytes are also present in the dermis.

• Besides the mucous cells, two types of sensory

cells (granular sensory cells and club cells) are
encountered particularly in Actinopterygian
fishes.
• The dermis is mesodermal in origin and is
composed of connective tissues, blood vessels,
nerves, lymph vessels, collagen fibers and
cutaneous sense organs.
• It is composed of stratum spongiosum (upper
layer of dermis), the stratum compactum
(lower layer of dermis) and a subcutaneous
layer (contains sens organs). All these three
layers are sharply demarked from each other.
• The epidermis of fish consists entirely of live cells,
with only minimal quantities of keratin in the cells of
the superficial layer. It is generally permeable.

• The dermis of bony fish typically contains relatively

little of the connective tissue found in tetrapods.
Instead, in most species, it is largely replaced by solid,
protective bony scales.

• Apart from some particularly large dermal bones that

form parts of the skull, these scales are lost in tetrapods,
although many reptiles do have scales of a different
kind, as do pangolins. Cartilaginous fish have
numerous tooth-like denticles embedded in their skin,
in place of true scales.
• Sweat glands and sebaceous glands are both unique to
mammals, but other types of skin glands are found in fish.

• Fish typically have numerous individual mucus-secreting

skin cells that aid in insulation and protection, but may also
have poison glands, photophores, or cells that produce a
more watery, serous fluid.

• Melanin colours the skin of many species, but in fish the

epidermis is often relatively colourless. Instead, the colour
of the skin is largely due to chromatophores in the dermis,
which, in addition to melanin, may contain guanine or
carotenoid pigments.

• Many species, such as flounders, change the colour of their

skin by adjusting the relative size of their chromatophores.
• Functions
• The skin which forms the outermost layer of the body is
and organ of great importance in the life of fish. It performs
several important functions, which are as follows:

• It lubricates the fish so as to reduce body friction in water

while swimming thus enabling the fish to move with a
greater speed.

• It protects the body from parasites, fungus, bacteria and

other microorganisms.

• The skin and mucous secreted by its glands help the fish in
regulating to some extent, the osmotic exchanges of water
and ions between the body fluids and surrounding
medium.
• The skin performs an important function in healing the
surface wounds.

• The skin is also an important respiratory organ in

certain species like the Eel (Anguilla) and the climbing
perch (Anabus).

• The glandular cells of the epidermis are modified to

form poison gland in certain fishes used for offence as
wall as defence.

• The chromatophores of various kinds present in the

dermis of the fish give beautiful colour patterns to the
body making it conspicuous or inconspicuous.
•
 Structure and Function of Scales

Cycloid scales covering rohu

In most fishes, the skin covered with an exoskeleton
in the from of scales and few arenaked having no
scales on their body as the cat fishes. The scales have
been divided into two basic types; placoid and non-
placoid. The former divided from epidermis and
dermis but non-placoid scales are derived from the
dermis. The non-placoid scales are basically of three
types: bony ridge (cycloid and ctenoid), cosmoid and
ganoid types of scales.
• The outer body of many fish is covered with
scales, which are part of the fish's
integumentary system. The scales originate
from the mesoderm (skin), and may be similar
in structure to teeth. Some species are
covered instead by scutes. Others have no
outer covering on the skin. Most fish are
covered in a protective layer of slime (mucus).
• There are five principal types of fish scales.

• A.Placoid scales: Placoid scales, also called

dermal denticles, are similar to teeth in that
they are made of dentine covered by enamel.
• Each has a disc like basal plate embedded in
the dermis and spine projecting out through
the epidermis. In structure, a placoid scale
resembles a tooth.
• The spine has an external covering of enamel
like hard tansparent material called
vitrodentine. There is an aperture in cente of
the basal plate which provides entrance to
blood vessels and nerves.They are typical of
sharks and rays.
• B. Non-placoid Scale:
• 1.Cycloid scales: These scales are found in carps.
These are smooth, disc-like scales more or less
circular outline. The margin of the scale is
rounded and entire not toothed. These scales
have characteristics ridges alternating with
grooves. Thwsre ridges are in the form of
confcentric rings and central part of the scale,
known as focus. The cycloid scales are thin and
roughly rounded in shape, being thicker in center
and thinning towards the margin e.g. Labeo,
Catla. Barbus, Ciirrhina etc. Cycloid scales are
small oval-shaped scales with growth rings.
Bowfin and remora have cycloid scales.
• Fig 2. Cycloid Scale
• 2.Ctenoid scales: Ctenoid scales scales are
present in several teleosts. Grooves and ridges
are alternatively present. The posterior margin of
the scale is comb like serrated. A nuclear central
zone is also focus with elevation part known as
ridge and depressed part known as grooves. In
several species of fishes grooves (radii) radiate
from the focus towards the margin of the scale.
The margin denticulation is termed as teeth.
Ctenoid scales are similar to the cycloid scales,
with growth rings. They are distinguished by
spines that cover one edge. Halibut have this type
of scale.
Fig 3. Ctenoid Scale
Cycloid Scale Ctenoid Scale

1. Circular outline 1. Circular outline but anterior surface

becomes wavy appearance.

2. Thicker at the center and thinning 2. More or less same thickness or thin
towards the margin. centre & thicker towards the
margin.
3. Chromatophore pigment present. 3. Chromatophore pigment absent or
present in fewer amounts.

4. Cteni absent. 4. Cteni present.

5. Mainly Characteristic features in 5. Characteristic features in

cypriniformes order. perciformes order.
• 3. Ganoid scales: Ganoid scales are flat, basal-
looking scales that cover a fish body with little
overlapping. These scales are heavy and have
an outer layer of hard inorganic, enamel like
material called ganoin. The middle layer is
cosmine containing numerous branching
tubules. The inner most layers are thickest and
are made up of lamellar bone, isopedine.
These scales grow by the addition of new
layers to lower as well as upper surface. They
are typical of gar and bichirs.
•
• (A) (B)
• Fig 1. Ganoid Scale
• 4. Cosmoid scales
• True cosmoid scales can only be found in living
(Latimeria) and extinct Crossopterygians. The
external layer is thin and enamel like substance
known as vitrodentine. Beneath this layer is hard
and non-cellular having tubules and chamber. The
inner layer is made up of bony substance called
isopedine. The inner layer of the scale is made of
lamellar bone. On top of this lies a layer of
spongy or vascular bone and then a layer of
dentine-like material called cosmine. The upper
surface is keratin. The coelacanth has modified
cosmoid scales that lack cosmine and are thinner
than true cosmoid scales.
•
Another, less common, type of scale is the scute, which is:
➢ an external shield-like bony plate, or

➢ a modified, thickened scale that often is keeled or

spiny, or

➢ a projecting, modified (rough and strongly ridged)

scale, usually associated with the lateral line,

➢ or on the caudal peduncle forming caudal keels, or

along the ventral profile. Some fish, such as
pineconefish, are completely or partially covered in
scutes.
• Functions
➢ The scales of fishes are in the form of exoskeleton,
which provide protection to the body.

➢ It protects the body form parasites and pathogenic

microorganisms to some extent.

➢ In the globe fish the scales are elongated to form

spines for protection.

➢ In most Teleosts, the scales along the lateral line

become perforated to communicate sensory canal with
the exterior.
➢The scales are useful in studying age and
growth rate of fishes.

➢In some fishes, scales exhibit remarkable

coloration.

➢The scales of many fishes show spawning rings

and marks, which are the result of the
cessation of feeding and exhaustion during
the spawning period.
•
 Structure and Functions of fin of
fishes
The fins constitute the major
propulsive/locomotory organs in fishes. These
are either folds of skin or projections from the
body surface. The fins are supported by fin rays.
The supporting rays may be bony, cartilaginous,
fibrous or horny.

There are mainly two types of fins in fishes: 1.

Unpaired or median fins and 2.paired fins.
Fig 1. Diagrammatic Representation of Fin Showing Fin.

The haddock, a type of cod, is ray-finned. It has three dorsal

and two anal fins.
• The unpaired or median fins include dorsal fin
on the back, an anal fin on the ventral side
behind the vent and caudal fin at the end of
the tail. The paired fins are the pectorals and
pelvics or ventrals corresponding to the fore
and hind limb of the terrestrial vertebrates.
• A great variety of fins is observed in fishes.
The diversity in the fin system in fishes is due
to their adaptive responsiveness.
• Origin of fins
• It has been theorized that fins of fishes all
evolved from ancestors that had no fins at all.
Presumably, ancestral forms responded to
movement in water and developed a median
ridge or keel on the body, from near the head
around one end of the tail to the anus. These
ridge, perhaps initially without supporting rays,
gave rise to median fins. Similar ridges appearing
on the sides and then coalescing at the proper
sites have been presumed further to be the
ancestral antecedents of the paired fins.
• The median or unpaired fins in fishes are held to
be originated from a continuous fold of tissue.
This fold extends from the posterior region of the
head and continous posteriorly around the tail
and forward up to the anus.

• Many Ichthyologists are convinced about the

deviation of the unpaired fins from the continous
fin-fold., but controversy exists as regards the
origin of the paired fins in the phylogenetic
development of fishes. Two conventional theories
are: 1. Gill-arch theory and 2. Fin-fold theory.
• Gill-arch Theory
• According to this theory, the paired fins are the
modified gill-structures and the girdles represent
the gill-arches. The position of the pelvic fins can
be explained on the assumption that some of the
posterior gill-archs have been shifted posteriorly.

• Fin-fold Theory
• According to this theory, the paired fins have
originated from a paired lateral fin-folds running
down each side of the body behind the gill-
openings up to the end of the tail. These lateral
fin-folds are separated at the anterior part, but
become fused posteriorly as a median ventral fin-
fold.
Types of caudal (tail) fin: (A) - Heterocercal,
(B) - Protocercal,
(C) - Homocercal,
(D) - Diphycercal
• Sharks possess a heterocercal caudal fin. The
dorsal portion is usually larger than the
ventral portion
• The high performance bigeye tuna is equipped
with a homocercal caudal fin and finlets and
keels.
• Fins are the most distinctive features of fish.
They are either composed of bony spines
protruding from the body with skin covering
them and joining them together, either in a
webbed fashion as seen in most bony fish, or
are similar to a flipper, as seen in sharks.
• Apart from the tail or caudal fin, fins have no
direct connection with the spine and are
supported by muscles only. Their principal
function is to help the fish swim. Fins can also
be used for gliding or crawling, as seen in the
flying fish and frogfish.
• Fins located in different places on the fish
serve different purposes, such as moving
forward, turning, and keeping an upright
position. For every fin, there are a number of
fish species in which this particular fin has
been lost during evolution.
• Fin rays
• The fins are supported by fin-rays. These
supporting rays may be bony, cartilaginous,
fibrous or horny. The movements of the fins
are due to the action of the muscles, these
movements being possible because of the
articulations and often flexibility of thse rays.
In teleosts, the fin rays are of two types:

• Soft rays: These are thin, flexible, most often

branched, segmented and always biserial (two
lateral components paired on the midline).
• Hard rays (Spines): A number of soft rays
united solidity to compose hard rays which are
stout, rigid, unsegmented, uniserial and
sometimes sharply pointed.

• In the sharks and their relatives and in the

bony fishes, the median and paired fins have
internal skeletal supports and dermal fin rays.
The dermal fin rays are collectively called
dermatotrichia or lepidotrichia.
• Spines and rays
• In bony fish, most fins may have spines or rays. A
fin may contain only spiny rays, only soft rays, or
a combination of both. If both are present, the
spiny rays are always anterior. Spines are
generally stiff and sharp. Rays are generally soft,
flexible, segmented, and may be branched. This
segmentation of rays is the main difference that
separates them from spines; spines may be
flexible in certain species, but they will never be
segmented.
• Spines have a variety of uses. In catfish, they are
used as a form of defense; many catfish have the
ability to lock their spines outwards. Triggerfish
also use spines to lock themselves in crevices to
prevent them being pulled out.
• Lepidotrichia are bony, bilaterally-paired,
segmented fin rays found in bony fishes. They
develop around actinotrichia as part of the
dermal exoskeleton. Lepidotrichia may have
some cartilage or bone in them as well. They
are actually segmented and appear as a series
of disks stacked one on top of another.
• Types of fin

• Median fins:
• The median fins of all fishes develop as a result of
differentiation in a continuous embryonic fin fold.
During development a continuous fold of tissue is
formed running dorsally along the back up to the
cloaca. Thus, fold is then strengthened by a series of
cartilaginous rods and this condition is seen in lamprey
represents a primitive condition of the In higher fishes,
separate dorsal, anal and caudal fins are formed
concentration of the radial in certain areas and
degradation of the fold in intervening spaces between
the fins.
•
• In majority of fishes only one dorsal fin
present on dorsal surface of the body which
supported fin rays. In some fishes extra dorsal
fin present on the dorsal surface known as
second dorsal fin, while in some cases instead
of second dorsal fin, there is muscle elevation
known as adipose fin without supported fin
rays. Anal fin is situated ventrally just behind
the anus consist of branched and un-branch
fin rays.The caudal fin differs from the dorsal
and anal fin in nature of its supporting
skeleton.
• Dorsal fin: Dorsal fins are located on the back.
Most fishes have median fin and one dorsal fin,
but some fishes have two or three. The dorsal
fins serve to protect the fish against rolling, and
assists in sudden turns and stops. In anglerfish,
the anterior of the dorsal fin is modified into an
illicium and esca, a biological equivalent to a
fishing rod and lure. The bones that support the
dorsal fin are called Pterygiophore. There are two
to three of them: "proximal", "middle", and
"distal". In spinous fins the distal is often fused to
the middle, or not present at all.
• Caudal fin: The caudal fin is the tail fin, located at
the end of the caudal peduncle and is used for
propulsion. The caudal peduncle is the narrow
part of the fish's body to which the caudal or tail
fin is attached. The hypural joint is the joint
between the caudal fin and the last of the
vertebrae. The hypural is often fan-shaped. Of
the unpaired fins, the caudal fin plays the most
important role in forward propulsion during
swimming. The caudal fin differs from the dorsal
and anal fins in the nature of its supporting
skeleton. Five types of caudal fins are
encountered in different fishes and the tail is
called:
• Protocercal: It is considered as ancestral type of
caudal fin which encloses notochord or vertebral
column. The fin is eually extended above and below
of the vertebral column. The dorsal half is called
epichordal lobe and the ventral one is known as
hypochordal lobe. The epichordal and hypochordal
parts of the caudal fin are equal in size and
symmetrical. This type of caudal fin can be seen in
young larval stages of fish, amphioxus and
cyclostomes.
 Heterocercal: The vertebral column is bent upwards
and continues almost up to the tip of the fin. The
epichordal part is greatly reduced while the
hypochordal lobe is is specially enlarged to make the
caudal fin assymetrical both internally as well as
externally. This type of caudal fin is found in
elasmobranches, extinct crossopterygian and
primitive Actinopterigians. It is also known as
epicercal.
•
Hypocercal (Reversed heterocercal): These are just
reverse of heterocercal. Here the lobes are unequal
and vertebral column ends in the lower lobe always
longer than upper lobes, ex. Ostracoderms, Anaspida.
 Diphycercal: The vertebral column is bent
downwards. It reaches at the tip of tail fin and
both upper and lower parts are equally
developed. This type of fin is present in
Holocephali and lung fishes.

• Homocercal: It is symmetrical caudal fin beyond

the end of the vertebral column. It can be seen
several teleost (bony) fishes. Most fish have a
homocercal tail, where the fin appears
superficially symmetric but the vertebrae extend
for a very short distance into the upper lobe of
the fin. This can be expressed in a variety of
shapes.
– The tail fin can be:
• rounded at the end
• truncated: or end in a more-or-less vertical
edge, such as in salmon
• forked: or end in two prongs
• emarginate: or with a slight inward curve.
• continuous: with dorsal, caudal and anal fins
attached, such as in eels.

The anal fin is located on the ventral surface

behind the anus. This fin is used to stabilize the
fish while swimming.
• Paired fins:
• Paired appendages were not present in the
ancestral vertebrate and were developed during
the course of early fish evolution. The paired fins
are pectoral and pelvic fins. Pectoral fin is more
or less triangular in shape which origin from
ventro-lateral wall of the body just behing the
operculum. In some fishes, it is modified into
copulatory organs e.g. shark fishes and some
fishes modified into wing like structure e.g.
Exocetus. A pair of pelvic or ventral fin located
ventral surface of the body which is also
supported by fin rays.
• The paired pectoral fins are located on each side,
usually just behind the operculum, and are
homologous to the forelimbs of tetrapods. A peculiar
function of pectoral fins, highly developed in some fish,
is the creation of the dynamic lifting force that assists
some fish, such as sharks, in maintaining depth and
also enables the "flight" for flying fish. In many fish, the
pectoral fins aid in walking, especially in the lobe-like
fins of some anglerfish and in the mudskipper. Certain
rays of the pectoral fins may be adapted into finger-like
projections, such as in sea robins and flying gurnards.
The "horns" of manta rays and their relatives are called
cephalic fins; this is actually a modification of the
anterior portion of the pectoral fin.
• The paired pelvic or ventral fins are located
ventrally below the pectoral fins. They are
homologous to the hindlimbs of tetrapods. The
pelvic fin assists the fish in going up or down
through the water, turning sharply, and stopping
quickly. In gobies, the pelvic fins are often fused
into a single sucker disk. This can be used to
attach to objects.

• The adipose fin is a soft, fleshy fin found on the

back behind the dorsal fin and just forward of the
caudal fin. It is absent in many fish families, but is
found in Salmonidae, characins and catfishes.
•
• Its function has remained a mystery, and is
frequently clipped off to mark hatchery-raised
fish, though data from 2005 showed that trout
with their adipose fin removed have an 8%
higher tailbeat frequency. Additional research
published in 2011 has suggested that the fin
may be vital for the detection of and response
to stimuli such as touch, sound and changes in
pressure. Canadian researchers identified a
neural network in the fin, indicating that it
likely has a sensory function, but are still not
sure exactly what the consequences of
removing it are.
• Some types of fast-swimming fish have a
horizontal caudal keel just forward of the tail fin.
Much like the keel of a ship, this is a lateral ridge
on the caudal peduncle, usually composed of
scutes (see below), that provides stability and
support to the caudal fin. There may be a single
paired keel, one on each side, or two pairs above
and below.

• Finlets are small fins, generally behind the dorsal

and anal fins (in bichirs, there are only finlets on
the dorsal surface and no dorsal fin). In some fish
such as tuna or sauries, they are rayless, non-
retractable, and found between the last dorsal
and/or anal fin and the caudal fin.
• Functions:
• The normal function of the fins, both median
and paired is regarded for locomotion in the
form of progression, steering or balancing.
• The basic function of a rudder is fulfilled by
the pectoral (Thoracic) and pelvic fins. These
also assist in turning the fish in a horizontal
plane.
• The dorsal and anal fins (If these do not
perform the function of forward movement)
assisting in upward and downward turning.
Sometimes they act as stabilizing keels. The
caudal fin helps in progression of the fish.
• In some fishes fins prolonged into long trailing
filaments which are tactile in action. In Collisa
elongated fin rays serving as tactile organs.
• In some hill-stream fishes, pectoral and pelvic fins
are modified to form and efficient adhesive
surface for attaching them to the stones and
rocks of the river.
• Sometimes fins are modified as long, pointed and
serrated spines, which act as offensive or
defensive organs, especially when they are
associated with poison glands.
• In many Teleosts the spines may form part of a
stridulating vocal mechanism.
Institute of Agriculture and Animal Science, Sundarbazar,
Lamjung

ANATOMY OF FISH: STUDY OF

LOCATION AND FUNCTIONS OF
DIFFERENT ORGANS
Presented By
RAVINDRA KUMAR YADAV
Assistant Professor

IAAS, Sundarbazar, Lamjung

Date: 2071-04-26
Background
Fish are cold-blooded vertebrates that breathe through gills
and use fins for locomotion. The class Osteichthyes (bony
fishes) shares several characteristics including: a skeleton of
bone, scales, paired fins, one pair of gill openings, jaws, and
paired nostrils. This class includes the largest number of
living species of vertebrates, more than 23,500 species. The
class Osteichthyes also contains about 96% of all fish
species. Fishes not included in the Osteichthyes are the
Chondrichthyes (sharks, skates and rays), the Myxini
(hagfishes), and the Cephalaspidomorphi (lampreys).
 The different types of water system of the world there
exist a large number of fish species different widely
shape, size and habit. Body is generally fusiform and
streamlined. Proper global shape found in globiformes
and tetradontiformes and eel of serpentine form. In
spite of much variation in shape, the ground plan of
body organization in fishes is bilateral symmetry, as
for the vertebrates generally. The right and left half of
the body are basically mirror image of one another.
The size of fish ranges from few inches to 18 meter or
more. Entire body of fish dived into head, trunk and
tail.
External Anatomy (Location of External Organs
of Fish):

Bar – A short, straight color mark, oriented vertically

unless otherwise stated.
 Barbel – A fleshy sensory appendage on the head,
usually on the snout, around the mouth or on the chin.

 Dorsal Fin – The median fin located on the back.
There are many variations of this fin in fish.

 Pectoral Fins – A pair of fins generally located in the
shoulder region of the fish.

 Pelvic Fins – A pair of fins on the lower part of the
body around the pelvic girdle. These fins can vary in
their placement on the body in different fish species.

 Barbel – A fleshy sensory appendage on the head, usually
on the snout, around the mouth or on the chin.

 Dorsal Fin – The median fin located on the back. There
are many variations of this fin in fish.

 Pectoral Fins – A pair of fins generally located in the
shoulder region of the fish.

 Pelvic Fins – A pair of fins on the lower part of the body
around the pelvic girdle. These fins can vary in their
placement on the body in different fish species.

 Isthmus – The triangular, front most part of the underside

of the body; largely separated from the head, in most bony
fishes, by the gill opening
 Lateral Line – A canal along the body filled with sensory
organs that detect pressure changes.

 Ocellus – An eyespot in which the central color is
bordered by a ring of another color, which is also different
from the adjacent body color or fin.

 Ray – One of the supporting elements, soft or spiny, in a
fin.

 Snout – Portion of the head in front of the eyes and above
the month.

 Tail – The portion of the body behind the anus.


External Anatomy (Location and Functions
of External Organs of Fish):
 Brain:
 Fish have multi-lobed brains with the cerebellum being the
prominent structure. This part of the brain controls many
important functions such as sensing pressure, maintaining
balance, and regulating muscle movement.
 Fins:
 Fins are one of the most distinctive features of a fish and
serve as a means for the fish to move, whether it is
swimming, gliding or crawling along the bottom. Fins
located in different places on the fish serve different
purposes, such as moving forward, turning, and
maintaining an upright position.

 SPINE:
 The primary structural framework upon which the fish's
body is built; connects to the skull at the front of the fish
and to the tail at the rear. The spine is made up of
numerous vertebrae, which are hollow and house and
protect the delicate spinal cord. In bony fish, most fins
have spines or rays. Spines are generally stiff and sharp
while rays are relatively soft, flexible and segmented.
 SPINAL CORD: Connects the brain to the rest of the
body and relays sensory information from the body to
the brain, as well as instructions from the brain to the
rest of the body.

 Scales:
 Most fish possess scales although type and size of the
scales varies by species. Scales help protect fish from
damage to their skin as they come in contact with
rocks or sediment and act as a barrier for potentially
harmful bacteria and parasites. Some scales can also
help fish move more efficiently through the water, thus
expending less energy.

 Eye:
 Fish see through their eyes and can detect color. The eyes are
rounder in fish than mammals because of the refractive index of
water and focus is achieved by m moving the lens in and out, not
distorting it as in mammals.
 Nostril:
 The nostrils or nares of almost all fishes do not
connect to the oral cavity, but are pits of varying shape
and depth. Paired nostrils, or nares, in fish are used to
detect odors.

 Barbell
 The head may have several fleshy structures known as
barbels, which may be very long and resemble
whiskers. Many fish species also have a variety of
protrusions or spines on the head.

 Mouth:
 The mouths shape is a good clue to what fish eat. The
large it is the bigger the prey it can consume.
 Teeth:
 Fish chain pickerel and gar have obvious canine-
shaped teeth. Other fish have less obvious teeth, such
as the cardiform teeth in catfish which feel like a
roughened area at the front of the mouth or vomerine
teeth that are tiny patches of teeth, for example, in the
roof of a striped bass' mouth. Fish may or may not
have teeth depending on the species. Grass carp and
minnous have pharyngeal teeth modified from their
gill arches for grinding that are located in the throat.
 Sense of Taste:
 Fish have a sense of taste and may sample items to
taste them before swallowing, if they are not obvious
prey items.
Internal Anatomy (Locations and Functions of
Internal Organs of Fish):
 STOMACH AND INTESTINES: It is about J shaped and
divided into cardiac and pyloric stomach. Break down
(digest) food and absorb nutrients. Pyloric stomach
opened into wide intestine which is tubular structure
internally folded. Fish such as bass that are piscivorous (eat
other fish) have fairly short intestines because such food is
easy to chemically break down and digest. Fish such as
tilapia that are herbivorous (eat plants) require longer
intestines because plant matter is usually tough and fibrous
and more difficult to breakdown into usable components.
A great deal about fish feeding habits can be determined by
examining stomach contents.
 Gills:
 Fish have gills, which are respiratory organs, for the
extraction of oxygen from water and for the excretion of
carbon dioxide. Gills are protected in bony fish by the
operculum, a hard external covering located on each side of
the head.

 Numerous gill filaments, which are responsible for gas

exchange, are attached to a bony gill arch.

 Most fish also possess gill rakers, bony, finger-like
projections of the gill arch that keep food and other
debris out of the gill filaments and also act like sieves
to remove plankton from the water in filter-feeding
fish.
 LIVER: It is a discrete lobed organ found in the forepart of the
internal body cavity. It consists of two large elongated lobes.
These two lobes are joined anteriorly. Gall bladder is situated on
the dorsal lobe. This important organ has a number of functions.
It assists in digestion by secreting enzymes that breakdown fats,
and also serves as a storage area for fats and carbohydrates. The
liver also is important in the destruction of old blood cells and in
the maintaining proper blood chemistry, and as well as playing a
role in nitrogen (waste) excretion.

 Pancreas: It is a well developed diffused gland surrounding the

blood vessels between the lobes of the liver.
 PYLORIC CAECA: This organ with fingerlike projections is located
near the junction of the stomach and intestines, its function is not
entirely understood, but it is known to secrete enzymes that aid in
digestion, may function to absorb digested food, or do both.

 Spleen
 The spleen is found in nearly all vertebrates. It is a non-vital organ,
similar in structure to a large lymph node. It is bright red small organ
found adjacent to intestine. It acts primarily as a blood filter, and plays
important roles in regard to red blood cells and the immune system.[21]
In cartilaginous and bony fish it consists primarily of red pulp and is
normally a somewhat elongated organ as it actually lies inside the
serosal lining of the intestine. The only vertebrates lacking a spleen are
the lampreys and hagfishes. Even in these animals, there is a diffuse
layer of haematopoeitic tissue within the gut wall, which has a similar.
 Heart:
 Fish have a two-chambered heart (compared to our four-
chambered heart) with one atrium and one ventricle that is
located between the gills. It is found as small organ at very
anterior part of body cavity. Blood is pumped from the heart to
the gills where it is oxygenated, then to the body and back to the
heart again.

 KIDNEY: Filters liquid waste materials from the blood; these
wastes are then passed out of the body. The kidney is also
extremely important in regulating water and salt concentrations
within the fish’s body, allowing certain fish species to exist in
freshwater or saltwater, and in some cases (such as snook or
tarpon) both.
 Head kidney: It is found just above gills as a
homogenous organ.

 Posterior Kidney: It is located just below the spinal

column. Swimbladder must be removed to expose it.
 Swim bladder or Gas bladder:
 It is white dilated sacs found towards the top of the body cavity. In some fishes, a small
tube connects with the inner ear; while in others, with the forepart of the intestinal tract.
 The gas bladder, or swim bladder, is an internal organ located along the backbone that
allows a fish to control its buoyancy, and thus to stay at the current water depth, ascend
or descend without having to expend energy swimming. It is often reduced or absent in
flatfish and other bottom dwelling species. The digestive and excretory organs found in
most fish are similar to those found in our own systems and include the stomach,
intestines, kidneys, liver, and gall bladder. These organs function in similar ways to our
own.

 Lateral Line:
 Fish also possess a lateral line, which runs the length of each side of their body and is
sensitive to differences in water pressure caused by approaching objects. This sensory
structure allows them to detect predators and prey as well as orient themselves in their
environment. It is also the structure that allows schooling fish to move as a single unit
and keeps fish in aquaria from running into the glass.
 Weberian apparatus
 Fishes of the superorder Ostariophysi possess a structure called the Weberian
apparatus, a modification which allow them to hear better. This ability which
may well explain the marked success of otophysian fishes. The apparatus is
made up of a set of bones known as Weberian ossicles, a chain of small bones
that connect the auditory system to the swim bladder of fishes. The ossicles
connect the gas bladder wall with Y-shaped lymph sinus that abuts the lymph-
filled transverse canal joining the sacculi of the right and left ears. This allows
the transmission of vibrations to the inner ear. A fully functioning Weberian
apparatus consists of the swim bladder, the Weberian ossicles, a portion of the
anterior vertebral column, and some muscles and ligaments.

 Vent:
 The vent is the external opening to digestive urinary and reproductive tracts. In
most fish it is immediately in front of the anal fin.
 Rectum: Intestine leads into the anal region.
 Sex Organs:
 Although some fish have the ability to change sexes, fish are dioecious,
with males possessing testes, which produce sperm, while the females
have ovaries and produce eggs. Fertilization may be internal or
external. With some species laying eggs while others give birth to live
young.

 In adult female bass, the bright orange mass of eggs is unmistakable
during the spawning season, but it still usually identiable at other
times of the year. The male organs which produce milt for fertilizing
the eggs, are much smaller and white but found in the same general
location. The eggs (or roe) of certain fish are considered a delicacy, as
in the case of caviar from sturgeon.
 MUSCLES: Provide movement and locomotion. This is the part of the
fish that is usually eaten, and composes the fillet of the fish.
Institute of Agriculture and Animal Science, Sundarbazar, Lamjung

DIFFERENT ORGAN SYSTEMS: STRUCTURE AND

FUNCTIONS OF

a. DIGESTIVE SYSTEM- STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF ALIMENTARY CANAL

b. RESPIRATORY SYSTEM- STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF GILLS
C. REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM- STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF GONADS

Presented By
RAVINDRA KUMAR YADAV
Assistant Professor

IAAS, Sundarbazar, Lamjung

Date: 2071-04-26
 Digestive System of Fish
Digestive system consists of alimentary canal and its
associated glands. The digestive tube also contains
numerous intramural glands which provide the tube by
lubricating mucus, enzymes, water etc. While
extramural glands are liver, pancreas and gall bladder.

Fishes have adapted to a wide variety of food. On the

basis of feeding habits, the fishes are categorized as
follows:
1. Herbivorous
2. Carnivorous
3. Omnivorous
4. Plankton Feeder or Detrivorous
Herbivorous Fishes:
➢A number of fresh water fishes feed mainly on
unicellular algae, filamentous algae and portion
of higher aquatic plants with sand and mud.

➢As the plant material in their gut contents, they

are considered herbivorous in habit.
➢Animal food usually varies 1-10 percent in
their diet.

➢The fishes are Labeo rohita, L. gonio, L. Boga,

Schizothoraichthys progasius, Schizothorax
richardsonii, Ctenopharyngodon idella,
Oreochromis mossambica etc.
Fig 1. Labeo rohita Fig 2. Ctenopharyngodon idella
➢These herbivorous fishes have long and coiled
intestine.
Carnivorous Fishes:
➢The fishes in contrast to herbivore have
shorter gut, the intestine is straight, very little
coils are present.

➢They prey on small organism and consume

high percentage of animal food such as insect,
earthworm, mollusks, small fishes etc.
➢The example of carnivorous fishes are Wallago
attu, Mystus seenghala, Notopterus
notopterus, N. chitala, Channa punctatus etc.

Fig 3. Channa Punctatus Fig 4. Wallago attu

Fig 5. Diagrammatic Representation of Herbivore & Carnivore
Fishes Intestines.

➢ The herbivore fishes have long and coiled intestine but the
carnivore fishes have short and straight (very little coil)
intestine.
• Omnivorous Fishes:

➢Omnivorous fishes like Cyprinous carpio,

Cirrhina mrigala, Puntius sarana, P. ticto,
Clarius bactrachus, tor tor, Tor putitora etc.
consume both plants and animal food.

➢The rotifers, mud and sand also found in

alimentary canal of fish.
➢Gut length is intermediate between
herbivorous and carnivorous fishes.

Fig 6. Cyprinus carpio Fig 7. Cirrhinus mrigala

Plankton Feeders or Detrivorous
➢These species feed on phytoplankton (minute
organisms of plant origin) and Zooplankton
(minute organisms of animal origin) along
with detritus matter, which they obtain by
filtering water through their gill rackers.

➢E.g. Catla catla, (Bhakur or catla),

Hypophthalmichthys molitrix (silver carp),
Aristichthys nobilis (Bighead carp),
Oreochromis niloticus (Nile tilapia), Gudusia
chapra etc.
 Fig 8. Catla catla Fig 9. Hypophthalmichthys
molitrix (silver carp) & Aristichthys nobilis (Bighead carp)

➢Phytoplankton feeders have long and coiled

intestine.
 Alimentary canal:
Alimentary canal is coiled tube extending from
mouth to anus. There is great diversity of
variation in length and parts of alimentary canal
of different fishes. It consists of following;
• Mouth
• Buccopharynx
• Oesophagus
• Stomach
• Intestine
• Rectum
• Anus
• Fig 9. Diagrammatic Representation of Digestive System
of Fish (Part-1)
Fig 10. Diagrammatic Representation of Digestive
System of Fish (Part-2)
• As with all animals digestion in fish involves the
breakdown of eaten food into its smaller
component parts, amino acids, vitamins, fatty
acids etc. which can then be used to build up new
fish body.

• The breaking apart or breaking down of the eaten

material is called anabolism, the building up of
new material is called catabolism and these two
together make up the whole of metabolism.

• Grammatically it follows from this that the

respective adjectives are anabolic, catabolic and
metabolic.
• As anybody who has watched a gold fish knows quite well
fish eat and defecate. Like all animals the fish's body is
basically a long tube that is twisted up on itself a bit in the
middle and has a slayer of muscles and ancillary organs
around it. This tube has the mouth at one end and the anus
or cloaca at the other. Mostly we consider the mouth to be
the entrance to the tube and the anus to be the exit, food
items come in and faeces go out. Different things happen in
different parts of the tube and for the sake of study and
understanding we give the various parts names.
•
Mouth - Pharynx - Oesophagus - Gizzard - Stomach -
Intestines - Rectum.
• However not all fish have all these parts, some, like many of
the Cyprinids and Cyprinidonts, lack a stomach, while a
gizzard is only found in a relatively few species.
The Mouth
• The mouth in fishes has several modifications. Mouth
may be terminal, sub-terminal and crecentic and is
bounded by fleshy lips having cerviclal papillae
containing test buds. The fish has no teeth on the
margin of the jaw but are placed on the pharyngeal
floor. Mouth with fleshy lips with or without sensory
barbells and test bud may present in some extents. In
some fishes mouth is small and its inner surface of lips
have rasp like folds to facilitate the scarping of algae
from stone to which they adhere e.g. Schizothorax. In
some fishes with sucker lips are mobile and having
folded or papillae. The mouth in some fishes elongated
as beak, e.g. Beloniformes.
The Pharynx
• Immediately behind the mouth is the pharynx
which is the continuation of the tube started at
the mouth and in which they are found the gill
clefts, through which water flows out of the
alimentary canal and into the gills. It is short
which leads to the oesophagus. It is lined with
squamous epithelium.

• It lacks a distinct tongue but in Notopterus chitala

having rudimenrary tongue present. The
buccopharynx has also undergone a few
modifications in relation to feeding behavior.
These modification are teeth, pharyngeal pad, gill
racker etc.
• Not all fishes bear teeth but most of the carnivorous
fishes having different types of teeth in
buccopharyngeal region. Teeth may be present on
buccal cavity and in pharyngeal region. Large vomerine
or curve like teeth present in upper and lower jaws of
wallago attu. Teeth absent in plankton feeders and
some generalized omnivorous fishes.

• In pharynx, the teeth are located on superior positions.

The pharyngeal teeth occur as pad on various species.
These pharyngeal teeth may be specialized for grinding
like molars, comb-like for breaking up fine materials of
sharp and pointed for piercing prey, in some species
they are even hinged so that they fold up to allow food
to pass and hang down again afterwards to prevent its
escape.
• In Clarias and labeo teeth are modified for
grasping, tearing, grinding and comb or razor
like teeth have developed in predaceous
fishes. Teeth are not present on jaws and
palate in Tor tor, Puntius sarana and Catla
catla. For the most part however pharyngeal
teeth seem to have evolved in order to assist
in the act of swallowing food.
The Oesophagus
• The oesophagus is a short narrow tube like
structure. Its mucous lining forms prominent
longitudinal folds and several smaller folds in
between them. Apneumatic duct arises from
the dorsal side of the oesophagus and opens
into the air bladder. The mucous folds of
oesophagus converge posteriorly to form an
oesophageal sphincter to check the entry of
water into intestine and also to prevent
regurgitation of food. The oesophagus leads
into the intestinal bulb.
The Gizzard
• The gizzard is really a highly muscular
modification of the first part of the stomach.
Its main purpose is to grind up coarse food
items into smaller pieces thus facilitating their
later digestion. In those fish which have a
gizzard, such as Shad, it is the place where
digestion begins because as well as its
muscular activity the gizzard also secretes
digestive enzymes into the food.
The Stomach
• Frequently in literature the fishes are classified into
stomach less fishes. The predatory carnivore fishes
have stomach. In some species of plankton feeder
fishes with reduced stomach in Hilsa ilisha, Gudusia
chapra etc. The cyprinidae family has no stomach but
possess intestinal bulb. According to Dutta and Hossain
(1993), 85% teleosts fishes possess stomach. There is
great morphological differentiation of shape of
stomach. They may be I, J, U, V, Y shaped. The true
stomach can be divided into cardiac and pyloric. In
some fishes, it is distinguished into cardiac, fundus and
pyloric region. The proximal region is designatyed as
cardiac while the distal part is known as pyloric e.g.
Anguilla, wallago and Raja etc. Numerous gastric gland
of tubular type present which secrete gastic juice,
enzymes and hydrochloric acid, help in digestion.
Pyloric Caeca
• At th hind end of the stomach, before, just at the beginning of the
intestines many fish have some thin blind tubes called Pyloric
Caeca. Not all fish have them, Wrasses, Pipefish and many Catfish
do not have any. In those species that do have the number is
variable, and may even differ between individuals of the same same
species, the Sand Eels or sand Lances (Ammodytes sp.) possess only
one, Turbot (Psetta maxima) has two, Perch (Perca fluviatilis) has 3
in comparison Whiting (Micromesistius australis) has around 100
and Mackeral (Scomber ) may have 200. Most sharks and rays do
not have pyloric caeca, the exceptions being the Greenland Shark
(Somniosus microcephalus)and some skates. The function of these
Pyloric Caeca is poorly understood, but they may secrete Trypsin
and enzymes active in the intestines, it is also considered likely that
they are important in neutralizing the acidity of the chyme (the
partially digested food that leaves the stomach) before it reaches
the intestines, where the environment is alkaline in contrast to the
stomachs acidity. It is possible that the pyloric caeca play a fuller or
more complex role in the digestive cycle in some groups of fish than
they do in others.
• Intestines
• Intestine also shows many variations. It is short and straight in carnivorous
but long and thin walled highly coiled in herbivorous species.The intestine
is a long thin tube with a thin double layer musculature, the outer layer
being longitudinal and the inner layer being circular. It is the sight of the
final digestion and absorption of the food a fish eats. In the sharks, rays
and many piscivorous bony fish the intestine is little longer than the
distance to the anus, but it may be longer, and as a general rule the
intestines become longer as the diet moves through being omnivorous to
detritivorous to herbivorous. When the intestines are considerably longer
than the body length they are coiled up, or even wound around other
organs such as the swim bladder i.e. Stone Rollers ( Campostoma sp.)
Because the absorption of nutrients takes place across its walls it
important that it have a large surface area. In the sharks and rays , and in a
few other ancient fish such as Lampreys, Lungfish, Paddlefish and
Sturgeons, the internal surface area of the intestines is greatly increased
by a structure called the Spiral Valve. In effect this is a corkscrew like
structure that runs down the centre of part of the intestine, being twisted
helps it to pack more surface area into a given length. The spiral valve is
simple in the ancient fish, but often highly evolved in the sharks and rays.
Kapoor et al (1975) and Stroband (1980) suggested that stomach less
fishes is herbivorous and because size of the alimentary canal is hence
there is no necessity of the occurrence of intestinal caecae. The function
of caecae is to increase absorption area.
The Rectum
• The rectum is the end of the intestines and through it faeces pass out of
the fish's body and into the surrounding water. In the lungfish, sharks and
rays the rectum opens into the cloaca which also receives wastes (urine)
from the kidneys and material from the reproductive organs. In bony fish
the rectum reaches the outside environment through the anus, which is
normally situated just in front the urinary and reproductive openings.
However in some fish the digestive tract may be curled back on itself, and
in the Electric Eel (Electrophorus electricus) the anus is situated in the
fish's throat. Most of what is excreted by fish is undigested material and
dead bacteria. Fish usually convert nitrogenous wastes into ammonia
which is secreted into the water through the gills, 80% to 90% of a fish's
nitrogenous waste is dealt with in this way, the rest will be formed into
urea and pass out through the rectum. In sharks and rays all the
nitrogenous wastes are converted into urea.
• While most, or all of the digestion that occurs within the fish's digestive
tract is the result of activity by enzymes produced by the fish itself it
should be noted that many herbivorous and omnivorous fish derive
nutrients from the activity of gut microbes, single celled archaea, bacteria
and fungi that feed on cellulose and other plant products that the fish
finds difficult to digest itself and in the process give out excess byproducts
such as fatty acids which are useful to the fish.
Anus:
• It is posterior opening of the alimentary canal.
The intestinal surface of the region near
rectum is covered with an epithelium rich in
mucous cells. The muscular is made up of an
inner circular and outer longitudinal muscle
layer. The circular muscle is thickly developing
forming sphincter. The reguion of the anus
facing exterior has the epithelium continuous
with the skin.
Digestive glands:
• These are two types of gland found majority of fishes
i.e. liver and pancreas.

The Liver
• Is a large organ that play various roles in the fishes
body, it is the site of glycogen storage, it produces a
variety of substances, including enzymes that help with
the digestion and it is a major chemical factory
producing various hormones as well as numerous
other important molecules. The liver has no specific
shape in fish and generally molds itself into the space
around the stomach and the heart however it has a
tendancy to reflect the fish's body shape, being long
and tin in eels and wide in rays and skates.
• The liver has fibrous connective tissue
covering which is spoken as capsule. The liver
is madeup of characteristic hepatic polygonal
cells and ductless. Each hepatic polygonal cell
a granular cytoplasm and a prominent round
nucleus. The group of hepatic cell is supported
by the reticular tissue. The bile duct is made
up of columnar epithelial layer and fibrous
muscular tissues. Bile secrete frm the liver and
pouring into the duodenum region of the
intestine and cardiac part of intestinal bulb.
• The liver is often very large in some sharks and
may extend along the body cavity to the
cloaca. The liver usually has two separate
lobes, but it may have only one (some
members of the Salmonidae) or even three as
in the Mackeral (Scomber scomber). The gall
bladder is usually found somewhere within
the liver, it secretes substances that attack fats
and help them to be broken down. The liver
always has at least one, and sometimes as
many as eight ducts leading into the first part
of the intestines. In many cases the pancreas
will share one of these ducts.
The Pancreas
• The pancreas which is exocrine and endocrine organ may
be discrete organ or it may be diffused in liver or in the
alimentary canal. The Pancreas is well developed in the
lungfish, sharks and rays and most juvenile fish, however in
many teleosts it becomes quite reduced and diffuse in the
adults. In sharks and rays it is quite distinct from the liver,
but in those teleosts wherein it is found it is often partially
embedded in the liver. It is also diffused in the alimentary
canal in few fishes. The pancreas secretes enzymes such as
trypsin (attacks proteins), amylases (attack carbohydrates)
and lipases (attack fats) into the intestines either through
sharing one of the hepatic ducts (those belonging to the
liver), or through its own pancreatic duct. The exocrine cells
are found in periphery placed. The endocrine cells are also
called Islet of Langerhans that secrete insulin. But exocrine
secretion is called pancreatic juice in which mostly amylase
enzymes.
• Mechanism of Digestion
• Mechanism of digestion means break down of complex
food materials into smaller molecules which can be
easily absorbed.

• Digestion of proteins
• Proteins are complex organic compounds of high
molecular weight. They are composed of carbon,
oxygen, hydrogen and sulpher elements. For the
digestion of protein following enzymes are required in
the fishes as:
– Pepsin
– Trypsin
– Chymotrypsin
– Erypsin
• The fishes which possess stomach are generally
carnivorous and secrete pepsin enzyme from
gastric mucosa. The pepsin enzyme breaks down
of complex form of protein to simpler form or
inspoluble atate. The optimum activity carried
out at low pH 2 to4, so Hcl required for making
low pH. The secretion of gastric juioce depends
upontemperature. At 100C the gastric secretion
increases to three to four folds. The trypsin
enzymes are present in the extract of pancreas of
some elasmobranchs. The enterokinase enzyme
is exclusively secreted by intestine of fishes. In
the cyprinids, stomach less fish pepsin
compensation is supplemented by some
intestinal enzyme, erypsin.
Digestion of carbohydrate:
• The term carbohydrate was originally derived
from the fact that large bulk of compound
being described fit in the empirical formula on
(H2o)n. The enzymes which break down the
carbohydrate in the gut of fishes are as
follows:
– Amylase
– Lactase
– Sucrose
– Cellulose
– Maltase
 The most important enzymes is amylase which
acts as starch and which breakdown to maltose
and then to glucose by the process of digestion.
In the human being amylase is secreted from
salivary glands and pancreas. The amylase is
secreted from the pancreas in carnivorous fishes,
but in herbivorous fishes, the presence of this
enzyme is reported from the whole gastro-
intestinal tracts as well as pancreas.

• Starch Amylase → Maltose Maltase→ Glucose

• Sucrose Sucrase → Glucose + Fructose
Fat digestion:
• The lipids are organic substances insoluble in
water and soluble in organic solvent like
chloroform, ether and benzene. The main
enzyme which acts on this lipid is lipase. The
pancreas is also primary site of lipase
production. Lipase activity has been reported
in number of fishes.
INTERNAL ANATOMY OF FISH: STUDY
OF LOCATIONS AND FUNCTIONS OF
INTERNAL FISH ORGANS
1. Gills:
Gills are present either side of the anterior pharynx. It
is seat for respiratory organs.

2. Esophagus:
Just behind the pharynx, there is a short esophagus
which leads into stomach. It is passage of for food and
water to the stomach.

3. Stomach:
It is different shape, structure found different fishes. It
is divided into cardiac and pyloric part. The main
function of stomach is digestion and secretion of
hydrochloric acid to neutralize the food materials.
4. Liver:
It is bi-lobed structure located either side of stomach or
cardiac part of intestinal bulb of herbivorous fishes. Gall
bladder lies between two lobes of liver. The secretion of
liver is bile which help in digestion of food materials.

5. Pancreas:
It is well developed different gland surrounding the blood
vessels between the lobes of liver. The secretion of
pancreas known as pancreatic juice which help in digestion
of food materials.

6. Spleen:
It is bright red small organ found adjacent to the intestine.
Its function is still unknown but some author believes to
the formation and storing of white blood cells.
7. Gall bladder:
It is irregular pouch like structure found in between
two lobe of liver. The main functions for storage of bile.

8. Heart:
It is two chamber heart found anterior part of body
cavity. It forces of blood to gill for aeration.

9. Kidney:
The kidney of fishes is paired, longitudinal structures
that lie above the body cavity, ventral to the vertebral
column and inner of the reproductive organs. Its main
function is to removal of urine and in some cases it is
acts as passage for the expulsion of gamete outside of
the body.
10. Air bladder:
It is white dilated sacs found towards the top of
the body cavity. In some fishes a small tube
connects with the inner ear. It helps in swimming,
change of pressure while in some fishes are
respiratory in functions.

11. Reproductive organs:

In male fish testes, vasa differentia etc. located
either side of the kidney while female has ovaries
and oviduct funnel etc. The reproductive organs
take part in formation of gamete.
 RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
Respiratory system of fishes are so constructed as to
obtain necessary oxygen for the purpose of intracellular
oxidation and liberation energy for the maintenance of life
and to get rid of Co2. The gaseous exchange of oxygen
and carbon dioxide taking place between blood and water
(or air) through the medium of respiratory organs is called
the external respiration. While transfer of gasses between
blood and tissue or cells of the body and brings about
release energy is called internal respiration. During
respiration, the oxidation of carbon and hydrogen in the
food takes place in tissues to release energy for
maintaining life processes. The main respiratory organs in
a fishes are the gills. Besides the gills, other structure as
the skin, air bladder and other accessory organs also
functions as respiratory structures in some fishes.
• Fig 1. Respiratory System of fish
• In higher animals, the main function of
respiratory system is to convey oxygen from
the external environment to the tissues where
it is used up for oxidation of glucose to
produce energy, and to carry carbon dioxide
that is produced in the tissues and release it
out of the body. The blood along with its
haemoglobin serves to transport gases to and
fro the sites of absorption of oxygen and
release of carbon dioxide, which happen to be
gills, lungs, bucco-pharyngeal epithelium, skin
or other accessory respiratory organs.
• Respiratory organs of Cyclostomes
• Agnathans have 6-15 pairs of gill pouches,
which are lateral extensions of pharynx and contain gill
lamellae within. Cyclostomes are called
marsipobranchs, which means “pouched gills”, since
the gill lamellae are housed in gill pouches. The
hagfish, Myxine has only 6 pairs of gill pouches whose
ducts join together and open to the exterior by a single
pair of openings, while Bdellostoma carries 6-15 pairs
of gill pouches that vary in different species and open
to the outside independently. In Myxine behind the gill
pouches there is a single pharyngo-cutaneous duct on
the left side, which is a modified gill pouch which
drains excess water that fails to enter the gill pouches.
The lamprey, Petromyzon, has 8 embryonic and 7 adult
paired gill pouches that open to the exterior by
independent openings.
• Respiratory organs in elasmobranchs
• Most elasmobranchs possess 5 pairs of gill slits and a
pair of spiracles. There is no operculum covering the gill
slits in cartilaginous fishes. A demibranch is a bunch of gill
lamellae attached on one side of the interbranchial septum.
Hence, there are altogether 9 pairs of demibranchs in
elasmobranchs. Between the two demibranchs lies the
interbranchial septum, which is supported by gill cartilages.
Anterior to the first gill slit is a spiracle or pseudobranch. In
free swimming sharks and dogfishes water generally enters
through the mouth.
• Blood to the gills is supplied by five pairs of afferent
branchial arteries coming from ventral aorta and hence
they bring deoxygenated blood from heart. Blood is then
oxygenated in gills and is collected by the loops of four
pairs of efferent branchial arteries and carried to the paired
dorsal aorta, the two sides of which meet posteriorly to
form single median dorsal aorta that supplies oxygen-rich
blood to the whole body.
• Gill

Fig 2. Gill of Common carp (The red gills of this common carp are
visible as a result of a gill flap birth defect. )

• The main respiratory organs in fishes are the gills.

There are four pairs of filliform gills in rohu. The hyoid
and fifth branchial arches are abranch i.e. without gill.
There are mainly 3 parts in a typical gill arch, gill
rackers and gill lamellae. Each gill arch consists of two
rows of gill filaments present along the anterior as well
as posterior margin of the interbranchial septum.
Fig 3. Diagrammatic Fig 4. A Part of Fish Gill.
Representation of Two forms
of Fish Gill.
• In rohu, these two rows are alternately arranged
with respect to each other. Usually, the gill
lamellae of each row are independent of one
another but, in rohu, the neighboring lamellae
are fused at the tips as well as at their base. Each
primary lamella bears a large number of
secondary lamellae on both its sides.
• The gill rackers are also occurs in two rows which
is modified according to the feeding habits of
fishes. For example, the number of gill rackers is
more and is of in dense arrangements in filter
feeders. The mucous cells present in the gill
rackers help to remove the sediments. They
protect the gill lamellae from hard particles.
• The gills of rohu are holobranchs or complete. It
consists of a cartilaginous arch. A holobranch carries
two hemibranchs. The inter-branchial septum is
reduced and both the gill filaments hang out freely
up to the branchial chambers. Afferent branchi\al
arteries supply blood to the gill filament for
oxygenation and efferent branchial arteries leave the
gill and carry oxygenated blood.

• A gill is a respiratory organ found in many aquatic

organisms that extracts dissolved oxygen from water,
afterward excreting carbon dioxide. (It does not
break up water molecules into hydrogen and oxygen
to absorb oxygen.) The gills of some species such as
hermit crabs have adapted to allow respiration on
land provided they are kept moist. The microscopic
structure of a gill presents a large surface area to
the external environment.
• The respiratory system of fish begins with the intake of oxygen
through the gills. The gills are located on the sides of the head. Gill
filaments are feathery structures that make up the gills. They
provide a large surface area for gas exchange. The filaments are
arranged in rows in the gill arches. Each filament contains lamellae.
Lamellae are discs that contain capillaries. Capillaries, similar in
humans, are the site of exchange of oxygen into the blood stream.
In fish the blood enters and leaves the gills through these small
blood vessels.

• Most bony fish have a special covering that protects the gills called
the operculum. As water carrying dissolved oxygen enters the
mouth of the fish, the animal moves it's jaw and operculum in order
to pump water through the gills. As water passes over the gill
filaments blood inside the capillaries picks up the dissolved oxygen.
Blood flows opposite the flow of water over the filaments
increasing the opportunity for absorption. At this point the
circulatory system transports the oxygen to all the tissues within
the fish.
• Oxygen and carbon dioxide dissolve in water, and most
fishes exchange dissolved oxygen and carbon dioxide in
water by means of the gills. The gills lie behind and to
the side of the mouth cavity and consist of fleshy
filaments supported by the gill arches and filled with
blood vessels, which give gills a bright red colour.
Water taken in continuously through the mouth passes
backward between the gill bars and over the gill
filaments, where the exchange of gases takes place.
The gills are protected by a gill cover in teleosts and
many other fishes but by flaps of skin in sharks, rays,
and some of the older fossil fish groups. The blood
capillaries in the gill filaments are close to the gill
surface to take up oxygen from the water and to give
up excess carbon dioxide to the water.
• Many microscopic aquatic animals, and some larger but
inactive ones, can absorb adequate oxygen through the
entire surface of their bodies, and so can respire
adequately without a gill. However, more complex or more
active aquatic organisms usually require a gill or gills.

• Gills usually consist of thin filaments of tissue, branches, or

slender, tufted processes that have a highly folded surface
to increase surface area. A high surface area is crucial to
the gas exchange of aquatic organisms, as water contains
only a small fraction of the dissolved oxygen that air does.
The use of sac-like lungs to remove oxygen from water
would not be efficient enough to sustain life. Rather than
using lungs, "gasesous exchange takes place across the
surface of highly vascularised gills over which a one-way
current of water is kept flowing by a specialized pumping
mechanism. The density of the water prevents the gills
from collapsing and lying on top of each other, which is
what happens when a fish is taken out of water."
• Bony fish

Fig 5. The red gills inside a detached tuna head (viewed from
behind)
The gill arches of bony fish typically have no septum, so the gills
alone project from the arch, supported by individual gill rays.
Some species retain gill rakers. Though all but the most primitive
bony fish lack spiracles, the pseudobranch associated with them
often remains, being located at the base of the operculum. This is,
however, often greatly reduced, consisting of a small mass of cells
without any remaining gill-like structure.
• Gills in Protochordates
• A large and sieve-like pharynx in majority of these animals
performs dual function of respiration and trapping food particles
which are brought in through the current of water. The primitive
pterobranch hemichordates (Cephalodiscus and Rhabdopleura)
have either no gill slits or have very few and sport tentaculated
arms, which other than food gathering, also function as efficient
respiratory organs. Balanoglossus possesses a large pharynx having
as many as 700 pairs of gill slits, which appears to be a necessity in
the burrowing habitat of the animal.
•
• The free-living urochordates, such as Salpa and Doliolum do not
possess many stigmata or gill slits as their entire body is permeable
to oxygen but in the sedentary ascidians pharynx is prominently
enlarged and perforated with no less than 200,000 stigmata for
filter-feeding.

• Cephalochordates use pharynx for both filter-feeding and

respiration and hence carry 150-200 pairs of gill slits.
• Gills of bony fishes
• In bony fishes gills are covered with an
operculum that is made of flattened skeletal
plates and there is no spiracle as in
elasmobranchs.

Fig 6. Gill of Bony Fish

• There are 4 pairs of gill pouches, each containing
two demibranchs, making the total number of
demibranchs in bony fishes as 8 pairs or four
pairs of complete gills or holobranchs.

• Teleosts always breathe with their mouth open

and eject expiratory water by opening
operculum. Gills in Chondrostei, Holostei and the
lungfish Neoceratodus exhibit partial reduction in
their interbranchial septa, which happens to be
somewhat intermediate condition between
elasmobranchs and teleosts.
• EXTERNAL GILLS
• External gills develop from the outer wall
of pharynx or from the exposed portion of
branchial arch. They occur in larval lampreys, few
larval fishes, Polypterus, lungfishes, some larval
teleosts and all larvae and some adults of
amphibians. There is a single pair of larval gill in
the chondrosteian bony fish, Polypterus, which
has a long axis carrying gill lamellae. The African
and South American lung fishes possess 4 pairs of
feathery external gills. The larval forms of some
amphibians and some adult urodeles possess
external gills which arise simply as folds of skin on
the surface of the III, IV and V branchial arches
but weakly supported by the skeletal system.
• Perennibranch amphibians as Necturus and
Proteus retain external gills throughout life along
with 2 or 3 pairs of gill slits, which are
functionless as the water does not pass through
pharynx. Instead, gills are waved in water by
means of muscles attached at the base of gill axis
for respiration. The larvae of limbless amphibian,
Caecilia, have a pair of exceptionally large leaf-
like gills with profuse blood supply. Salamanders
that inhabit hill streams, e.g. Eurycea and
Salamandrina, which belong to family
Plethodontidae have neither gills nor lungs for
respiration and survive only on cutaneous
respiration.
Mechanism of Respiration and function of gills

• Blood is oxygenated in teleosts by rhythmical

inhalation and exhalation of water through the
bucco-pharyngeal cavity. This is affected by suction
of water into the cavity and its subsequent expulsion
through the gill slits during which the water baths
the highly vascular gill lamellae.

• The bucco-pharyngeal cavity, therefore, applies both

suction and pressure to propel water through the
gills.
Fig 7. Diagrammetic Representation of Mechanism of Respiration of Fish
• Usually water is drawn in through the mouth.
For respiration, the mouth is opened and the
buccal cavity is enlarged by lateral expansion
of its wall.

• For this, various muscles contract as well as

the branchiostegal rays are spread and
lowered. An increase of the buccal cavity
creates negative water pressure in it, so that
water is sucked in.
• When the oral cavity is filled with water, the mouth is
closed and the oral valves prevent the water to pass
through mouth. Thus, the water is forced to pass through
the gills and pumped out. As the water passes through the
gill lamellae. And gill plates diffusion of gases takes place
between water and blood capillaries. In this way counter
flow system (flow of water and flow of blood should be in
opposite direction) insures that the blood constantly meet
the water and has relative high oxygen concentration.

• Thus dissolved oxygen can be absorbed through the entire

length of gill lamellae and gill plates. This system enables
the teleosts to extract about 80% oxygen from water.

• Flow of water in fish can be summarized as:

• Mouth → Buccal cavity → Pharynx → Gills → Outside
through operculum.
• These reactions are quite adequate to
compensate for the normal fluctuations of
energy demands of the fish and of dissolved
oxygen concentrations in the water. One of
the consequences, however, of an increased
ventilation rate is that there will be an
increase in the amount of toxic substances in
the water reaching the gill surface where they
can be absorbed.
 • ACCESSORY RESPIRATORY
ORGANS IN FISHES
• Accessory respiratory organs in fishes have
generally been thought to be concerned with
breathing atmospheric air. That, like any other
gas-filled space, they can also be connected
with the perception of hydrostatic pressure has
not been reported earlier. In fishes, perhaps the
very existence of a swim-bladder, which takes
the major role in regulating the density of the
fish sand functioning as a hydrostatic organ, has
diverted attention from other gas-filled organs
which may have a similar function.
• A system of air chambers formed by
outgrowths from the mouth or gill region of
those fish that occasionally leave the water is
called accessory respiratory organ. The
uptake of oxygen from the air is facilitated by
a dense network of tiny blood vessels in the
skin lining these air chambers, and their
possession enables such fish as labyrinth fish
(Anabantidae), snakeheads (Channidae), or
air-breathing catfish (Clariidae) to survive
outside water for some considerable time. The
swim-bladder also may serve as an accessory
respiratory organ.
• In some fishes, special structures called the
accessory air breathing organs are present in
addition to gills. These organs enable the fish
to tolerate oxygen depletion in the water or to
live out of water for short periods.
•
• Many species of fishes developed breathing
organs other than gills for supplementing
deficiency of oxygen in water. These are as
follows:
• Skin (Integument)
• Parts of alimentary canal
• Buccopharyngeal epithelium
• Pharyngeal diverticulum or respiratory
trees or aborscent organ
• Opercular chamber or saccular organs
• Dendritic Organs
• Labyrinthine Organs
• Pneumatic Sac
• Air Chamber
• Gut epithelium
• Air bladder
• LUNGS
• Skin (Integument)
• Eels (Anguilla) breathe through skin while migrating
from the American and European rivers to Sargasso Sea
in Bermuda. As much as 60% exchange of gases takes
place through the highly vascularised skin.
•
• Some fishes like order symbranchiformes and
siluriformes, skin richly supplied with blood capillaries
and presence of mucous glands to keep the body moist
surface can easily serve as organs for respiration.
Anguilla bengalensis, Mastacembelus armatus and
Monopterus cuchia, Skin serves as an accessory
respiratory organ. It plays an important role in
extracting oxygen from air when the fish is out of water
and in muddy condition.
• Parts of alimentary canal
• In certain fishes, various parts of alimentary
canal and function as respiratory organ. The
method has also been adopted by cobitidae
family e.g. Noemachilus sps. In thsese species,
the inhaled air is swallowed and forced back
into the alimentary canal and is stored for
sometimes in the special part of it. After
respiratory exchange of gases, the use of air is
either passed out through the anus or is
expelled through the mouth.
•
• Buccopharyngeal epithelium:
• Mud skippers (Periophthalmus,
Balaeophthalmus) possess vascularised
buccopharyngeal epithelium and also a
respiratory tail. They skip around in
swamy areas, breathing air by
buccopharyngeal epithelium or keep
their tail in water for aquatic respiration.

•
• Pharyngeal diverticulum or respiratory
trees or aborscent organ:
• Fishes like Channa species Clarias
batrachus, the air breathing organs are in
the form of suprabranchial cavities i.e.
pharyngeal diverticulum or respiratory
trees are located in roof of the
buccopharynx.
• Opercular chamber or saccular organs:
• In some fishes the inhaled air passed through
the gill slits into the opercular chamber where
it is stored for sometimes. The opercular
chamber becomes buldged out in the form of
two little ballons in the hinder region of the
head and sometimes its wall collapse and the
air passed out through the small external
opening.
• The membrane lining the opercular
chamber or saccular organs becomes
thin and highly vascular to allow
exchange of gases. This is seen in
Periopthalmus and Boleopthalmus.
• Dendritic Organs
• They are also called arborescent organs
as they are highly vascularised tree-like,
branched structures produced by the second
and fourth gill arches and located in the
suprabranchial chamber, posterior to the
gills. Paired gill fans at the opening of
branchial chamber force air over the dendritic
organs as the fishes gulp air.
• Dendritic organs are found in catfishes
such as Clarias.In the Clarias batrachus,
the air breathing organs consist of i. the
supra branchial chamber, ii. The two
beautiful ‘rosettes’ or ‘air-trees’, iii. The
‘fans’ and iv. The respiratory membrane.
• Labyrinthine Organs
• These are rosette-like concentric plates of
tissue present in the suprabranchial chamber of
climbing perch (Anabas), Trichogaster,
Osphromanus and Polycanthus. Respiration takes
place when these fishes gulp air. Perches can
migrate from one pond to another by breathing
air through labyrinthine organs and using
pectoral fin spines to walk on land.

• In the Anabas testudineus, air breathing organs

consist of a spacious air chamber on either side
of the skull lying between the first gill arch and
hyomandibular.
• Pneumatic Sac
• It is a tube like extrabranchial
diverticulum that extends up to tail in some
cat fishes such as Heteropneustes, which can
survive out of water for considerable time
using these organs for air breathing.

• In Heteropneustes fossilis, air breathing

organs are in the form of a pair of simple, sac
like structures that extend backwards from the
region of the gills upto the middle of the
caudal region.
• Air Chamber
• Air chamber is a small, highly vascularised
sac located behind the gills of some fishes, e.g.
Ophiocephalus, Macropodus and cuchia eel
(Amphipnous). These fishes can gulp air and use it
as air breathing organ.

• Gut epithelium
• Fishes such as Callichthys, Hypostomus,
Doras, Misgurnus, Cobitis can suck and release
water through anus and exchange of gases can
take place in the rectal lining. In giant loach
(Cobitis) and Misgurus lining of stomach and
intestine is used as respiratory organ.
• AIR BLADDER
• The air bladder in some fishes modified for
aerial respiration. Thus in Polypeterus,
Lapidosiren, Lapidosteus etc. The air bladder
is most highly evolved acting as lung. The air
bladder of protopterus has a wide pneumatic
duct and acts as an accessory respiratory
organ.
• The network of blood capillaries covered by a
single layer of epithelium facilitates diffusion
of gasses the blood and the blood and the air
contained in the swim bladder.

• Barring agnathans, cartilaginous fishes and

few bottom dwelling teleosts, all fishes carry a
gas-filled air bladder on the dorsal side of the
gut, which serves as hydrostatic organ.
• On the ventral side of the bladder there
occurs a highly vascularised area called red
gland that is supplied by intestinal artery and
portal vein and which has unique capability of
extracting free oxygen from the blood and
release it into the air bladder in order to make
it inflate.
• A small pouch-like diverticulum called oval
that can be closed or opened by sphincter
muscles is the site of reabsorption of gases.
Secretion and absorption of gases in swim
bladder occurs under the control of
autonomic nervous system, based on the
depth at which a fish is swimming.
In Cypriniformes (Teleostei), a series of four
small bones (tripus, intercalarium, scaphium
and claustrum), derived from the first three
vertebrae and called Weberian Ossicles,
connect the anterior end of air bladder with
the sinus impar of membranous labyrinth.
Sound vibrations received by air bladder from
the surrounding water are conveyed to the
internal ear through this unique apparatus to
bestow some hearing ability to these fishes.
• In some fishes as for example ganoids, carps
and catfishes, a pneumatic duct connects the
air bladder with oesophagus. Such condition is
called physostomous (Gr. physo=bag;
stoma=opening). Fishes which do not have
such a pneumatic duct connecting the air
bladder are called physoclistous (Gr.
physo=bag; clista=closed).
• The comparative study of air bladders in
different groups of fishes and striking
similarity between the swim bladder and lung
suggest a phylogenetic relationship between
the two. The conventional belief is that lungs
evolved from the air bladder of fishes.
• However, recent evidences point to the
contrary that lungs evolved first in fishes for
supplementing oxygen from air and then they
got transformed into swim bladder as the
oxygen concentration in water increased.
• LUNGS
• Lungs of Polypterus and the ganoid
fish Calamoichthys are asymmetrical
and connected by pneumatic duct on
the ventral side of pharynx. The blood
is supplied to lung by pulmonary
artery that emerges off the 6th aortic
arch, but unlike in lungfishes venous
blood returns to hepatic vein.
• Lungs of Dipnoi (Choanichthys) are bilobed or
paired as in Protopterus (African lung fish) and
Lepidosiren (South American Lung fish) and are
connected to oesophagus via a pneumatic
duct. But the Australian lung fish (Neoceraodus)
has a single lung that is used as hydrostatic organ.

• In tetrapods, embryonic lungs arise from

pharyngeal wall as a hollow mid-ventral
evagination that subsequently bifurcates to form
two lungs that carry an envelope of peritoneum.
•
 REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
➢Reproduction is a process by which living
organisms produce similar kinds of organism for
the continuations of their existence generation
to generation.

➢At least three types of reproduction are

possible i. Bisexual (e.g., carps, perch, cat fishes
etc.). In these species sperms and eggs develop
in separate male and female individuals and
both sexes involved in reproduction i.e. of
common types of reproduction.
➢ ii. Hermophroditic (e.g., Trout, perches, Walleyes,
darters and some of the black basses). In true
hermaphroditic eggs and sperms develop in the
same gonad and self fertilization takes place. In
these species both sexes are in one individual and
is of rare type. Self-fertilization is however, the
real exception.

➢ iii. Parthenogenetic (e.g., Poecilia formasa,

Amazon Molly). In these species development of
young is without fertilization and is of also rare
type. Generally fishes are bisexual i.e. sexes are
separate or the individuals are dioecius.
➢ The components of reproductive system are the
sex glands or gonads and their ducts.

➢ Fish reproductive organs include testes and

ovaries.

➢ There may also be a range of secondary organs

that increase reproductive fitness. The genital
papilla is a small, fleshy tube behind the anus in
some fishes, from which the sperm or eggs are
released; the sex of a fish often can be
determined by the shape of its papilla.
 Male reproductive organs

➢ The male fishes fishes have a pair of testes and a pair of sperm
ducts. These are no copulatory organs in fishes, except shark,
claspers act as copulatory organs. So that such fishes, internal
fertilization takes place and gives birth to young ones.
❑Testes
➢ The reproductive organs of male fish consists of
a pair of testes which are elongated and flattened
structures, situated on either side, ventral to the
kidneys in the posterior region of the abdominal
cavity just beneath the air bladder.

➢ The testes remain attached to the body wall and

the air bladder by means of mesorchia. The testis
has two major functions, the production of
gamete and another function is the production of
steroids.
➢ The size of testes in breeding season become enormous
due to steroids containing mainly testosterone that helps in
maturation and coloration of gamete.

➢ In few species, the anterior three-fourth part of each testis

is functional and the posterior one –fourth is sterile as in
Mystus seenghala, Barbus tor. The posterior of the testis in
these species is structurally and functionally different from
the anterior and middle part of the testis whose function is
to produce sperms but the posterior region consists of
sterile lamellae and probably serves for the storage of
sperms during breeding season.

➢ In some species the entire testis is functional and serves to

produce sperms.
➢ Most often, the testes are creamy-white but in Labeo rohita
they are pinkish and smooth. They may be as long as the
kidneys and the individual testes may or may not be equal
in size.

➢ From posterior end of testis, a sperm duct or vas deferens

arises communicated with their respective testis by means
of several fine ductless that finally opens into the
urinogenital sinus/opening. Seminal vescle is absent in
teleosts with some exception (e.g. clarius and
Heteropneustes).

➢ Histologically, the testis contains germ cells (which form

spermatogonia), sertoli cells (found in direct association
with germ cells, which they support physically and nature
by modifying the chemical microenvironment), and leydig
cells (their primary function is to produce steroids needed
for gametogenesis and expression of secondary sex
characteristics).
➢ The germ cells of testes undergo
spermatogenesis and produce sperms in this way:
▪ Spermatogonium (2n) → Primary Spermatocyte
→ Secondary Spermatocyte → Spermatid (n) →
Spermatozoa.

➢ Most male fish have two testes of similar size. In

the case of sharks, the testes on the right side is
usually larger. The primitive jawless fish have only
a single testis, located in the midline of the body,
although even this forms from the fusion of
paired structures in the embryo.
➢ Under a tough membranous shell, the tunica
albuginea, the testis of some teleost fish,
contains very fine coiled tubes called
seminiferous tubules. The tubules are lined with a
layer of cells (germ cells) that from puberty into
old age, develop into sperm cells (also known as
spermatozoa or male gametes).

➢ The developing sperm travel through the

seminiferous tubules to the rete testis located in
the mediastinum testis, to the efferent ducts, and
then to the epididymis where newly created
sperm cells mature (spermatogenesis).
➢ However, most fish do not possess seminiferous
tubules. Instead of seminiferous tubules, the sperm are
produced in spherical structures called sperm
ampullae. These are seasonal structures, releasing
their contents during the breeding season, and then
being reabsorbed by the body. Before the next
breeding season, new sperm ampullae begin to form
and ripen.

➢ Each testis composed of large number of tubules or

lobule which is bind together by a thin layer of
connective tissues. The lobules are of various sizes and
are highly convoluted structure, and are separated
from each other by a thin connective tissue stroma.
➢ The lobule opens into spermatic duct. The space
between the lobule is filled with connective tissue,
blood capillaries and interstitial cells.

➢ During the growth period, the germs cells become start

to dividing and forming large number of primary
spermatocytees which are smaller in size than the
spermatogonia. Primary spermatocyte accumulate
large amount of cytoplasm and nutritive matter and
converted into secondary spermatocyte. The secondary
spermatocyte undergoes reduction division to produce
sprermatids which are further reduced in size. The
spermatids give rise to sperms. The process of
metamorphosis of spermatids into sperms is called
spermiogenesis.
SEASONAL MORPHO-HISTOLOGICAL CHANGES OF
TESTES
Seasonal morpho-histological changes are seen in the
testes of teleosts and the cycle can be divided into
different phases as mentioned below:

❑ RESTING PHASE OR EARLYIMMATURE PHASE:

The testes are thin, slender, translucent and pale in
color. Histologically, seminiferous tubules are small in
size and full of spermatogonia.

❑ LATE IMMATURE PHASE: The morphological

appearance is similar to the previous phase, except
that there is a slight increase in the weight and volume
of the testes. Histologically, slow mitotic activity is
seen, and the spermatogonia start dividing.
❑ 3. MATURING PHASE: There is an increase in the
weight and volume of the testes, which look more
vascular and opaque. Histologically, intense
spermatogenesis is seen during the later part of this
phase. Spermatogonia decrease in number, and
numerous primary and secondary spermatocytees are
visible.

❑ MATURE PHASE: During this period, the testes show a

marked increase in weight and volume. They are turgid
and pink in color. Milt oozes out on pressing the
abdomen. Histologically, the seminiferous tubules are
larger in size and full of sperm. Spermatogonia are few,
and all stages of spermatogenesis can be seen in
various lobules.
•
❑SPENT PHASE: The testes become flaccid due to
excessive discharge of sperm. The weight and
volume is considerably reduced and the testes
again become thin, slender and translucent.
Histologically, empty and collapsing seminiferous
tubules are seen, some of which contain residual
or unexpelled sperm. After a brief period of rest,
the testes start the cycle again. The
spermatogonia are the only germ cells during
resting phase, but are present through out the
year, although their number is reduced during the
spawning period. These are known as ‘resting
germ cells’ and are believed to give rise to the
next generation of sex cells.
❑ Sperm duct
❖ From each testis a sperm ducts or vas deferens originate. IN
some fishes mesonephric ducts unite with testis to form vas
deferens and vasa efferentia (epidydimous). In some fishes
the sperm duct is shared with kidney and often called
nephric duct (wolffian duct) e.g. Raja clavata. In lung fishes
many efferent ducts (Vasa efferentia) extend from central
canal into the kidney and connected with the capsule of the
nephric tubules. The sperm duct or vas deferens is modified
and nephric duct may be from one or several uretors
carrying the excretory fluid to cloaca. In shark fishes sperm
duct opens into another chamber known as seminal vesicle.
The seminal vesicle is thickened and often has more
diameter than sperm duct. The sperm stored for short
periods of time but it is absent in teleosts. The sperm ducts
from each testis often join in form a common duct and
opens through genital pore lying between anus and urinary
aperture.
 Female Reproductive organs

➢ The female reproductive organs comprise the

ovary and oviduct. The ovary in relation to
oviduct and transverse of ova is distinguished into
cytovarian, semicytovarian and gymnovarian
type.
➢ In cytovarian type the lumen of ovary is connected
with oviduct, and oviduct joins with each other to open
out through genital pore.

➢ In this type of ovary, the mature oocyte are released by

ovulation into the ovary lumen and then pass through
the oviduct and released in water through genital pore.

➢ In semicytovarian type, the oocytes in place of oviduct

pass through a funnel shaped transparent grooved,
which opens into genital pore. Such condition present
in Notopteridae, Osteoglasidae etc. where oviduct
degenerate partially or completely and therefore ova
are shed into coelomic cavity and then carried through
pore or funnel.
➢ Gymnovarian type of ovary is not continuous with the
oviduct. The ovary hangs down like curtain or
peritoneal cavity and carried to oviduct by cilia e.g.
lung fishes and bony fishes like Amia.

➢ The female reproductive organs consist of pair of

ovaries which are elongated sac like structure lying in
the posterior part of the abdominal cavity ventral to
the kidney just beneath the air bladder. They are
attached to the body wall by means of mesovarium.
They produce eggs. The color varies, most often
ranging from whitish in the young through greenish
when immature to golden yellow (Yolk color) in ripe
adults. Oviducts are very short or lacking in teleosts.
➢During breeding season the germinal
epithelium of ovary undergoes oogenesis and
produces large number of ova, and thus the
ovary gets folded. The germ cells (Stroma)
present in ovarian follicles forms oogonium
which finally converts to ova via primary and
secondary oocytes and this process is known
as oogenesis. The process of formation of Yolk
in eggs is called vitellogenesis. The yolk is
formed by vitellogenin (synthesis in liver in the
presence of sex steroids), a calcium binding-
lipophosphoprotein.
➢ Labeo rohita is oviparous and the female lays
thousands of relatively small and yolky eggs.
There is pair of oviducts for the purpose. The
oviducts are formed by peritoneum that
surrounds the ovaries the two united and open to
the exterior by the genital pore, lyong between
the anus and urinary aperture. During July and
August Labeo lays enormous eggs in water (2-4
lakhs/kg body weight). External fertilization takes
place in water. The development is direct i.e.
without larval form. The newly hatched young are
called fry. They start feeding and grow into
fingerlings and become sexually mature in about
two years.
❑Ovaries
❖Many of the features found in ovaries are
common to all vertebrates, including the
presence of follicular cells and tunica albuginea
There may be hundreds or even millions of fertile
eggs present in the ovary of a fish at any given
time. Fresh eggs may be developing from the
germinal epithelium throughout life. Corpora
lutea are found only in mammals, and in some
elasmobranch fish; in other species, the remnants
of the follicle are quickly resorbed by the ovary.
The ovary of teleosts is often contains a hollow,
lymph-filled space which opens into the oviduct,
and into which the eggs are shed.
❖Most normal female fish have two ovaries. In
some elasmobranchs, only the right ovary
develops fully. In the primitive jawless fish, and
some teleosts, there is only one ovary, formed by
the fusion of the paired organs in the embryo.
Fish ovaries may be of three types: gymnovarian,
secondary gymnovarian or cystovarian. In the
first type, the oocytes are released directly into
the coelomic cavity and then enter the ostium,
then through the oviduct and are eliminated.
Secondary gymnovarian ovaries shed ova into the
coelom from which they go directly into the
oviduct.
❖In the third type, the oocytes are conveyed to
the exterior through the oviduct. Gymnovaries
are the primitive condition found in lungfish,
sturgeon, and bowfin. Cystovaries characterize
most teleosts, where the ovary lumen has
continuity with the oviduct. Secondary
gymnovaries are found in salmonids and a few
other teleosts.
 Mechanism of Ovary Development
❖Normally ovaries are paired elongated sac like
structures lying in the abdominal cavity, ventral to
the kidney. They are attached to the body wall by
means of mesovarium. The anterior ends of the
two ovaries ends are free and caudal ends may
becomes united the hinder end of each ovary is
continued posterior into a short oviduct. The two
oviducts fuse and open to the exterior by a
separate genital opening. Generally, both ovaries
are equal in size but occasionally they are
unequal also. They are thin, flaccid and
translucent when immature but in maturity, they
become enlarged and lobulated, while the ripe
ova are seen bulging out.
❖The wall of the ovary is fairly thick during the non
breeding season but becomes thin peritoneum,
middle thicker tunica albuginea made of
connective tissue, muscle fibred and blood
capillaries and inner most layers is the germinal
epithelium which projects into ovocoel in the
form of lamellae. These ovigerous lamellae are
seat for the development of Oocyte, which are
visibe in various stages of development. Oogonia
originate from the germinal epithelium and
passes through a number of maturation stages to
become a ripe ovum.
 The developing egg is known as an oocyte of which several
stages can be recognized in the ovary. These are:-

❑ Oocyte 1.This is larger than the oogonium, spherical in

shape and with a central nuclus, having 2 or 3 nucleoli. The
cytoplasm is basophilic.

❑ Oocyte II. There is further increase in the size of the

oocytes and nucleus undergoes divide two or three times
consisting of six to nine nuclei. Several nuclei move towards
the periphery to the nuclear membrane.

❑ Oocyte iii. This is still larger in size, distinguished by the

appearance of a thin layer of follicular cells around the
cytoplasm, a few nuclei pass out of the nuclear membrane.
❑ Oocyte iv. There is further increase in size of the oocyte and
a large number of small, clear vacuole called the yolk
vesicles appear in the periphery of the ooplasm.

❑ Oocyte v. As the oocyte grows further, the yolk vesicle

increase in number and fills the entire ooplasm. A vitelline
membrane or zona radiate is also clearly visible, between
the ooplasm and follicular layer or zona granulose.

❑ Oocyte vi. There is characterized by the appearance of yolk

in the form of minute granule in the extra vesicular
ooplasm. The yolk appears first in the peripheral region and
accumulates there in large numbers. The yolk granules then
proceed centrally the whole ooplasm becomes
impregnated with them. The yolk granules fuse to form
large globules, and the oocyte is of considerable size.
❑ Oocyte vii. There is heavy deposition of yolk globules which
are fairly large in size. The yolk vesicles also fuse and
become larger. The nucleus migrates gradually towards the
periphery. Some yolk vesicles are pushed towards the
periphery of the egg and form of cortical alveoli.

❑ Ripe egg. A ripe egg is largest in size and characteristic color

depending upon different species and translucent. It is full
of large amount of yolk vesicle may lie scattered in it. The
nucleus is generally not visible in the ripe egg. An ovary
contains several ripe at time during the spawning period. A
mature egg is surrounded by an external layer of theca,
followed by the follicular epithelium and the innermost,
zona radiate and zona granulose. The granulose cells are
believed to be responsible for deposition of yolk in the
developing ovum and responsible for the secretion of
ovarian hormones.