• Introduction to environmental science and

agroecology
– Concepts, fields, and scope of environmental science and
agroecology with particular reference to Nepal
– Interrelationships between human population and the
environment
 Human Dimensions Of
Environmental Science
• We Live In An
Inequitable World

• Is There Enough For

Everyone?
• Recent Progress Is
Encouraging
 Definition:
• the term environment is derived from a French work ‘environner’
which means ‘surrounding’.

• Sum total of water, air, land and their interrelationship among

themselves, with human beings and other living beings

• Environmental science is the systematic study of our

environment and our place in it.

• Ecology is the study of an organism or organisms, the impact of

the environment on them, and their impact on the environment.
 What is Environmental
Science?
(1) how the earth works
(2) how we interact with the earth
How do the four spheres of our planet
function naturally to maintain a How do we upset the natural balance?
balance?
atmosphere We use resources
biosphere We produce waste
lithosphere
hydrosphere (3) how to deal with environmental
problems

To reduce or eliminate our unbalancing

effect:
Decision making
Problem solving
 Environmental studies

• Environmental studies refer to the study of the

environment.

• It is not restricted to the point of view of one

particular discipline but involves all disciplines that
may affect the environment in any possible way.

• Environmental studies requires skills that encompass

a range of disciplines including chemistry, biology,
earth sciences, atmosphere science, statistics,
mathematics and geography, art, physics, history etc.
 Objectives and principle of environmental
studies
• UNESCO in 1971
a) Creating the awareness about environmental problems
among people.
(b) Imparting basic knowledge about the environment and
its allied problems.
(c) Developing an attitude of concern for the environment.
(d) Motivating public to participate in environment
protection and environment improvement.
(e) Acquiring skills to help the concerned individuals in
identifying and solving environmental problems.
(f) Striving to attain harmony with Nature.
 Guiding principles
• Compulsory (primary up to the post graduate stage.)
• Interdesciplinary
• Take account historical prespective, current and
hidtorical issues
• Emphasize sustainable development
• Environmental education should emphasise the
necessity of seeking international cooperation in
environmental planning.
• ( Environmental education should lay more stress on
practical activities and first hand experiences.
 What is an “environmental
problem?”
• Definitions differ.
• The pesticide
DDT:
– was thought safe
in 1945
– is known to be
toxic today
– but is used widely
in Africa to combat
malaria
Figure 1.5
Three ethical worldviews

Figure 2.4
 Scope of environmental studies
• Ecosystem structure and function :link between biotic and abiotic, Knowledge about
ecological system
• Management and maintenance of natural resources
• Awareness
• Necessary information about biodiversity
• Understand and plan about disaster and pollution control
• To evaluate alternatives for different issues
• Environmental justice
• Research and development on different issues
• Identify tranditional eco-friendly practices
• Environmental education to citizens
• Theoritical knowledge into practice
• Social development (NGO) : awareness
• Environmentalists
• Environmental journalism
• Green advocacy
• Green marketing: green marketing refers to the process of selling environmentally
friendly products and/or services.
 Importance of environmental
studies
1. Environment Issues Being of International Importance: provides
solution and maintain ecological balance
2. Environmental studies helps achieve sustainable development and
understand the relationships between development and the environment.
3. It helps in formulating the broad social, economic, and regulatory
frameworks in which environmental problems are resolved.
4. Environmental studies applies economic methods and concepts to issues of
the environment, environmental policy analysis, and management.
5. Environmental studies also aims to protect biodiversity
6. The concepts from environment studies can be applied to the study of
agriculture and the design of sustainable production systems.
7. Environmental studies gives information related to population explosion,
growth and development, impact of population growth on the resources
consumption, and national economy.
 Need for public awareness
it is essential to be familiar with different environmental
problems.

Moreover, environmental protection is beyond the capacity

of one individual, one institution, or one government.

Many of the environmental problems are global nature;

therefor, every citizen of the world need to be actively
participate in protecting global environment.

For active participation, public awareness is essential.

Important methods that may adopted for
propagating public awareness are as follows: Entertainment: environmental
awareness can also be
Environmental education: environmental propagated through folk songs,
education can be introduced as a subject in street plays, documentaries, etc.
schools and colleges. It is the most successful
methods for propagating environmental
awareness. Science centres: establishng
science centres in villages and
Through mass media: mass media such as remote aresa can be an effective
newspapers magazines, radio, TV, etc., can play way of disseminating information
an important role in educating the masses about environmental problems,
regarding environmental problems and issues. their causes, and control
measures
Through organizing seminars and conferences:
organizing meeting, seminars and conferences
at various levels may help in spreading Involvement of public figures:
environmental information to general public. the involvement of well-known
Awareness can also be spreads by organizing presonalities and the effective
various competition on environmental use of the respected public
problems, non-conventional energy sources, figures in media
etc.
Involvement of youth: young people
comprise nearly 30 percent of the
global population and will be the
decision markers of the future. Their
ideas about the environment will
definitely shapes tomorrows world.

Awareness raising campaigns: such

campaigns are often the most
successful when they are targeted at
specific groups because information
can be tailored to the activities, needs
and challenges of the group.

Through print , broadcast, and

internet media: the print, broadcast,
and internet media can be powerful
medium in educating the public on
environmental matters.
What is Ecology?
Origin of the word…”ecology”

• Greek origin
• OIKOS = household
• LOGOS = study of…

• Study of the “house/environment” in

which we live.
 Ecology is study of interactions
between
• non-living components in the environment…
– light
– water
– wind
– nutrients in soil
– heat
– solar radiation
– atmosphere, etc.

AND…
• Living organisms…
– Plants
– Animals
– microorganisms in soil, etc.
Divisions
• Autoecology is the ecological study of
individual species of plant and its
environment or is the ecological study of
individual animal or plant species or its
population thought its life history in relation
to the habitat in which it grows.

• Synecology is the ecological study of

community of plants in the environment.
 Applied ecology is used in
• Agriculture and horticulture
• Forestry and forest management
• Rangeland management
• Management of aquatic bodies
• Soil conservation
• Landscaping
• Plant indicators
• Agroecology is the science of sustainable
agriculture; the methods of agroecology have as
their goal achieving sustainability of agricultural
systems balanced in all spheres.

• Self-sufficient and sustaining agriculture

• Basic ecological principles for how to study,

design and manage agroecosystems that are
both productive and natural resource
conserving, and that are also culturally sensitive,
socially just and economically viable
 Difference between manipulated
Agroecology and Natural Ecology

Six ways difference :

• Maintenance at an early succession state
• Monoculture
• Crops generally planted in rows
• Simplification of biodiversity
• Plough which exposes soil to erosion
• Use of genetically modified organisms and
artificially selected crops
 Approaches of agroecology
1. Ecosystem agroecology
 Crop interacts with weed, pest, animals and diseases
 No social science involved.
 2. Agronomic agroecology
also traditional agriculture involved.
Social science not actively involved but uses to explore
the cause why ag.unsustainable.
fertilizers, seed materials, tillage, mulching, soil
management and irrigation).

3. Ecological political economy

Driving force.
Radical change in political economy or moral
economy.
Politically charged and socially oriented
version

4. Agro-population ecology
Based on population ecology.
Prespective of population dynamics.
5. Holon agroecology
 agricultural endeavor as an
unfinished accomplishment
 adjusting itself to its many
contexts and their conflicts.
 "holding together" in order to
persist through change

6. Inclusive agroecology
 basis for the land-use
sciences
 humans are the primary
governing force for organisms
7. .Integrated assessment of
multifunctional agricultural systems
 focuses in the multifunctionality
 three land-use sciences, agriculture, forestry,
and agroforestry
 the land-use sciences further subdivide
 human/environment interaction
ways in which people use and interact with
the Earth.
Human-Environment
Interaction
A History through the Ages
 CLOTHING

FOOD
SHELTER

HUMAN
ENVIRONMENT
INTERACTION

LIVELIHOOD RECREATION
Humans are part of the Earth's
ecosystem. Human activities
can either deliberately or
inadvertently
alter the balance
of an ecosystem.
 What do you Think???

How do human
activities affect the
environment?
 “The tragedy of
the
commons!”
• Garrett Hardin,
1968:
• In a “commons”
open to all,
unregulated use
will deplete
limited
resources. Figure 1.4
 With more info…

Will you change your

perspective or will
you feel the same
way?
“What are the Major Problems the World is facing currently?”
• Wars, Conflicts between Nations, Different Groups of People:
Conflicts of Mankind vs. Mankind
Caused by nations and groups to promote self-interests:
To Understand Others for harmonious co-existence
among different groups of peoples.

Gap between Rich & Poor, & other Socio-Economic Political Issues:

Geography (Human), World History, Religions, Philosophy

Political Science, Sociology, Economics, Ethics, etc.

• Diseases, and Healthcare:

Conflicts of Micro-organism vs. Mankind
Biology, Medicines, etc.

• Environmental Problems: New problems since 1960s, Half-century old

pollution, destruction of ecosystems, extinction, population, and energy
Conflicts of Natural World (Planet Earth) vs. Mankind
Over-exploitation of nature in non-sustainable ways.
Environmental Science, Ecology, or Geology

1.1
 12 Biggest Environmental Problems
according to Jared Diamond
(author of Collapse)
Category 1: Destruction or loss of natural
resources
1. destruction of natural habitats
2. overfishing
3. loss of biodiversity, including genetic
biodiversity
4. degradation and loss of soils
Category 2: Ceilings on natural
resources
5. depletion of major energy sources
6. depletion of water resources
7. photosynthetic ceiling is being reached
Category 3: Harmful things we generate
or move around
8. toxic chemicals
9. alien species
10. atmospheric gases
Category 4: Effects of increase in human
populations
11. human population growth and size
12. per capita impact
Human impact on the environment
How does human activity affect the environment?

Reduce the
land available
for plants and Raw materials
animals (inc. non-
renewable)
resources are
being used up

More waste is
produced which (if not
handled properly) may
pollute air, water &
land
Human impacts on the
environment
Deforestation
Habitat Fragmentation
 Human impacts on the
Environment
Fishing activities
•
 Human impacts on the environment
Invasive species (EXOTIC SPECIES)
 Human impacts on the Environment

Exotic pet trade

Natural Disasters
Earthquakes
Volcanoes
Hurricanes
Tsunamis
Floods
Proposed solutions to Environmental problems
• A. Wilderness preservation
– 1. The first national parks created in the world were Yosemite and
Yellowstone, in 1864 and 1872
• B. Sustainable use
– 1. Through ecological, social, and economic planning, resource use t
can occur that works toward
• C. Stewardship
– 1. Moral framework that should inform personal
and public
• corporations, and nations. Defines an ethic
that should guide
• D. Promotion of environmental justice
– 1. Promotion and establishment of just
relationships between
 Will you
humans
develop
in a sustainable
way?

This is the single most

important question we face.
2. Ecological Principles and Process in
Agroecosystems
•Concepts, structure, function, biotic and
abiotic components of agroecosystesms
and their linkages
•Energy flow, ecological pyramids, food
chains and food webs, trophic level.
•Biogeochemical cycles
1.Concepts of Ecosystem and
Agroecosystems
The concept of ecosystem was first put forth
by A. G. Tansley (1935).
According to Odum, ecosystems generally
include four categories of basic structural
components:
• Abiotic components(physical factors)
• Producers, mainly green plants
• Consumers, almost exclusively animals
• Decomposers, mainly bacteria and fungi
 Ecosystem

Community + Abiotic environment,

interacting

© 2008 Paul Billiet ODWS

 Ecosystems
A place in which matter and energy are
moved, transformed, or stored
 Ecosystems components
 Abiotic
• Landscape
• Geology
• Climate
• Microclimate?
 Biotic
• Producers
• Consumers
• Trophic interactions
 Energy Flows
 Nutrient Cycles
 Species
A group of organisms that can breed to
produce fully fertile offspring

© 2008 Paul Billiet ODWS Great White Pelican Pelecanus onocrotalus

 Biodiversity

The total number of

different species in an
ecosystem and their
relative abundance

© 2008 Paul Billiet ODWS Worcester City Museums

 Population
A group of organism of the
same species which live in
the same habitat at the
same time where they can
freely interbreed

The black-veined white butterfly

(Aporia crataegi) mating

© 2008 Paul Billiet ODWS

 Community
All the populations of the different species living and inter-
acting in the same ecosystem
7-spotted lady bird
(Adephagia
septempunctata)
Bean aphids
(Aphis fabae)
Red ant (Myrmica
rubra) and
Broom plant
(Cytisus scoparius)

© 2008 Paul Billiet ODWS

 Habitat
The characteristics of the type of environment where an
organism normally lives.
(e.g. a stoney stream, a deciduous temperate woodland,
Bavarian beer mats)

© 2008 Paul Billiet ODWS

Abiotic components of
ecosystem
Biotic components
 Producers\ Autotrophs
• A groups of organisms that can use the
energy in sunlight to convert water and
carbon dioxide into a sugar called Glucose
(food)
• Energy for all ecological systems begin
with producers.
• Ex. Plants and Algae
 Heterotrophs
Organisms who must obtain complex, energy
rich, organic compounds form the bodies of other
organisms (dead or alive)

© 2008 Paul Billiet ODWS

 Herbivores
• Consumers
– 2. Herbivores – eat ONLY plants
• Ex. – Cows, Elephants, Giraffes
 Carnivores
• Consumers
– 3. Carnivores – eat ONLY meat
• Ex. – Lions, Tigers, Sharks
 Omnivores
• Consumers
– 4. Omnivores – eat BOTH plants and animals
• Ex. – Bears and Humans
 Decomposers
• Consumers
– 5. Decomposers – absorb any dead material and
break it down into simple nutrients or fertilizers
• Ex. – Bacteria and Mushrooms
 Detritivores
Heterotrophic organisms who ingest dead
organic matter. (e.g. earthworms, woodlice,
millipedes)

Earth worm
(Lumbricus terrestris)

© 2008 Paul Billiet ODWS

 Saprotrophs
Heterotrophic organisms who secrete digestive enzymes
onto dead organism matter and absorb the digested
material. (e.g. fungi, bacteria)

Chanterelle
(Cantherellus
cibarius)

© 2008 Paul Billiet ODWS

 Scavengers
• Consumers
– 1. Scavengers – feed on the tissue of dead
organisms (both plants and animals)
• Ex. – Vultures, Crows, and Shrimp
Symbiosis
 Predation

• Predation is any interaction between two

organisms in which one organism (the
predator) consumes all or part of another
organism (the prey).
 Herbivore-Plant Interactions

• An herbivore
grazing on a
plant is another
example of
predation.
• Usually, only
part of the prey
is eaten by the
predator.
• Photo Credit: Rhett A. Butler @
mongabay.com
 Herbivore-Plant Interaction:
Manatee Grazing on Aquatic Plants
 Prey Defenses
• Predation usually results in
the evolution of defensive
adaptations in prey.
• These can include:
– Chemical defenses (toxins,
poison, acrid sprays)
– Behavior (living in groups,
scouts, alarm calls)
– Morphological features
(spines, color, structures
that allow you to run fast or
detect predators), and Caterpillar with Venomous Spines
other traits
• Photo Credit: Rhett A. Butler @ mongabay.com
 Behavioral Defense Example
• Caterpillar Video:
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oWOC8trquFo
 Camouflage

• Camouflage is
protective coloration
in which an animal
resembles its
background.
• Photo Credit: Rhett A. Butler @ mongabay.com
 Competition

• Competition in an interaction between two

organisms that are using the same limited
resource.
• Competition can be within the same
species (intraspecific) or between different
species (interspecific).
 Example: Interspecific Competition

• A small
Chthamalus
barnacle is
circled in red.
• A large
Balanus
barnacle is
circled in blue.
• Photo Credit: Department of the Interior
 Symbiosis

• Symbiosis is an intimate relationship

between different species in which at least
one species depends upon the
relationship to survive.
 Types of Symbiosis

• Mutualism: Both partners benefit from the

relationship (+, +)
• Commensalism: One partner benefits
from the relationship; the other partner is
not affected (+, 0)
• Parasitism: One partner benefits from the
relationship; the other partner is harmed
(+, -)
 Types of Symbiosis

• When one partner is really small and lives inside

of the other partner, the other partner is called
the host.
• The really small partner can be called a
mutualist, a commensalist, or a parasite
(depending on the type of relationship).
• Sometimes, the really small partner is called the
symbiont. This is a general term and does not
imply a type of relationship.
 Example of Mutualism
• Acacia ants
live in acacia
trees.
• The tree
provides big
hollow thorns
as a home for
the ants.
 Example of Mutualism
• The tree also
provides food
for the ants in
yellow
swellings on
the leaves
(red oval).
 Example of Parasitism

• Songbirds are often

heavily parasitized by
ticks.
• The birds are often
anemic, stressed and
more vulnerable to
predation.
• Female ticks must have
a good blood meal in
order to lay eggs.
• Photo Credit: Bill Hilton, Jr. @ hiltonpond.org
 Example of Parasitism
• Fungal parasites
often infect living
organisms, such as
plants, animals or
other fungi.
• This shelf fungus
releases enzymes to
digest the wood of
this tree, which
weakens the tree
and makes it more
vulnerable.
• Photo Credit: BIOL 1407 Student
COMMENSALISM
• E. coli (Escherichia coli) is
a common bacteria found
living in the guts of
mammals, including
humans, where it gets all
it needs to thrive.
• In most circumstances,
humans are not harmed
by its presence and no
benefit has been
discovered.
COMMENSALISM
• Bromeliads are a
group of flowering
plants that attach to
trees (epiphytes).
They gain access to
sunlight and catch
water.
• The trees are not
harmed or
benefited.
 Coevolution
• Coevolution occurs
when two species
evolve in response
to one another.
• For example,
predators evolve in
response to prey
defenses. Prey
evolve in response
to predation.
 Coevolution

• Mutualists and
parasites
coevolve with
their hosts.
• Pollinators
coevolve with the
flowering plants
they pollinate.
• Photo Credit: Mike Sykes
Functions of Ecosystems
• The principal steps in the operation of ecosystem are as follows:
• Regulatory Function : air, water, soil, biological control
• Habitat function
• Production function
• Information function
 Energy Flow in Ecosystems

• Methods to represent energy moving through ecosystems.

– Food chains: show the flow of energy in an ecosystem.
– Food webs: represent interconnected food chains. They model the
feeding relationships in an ecosystem
– Food pyramids: show the changes in available energy from one
trophic level to another in a food chain. They’re also called ecological
pyramids
 Trophic Levels
• An organism’s feeding position in an ecosytem is
called as trophic level.
• Organisms can also be identified by the kinds of
food they consume:
– Herbivores – cows eat plants.
– Carnivores – lion eat animals.
– Omnivores - man eat plants and animals.
– Detritivores – ants & beetles eat detritus ( litters)
– Decomposers - bacteria and fungi breakdown
complex organic matter into simpler compounds.

103
Trophic Levels

104
 Feeding Relationships
 Energy flow through an ecosystem in one direction, from
the sun or inorganic compounds to autotrophs
(producers) and then to various heterotrophs
(consumers).
 Food Chains are a series of steps in which organisms
transfer energy by eating or being eaten.
 Food webs show the complex interactions within an
ecosystem.
 Each step in a food chain or web is called a trophic level.
Producers make up the first step, consumers make up
the higher levels.
 Food Chains
• A food chain is simple and direct
• It involves one organism at each trophic level
– Primary Consumers – eat autotrophs (producers)
– Secondary Consumers – eat the primary consumers
– Tertiary Consumers – eat the secondary consumers
– Decomposers – bacteria and fungi that break down
dead organisms and recycle the material back into the
environment
 Food Webs
• Most organisms are part of
many food chains.
– Arrows in a food web
represent the flow of energy
and nutrients.
– Following the arrows leads
to the top carnivore(s).

This food web represents a terrestrial

ecosystem that could be found in
British Columbia.
 Ecological Pyramids

• An ecological pyramid is a diagram that shows the

relationship amounts of energy or matter contained
within each trophic level in a food web or food chain.
 PYRAMID OF NUMBERS
• Shows the number of organisms at each
trophic level per unit area of an
ecosystem.
 PYRAMID OF BIOMASS
 Pyramid of biomass records the total dry organic matter of
organisms at each trophic level in a given area of an
ecosystem.
 Bigger fishes

Smaller fishes,
water beetles

Rotifers

Phytopl
ankton,
algae

Pyramid of biomass in pond ecosystem

 PYRAMID OF ENERGY
Shows the amount of energy input to each
trophic level in a given area of an
ecosystem over an extended period.
1. Why will this type of pyramid never be
inverted?
 Energy Pyramid
In nature, ecological
efficiency varies
from 5% to 20%
energy available
between successive
trophic levels (95%
to 80% loss). About
10% efficiency is a
general rule.

Fig. 4–19
Energy Flow Between Trophic
Levels
Why such low efficiency?

Three Reasons:
1) Escape behavior/protective
coloration/unavailable material
2) Indigestible material
3) Cellular respiration
Hydrologic Cycle

117
Carbon Cycle

118
Nitrogen Cycle

119
Phosphorus Cycle

120
Sulfur Cycle

121
 Biomass
• The total mass of the organic matter at each
trophic level is called biomass

• Biomass is just another term for potential energy

– energy that is to be eaten and used.

• The transfer of energy from one level to another

is very inefficient (10% Law)
• Productivity concept
The energy accumulated by producers is called
'production' or more especially 'primary production’.
There are three fundamental concepts of productivity:
• Standing crop. Measurements of standing crop reveal
the concentration of individuals in the various
populations of the ecosystem.

• The materials removed. It includes the yield to man,

organisms removed from the ecosystem by migration,
and the material withdrawn as organic deposit.

• The production rate.. The amount of material formed

by each link in the food chain per unit of time unit area
or volume is "the production rate".
• Plant indicators
Indicators of agriculture: Forests and grasslands
Indicators of soil type: sandy loam, deeply rooted
and taller species .
Indicators of soil erosion and soil formation:
Choris spinarum and Capparis spiaria are
indicators of soil erosion where on Ziziphus
rotundifolia is an indicator of soil formation.
Indicators of soil water: Several plants like
Enicostum littorale indicate well-drained soil.
Indicators of minerals: Viola calamine grows in
soils rich in zinc, Stellaria setacea in mercury rich
soil, Equisetum plebejum in soil containing gold
• Indicators of pollution: Certain aquatic plants
such as Utricularia, Chara and Wolffia indicate
polluted water.
• Indicators of bogs and swamps: Typha,
Phragmites, Juncus, Carex and some species of
Polygonum indicate bogs and swamps.
• Indicators of saline and alkali soils:
Rhizonphora, Sonneratia, Avceenia, Ceriops and
Hevitiera indicate saline waterlogged soils. Plants
like Salyrla foetida, Salicornia and Suaeda
fruticosa are indicators of saline and alkali soils.
Such soils are not fit for agriculture till the
accumulated salts are not removed. Even then,
only salt-tolerant plants like sugarbeet, rice,
patsan and wild indigo should be cultivated in the
beginning.
Thank you……..
FARM HOUSE ECOLOGY

Prepared by: Subodh Khanal

 1. Concept of Farmhouse
Ecology
Farmhouse
A house in farm: man made
environment

Ecology: study of interrelation and interaction among

components
Biotic Components
Abiotic Components

Study of different spatial and temporal arrangement

of components present in farm
Type of farming system in Nepal

Many types of
Khet : lowland
low land to man vegetable and
which is
1. hill farming ratio as fruits can be
bonded and
system compared to grown together
can be flooded
Terai. with cereals
to grow rice.
and pulses.

two land types, In Bari land,

42 percent of Khet and Bari maize based
the land area (un-irrigated cropping
upland) lands. pattern
 fertile
Gangetic
plain land.

cash crops
easy
, fruits
access
vegetables

Terai
farming
system
Buffalo,
“bread
cow, goat,
basket” of
pig, poultry,
Nepal.
fishery

23 percent
of total
land area
 infertile and
poor
access

buckwheat,
35%land
potato,
area
chino
Mountain
farming
system

yak, nak,
Farming
sheep ,
very difficult
chyangra
 Farms
• The farming practices followed in the country
can be grouped into three broad categories:
1.Shifting cultivation
2.Sedentary peasant farming
• This is commonly adopted farming practice by
majority of farmers of our country.
3.Capitalistic farming
• This is followed by large farms or estates with
the use of sophisticated technologies and farm
mechanizations and is done on large scale.
e.g. tea estates and mechanized farms.
• A learning centre
 Gender
participation
!!!!
2. Understanding Farm
Components
Farmers
Farmer’s social
organizations
Type of farmers
• Innovators
• Early adopters
• Late adopters
• Laggards
 Diversity of
agroecosytem,
species and
genetic
resources
Diversity
of
medicin
es
 Do Farmers Innovate?
5W & 1H
What?
When?
Why?
Whom
?
Which?
How?
Do Farmers Innovate?

A traditional innovation
Do Farmers Innovate?
Do Farmers
Innovate?
A1

Do Farmers Innovate?

Source: FAO
Slide 147

A1 water harvesting and rice cum fish farming

Author, 8/20/2014
 Do Farmers Innovate?

148 July 22, 2012 Footer text here

2. Understanding Farm
components:

Crops
Cereals, Vegetables,
fruits, oil crops
 3. Analyzing Crops
• Cereals
• Vegetables
• Fruits
• Spices
• Medicinal plants
• Pulses
• Ornamental Plants
• Pests: weeds, insects, pathogens
Agrobiodiversity of Tharu Culture
Genetic
diversity

Product diversity
Ecologi
cal
agricult
ure in
Nepalg
anj
 Faces
of
Agrobiodiversity
2. Understanding Farm
components:

Animals

Mammals, Aves, Reptiles,

Ambhibia, Pisces, Insects
 Analyzing animals
• Mammals, Aves, Reptiles, Ambhibia,
Pisces, Insects
• Many improved breeds and local as well
• Giriraj, puwakhulte, ghantikhwile: poultry
• Many other local landraces
 Home garden
• A home garden is a micro-environment
composed of a multi-species (annual to
perennial, root crops to climbers etc),
multi-storied and multi-purpose garden
situated close to the homestead
• The home garden, literally known in Nepali
as Ghar Bagaincha.
• Besides direct use values, farmers maintain
local crop diversity in home gardens for the
following reasons:
1) meet the specific needs of local ethnics
2) increase the options of availability of fresh
leafy vegetables, herbs, spices, fruits etc
3) easy access to fresh food
4) save money
5) improve self-reliance
6) improve access to low cost sources of
vitamins and minerals
7) ensure a healthy, functional level of
nutrition
 Home garden
management principles
• Biodiversity
• Organic agriculture
• Low cost management
techniques
• Integrated
management
• Multilayer and mixed
cropping
• Local resources
utilization (seeds, breeds,
knowledge and input
materials)
• Services: Nutrition and
livelihood
 Why home garden is
appropriate for resource poor
and vulnerable HHs?
• Small area around house is
utilized
• Low input organic
agriculture
• Saving from purchase
• Chance of income (No
organised market for under-
utilized and uncultivated
food (e.g. jaringo, niuro,
latte, bethe, lafa, silpikan,
pathu, halhale, jaluka
karkalo, kholesag, jangali
chau, tama, oal etc)
• Less labour required and
more involvement of
women
• Home gardens in inter
linkage of components in
Nepalese farming system
• A small vegetable plot, a few
fruits trees, 1-2 dairy cattle,
goats, pigs, hens, a fish pond,
bee hives (1-2), fodders trees
and some ornamental plants
are major components of
Nepalese home garden.
Interlinkage
The Proposed Benefits of Polycultural
Production
• Unsustainable monoculture food production
systems (the annual tillage of soil disturbs the
soil structure, making it more vulnerable to
erosion and can cause a loss of fertility and
large inputs of fertilizers are needed to
counteract these losses.
• Single-species, or monocultural plantings of
annual plants lack weed, insect and disease
resistance, encouraging the use of herbicides,
insecticides and fungicides derived from
petrochemicals.
• A major proposed benefit of
polyculture production is their yield
advantage compared to
monocultures.
• Perennial polycultures, utilise less
soil disturbance, use canopy
closure to shade weeds and use
physical and chemical competition
among root systems to reduce
weed loads.
• Insect pest problems can also be
significantly reduced.
Thank
you……
 Subodh
Subodh Khanal
Khanal
eantasysubodh@gmail.com
eantasysubodh@gmail.com
WHAT ARE ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES?
Environmental issues are any
such issues created due to human
activities and cause harm to the
environment.
 Environmental issues are harmful effects of human activity on
the biophysical environment.

 Environmental Issues are interconnected, that means one issue

accelerate the other e.g. water pollution accelerate the rate of
air pollution causes global warming.
World Population Growth – 2.5%
EFFECTS of GLOBAL ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES..
Environmental Degradation
Deterioration of the environment through depletion of
resources such as air, water and soil; the destruction of
ecosystems and the extinction of wildlife. Environmental
degradation is one of the ten threats officially cautioned by
the High-level Panel on Threats, Challenges and Change of
the United Nations.

Habitat destruction
Invasive species
 What is environmental
hazard?
The risks that cause imbalance in healthy
environment.

The main causes of the environmental hazards in

Nepal are:
• Human population explosion
• Unplanned urbanization
• Deforestation
• Technological advancement
• Profit oriented capitalism
• Lack of environmental awareness
Pollution –
• undesirable change in the physical,
chemical or biological characteristics of
air, land and water

• that may or will harmfully affect human

life or that of desirable species, our
industrial process, living conditions and
cultural assets;

• or that might or will waste or deteriorate

our raw material sources
 Classification
A. on the basis of nature
disposal
1. Non degradable
2. Bio degradable

B. On the basis of persistence

1. primary: emmited from
identifiable source e.g. SO2
2. Secondary : combination
 Pollution
• Air pollution
The WHO defines air pollution as the presence of
materials in the air in such concentration which are
harmful to man and his environment.
Examples of air pollution :
Smog
Acid rain
Indoor air pollution
Dust particles

*Major Pollutants: Sulfur oxides (SOx), Nitrogen oxides (NOx),

Carbon monoxide (CO), Volatile organic compounds (VOC), Particulate Matter
(PM), Toxic metals such as Lead/Mercury, Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs),
Ammonia (NH3), Odours — such as from garbage, sewage, and industrial
processes, Radioactive pollutant, Ground level ozone (O3) , poisonous gases
through accidents:methyl isocyanite in Bhopal tragedy etc.
 Effects of air pollution
• Effect on plants
a. Chlorosis
b. Smog bleaches foliages
c. Hydrocarbon: premature yellowing, floral
bud fall, curling of sepals/petal
d. Ozone: cereals, fruits, cotton
e. Break waxy coating
f. E.g. black tip of mango
Effect on man and animals

• Dry mucuous membrane

• Change in eye vision,
headache
• Drying of mouth
• Respiratory disorders
• CO- cardiovascular system
• Hydrocarbon, Pb-cancer
Other: global warming, ozone hole
The Greenhouse Effect
Acid Rain: Its effect on a tree
A smoggy city
Water Pollution
 Causes of Water Pollution
• Factors that contribute to water pollution can
be categorized into two different groups
– Point sources
– Non-point sources

• Point sources are the easiest to identify and

control
• Non point sources are ambiguously defined
and harder to control
• Water Pollution
-Point Sources: Contaminants that enter a waterway
from a single, identifiable source, such as a pipe or ditch. Examples
of sources in this category include discharges from a sewage
treatment plant, a factory, or a city storm drain.
-Non Point Sources: Refers to diffuse contamination
that does not originate from a single discrete source. A common
example is the leaching out of nitrogen compounds from fertilized
agricultural lands. Nutrient runoff in storm water from "sheet flow"
over an agricultural field or a forest are also cited as examples of
NPS pollution.
 EFFECTS of GLOBAL ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES..

Pollution
• Soil pollution
Soil pollution can be caused by the following
*Accidental Spills *Acid rain (Which is caused by air pollution)
*Intensive farming *Deforestation*Genetically modified plants
*Nuclear wastes *Industrial Accidents *Landfill and illegal dumping
*Land Erosion *Agricultural practices, such as application of
pesticides, herbicides and fertilizers *Mining and other industries *Oil
and fuel dumping *Buried wastes *Disposal of coal ash *Disposal of
ammunitions and agents of war *Drainage of contaminated surface
water into the soil *Electronic waste

• Noise pollution- Disturbing or excessive noise that may harm the

activity or balance of human or animal life.

• Light Pollution- Also known as photopollution or luminous pollution,

is excessive, misdirected, or obtrusive artificial light.
Land Pollution
 Causes of Land
Pollution

• Four Main causes of land

pollution
– Construction
– Agriculture
– Domestic waste
– Industrial Waste
WHAT CAN WE DO
ABOUT POLLUTION?
Prevention Pays

Prevention Clean Earth

Clean Up
Problems With Pollution Clean-Up

 It is only temporary.
 Removing a pollutant from one area can cause it to

be added to another.
 Pollutant are easily dispersed in the environment.
WHAT KIND OF
ENVIRONMENTAL
OUTLOOK SHOULD WE
HAVE?
 Measurement of Human impact on Environment

I= PAT
-In the I=PAT equation, the variable P represents
the population of an area, such as the world. Since
the rise of industrial societies, human population
has been increasing exponentially.

-The variable A, in the I=PAT equation stands for

affluence. It represents the average consumption of
each person in the population. As the consumption
of each person increases, the total environmental
impact increases as well.

-The T variable in the I=PAT equation represents

how resource intensive the production of affluence
is; how much environmental impact is involved in
creating, transporting and disposing of the goods,
services and amenities used. the unit for T is often
tailored for the situation I=PAT is being applied to.
For example, for a situation where the human
impact on climate change is being measured, an
appropriate unit for T might be greenhouse gas
emissions per unit of GDP.
Biodiversity Hotspots
http://www.biodiversityhotspots.org/Pages/default.aspx
Movie – The Lorax

“What is the
relationship between
resource consumption and
environmental
problems?”
Kiva: Loans that Change Lives
http://www.kiva.org/
Earth Portal (website)
http://www.earthportal.org/
Environmental News Service
NPR: Environment (Podcasts)
http://www.npr.org/rss/podcast/podcast_detail.php?siteId=4985907
Energy and Environment TV
http://www.eandetv.com
PRI: Living on Earth (RSS Feed)
http://www.loe.org/

http://www.loe.org/podcast.rss
The Grist (News Blog)
http://gristmill.grist.org/
Pesticides and the
Environment
 Pesticides
misuse
• Institutional level
• Social level
• Technical level
 Potato famine of Ireland was
caused by genetically uniform
crops and lack of pesticides to
protect them
Blight hits
potatoes,
1845

Based on: Population Reports, May 1992

 Today’s Pests

Pests attack
and eat our
food crops

This problem is
due, in part, to
not selecting
for pest
resistance
Based on: National Geographic, February 1980
during
domestication
DDT was invented
in the 1940’s and
viewed as:
- miracle for
farmers
- and safe
“The most discussed of the new
insecticides is dichloro-diphenyl-
trichloroethane, shortened to DDT but
also called Guesarol. Painstaking
investigations have shown it to be signally
effective against many of the most
destructive insects that feed upon crops.”

Scientific American, July 1944.

 Arial crop
sprayers were
used to spray
tons of DDT on
crops across
the U.S. and
other parts of
world

Photo courtesy of Texas Parks and Wildlife Department

Pests became resistant to DDT

Based on: National Geographic

 Pesticide Resistance
In the beginning, most
pests were sensitive to
DDT but a few were
resistant

The resistant forms

survived and
reproduced

In the end, most pests

were resistant to DDT
Based on: National Geographic, February 1980
c1

Perspective #1: 1939 – 1965

(What does not kill you makes you stronger!)

• Silverbullet Pesticide
– 1939 Swiss Chemist Synthesized DDT
• Paul Humen Muller
Slide 212

c1 I would like to take the applicators through separate perspectives that occured throughout the last century. I would also like to focus
on how we thought we knew what safe was, and it was redefined every few decades. The first perspective is called 'the what does not
kill you makes you stronger!'.. This is referring to the rampant use of DDT from 1939 to 1965.

Photo on the left to control typhus.

Photo on the right was used to control manage malaria by killing the Anopheles mosquito. This product saved millions of lives and
people did not die from this pesticide. Did it have a downfall?
ctharp, 11/19/2010
c2

Perspective #2: 1965 – 1984

(Beware of who you trust, always be on the safe side!)

• Agent White Compound

4:1 mixture of 2,4-D
and picloram

• Agent Orange
1:1 mixture of 2,4-D and 2,4,5-T
Produces dioxins – carcinogen

The National Toxicology Program has classified TCDD to be

a human carcinogen, frequently associated with
soft-tissue sarcoma, Non-Hodgkin's lymphoma,

1896 –
Hodgkin's disease and chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL).

1985!
Slide 213

c2 Perspective number 2 takes us from 1965 - 1985. titled 'beware of who you trust, always be on the safe side. Sometimes we get
complacent that certain government organizations will protect us or that even 'science at the time' knows best. That is not always the
case and takes us to a product called agent orange.

Agent Orange: government claimed agent orange did not cause any health concerns in 1970. Government mainained this claim in
1980 but rescinded this in the 1990's. At that time the US government claimed that the Agent Orange used in the Vietnam war caused
a variety of cancers. That was because in the manufacturing of agent orange a byproduct was created 'dioxin' which causes these
cancers. Perspectives change and the government should not have been trusted in this scenario.

Agent White: Mixture of 2,4-D and picloram. Did not see the health problems associated with agent orange, due to this either active
ingredient is used today. Does that mean we can drink 2,4-D or picloram?

Gordon Shrum: mid 70's did just that to prove picloram was safe in a right of way dispute. He lived another 10 years. Does that prove
you can drink picloram. Yes and NO.

Yes. you could drink pure picloram because of its low acute toxicity.

However, here is why you shouldn't believe all of they hype:

#1. Is tordon just picloram, no, inert ingredient which are much more toxic than picloram itself.

#2. Do we know how long Mr. Shrum would have lived if he didn't drink picloram? NO this was not a replicated study.

#3. Do we know if Mr. Shrum developed any health concerns later in his life from drinking the picloram (cancers, mutagenic, etc..).
No, Information not available and not a replicated study.

#4. Do we know the exact concentration of picloram he ingested? NO

#5. Chronic toxicity testing on pesticide products has inherent flaws!

ctharp, 11/19/2010
 Biodegradation

• Breakdown of pesticides by
soil microflora
• A normal process in soil
• Recycles pesticide residues
to harmless and useful
elements like N, P, S, etc.
 Bioaccumulation
• = Cumulative buildup of toxic elements or
compounds in the body of an organism.
• Organohalides = very soluble in fat tissues of
organisms, good candidates for
bioaccumulation.
 Biomagnification

The concentration of
pesticides in higher
levels of food chains
 Biomagnification =
Increase in concentration of
toxic products in higher
consumers in food chains
 Biomagnification

• Most often seen as a problem in

raptors and in higher aquatic
predators.
• A particular problem with persistent
elements like Cl, Br, metals, and
persistent compounds like
organohalides.
• Can be a problem in aquatic systems,
far removed from agricultural sites.
• Results from bioaccumulation but note
difference from bioaccumulation.
 DDT in Food Chain

DDT is
concentrated as it
moved up food
chain

This is because
energy is lost (from
respiration) as go
up food chain but
DDT is not
Based on: Campbell et al,
Biology: Concepts and
Connections, Benjamin
Cummings
Pesticide Movement
 What is Eutrophication?

Eutrophication is a process whereby water bodies, such as

lakes, estuaries, or slow-moving streams receive excess
nutrients that stimulate excessive plant growth
(algae, periphyton attached algae, and nuisance plants
weeds).

This enhanced plant growth, often called an algal bloom,

reduces dissolved oxygen in the water when dead plant
material decomposes and can cause other organisms to
die.

Nutrients can come from many sources, such as fertilizers

applied to agricultural fields, golf courses, and suburban
lawns; deposition of nitrogen from the atmosphere; erosion
of soil containing nutrients; and sewage treatment plant
discharges.
 Step by step
eutrophication process
Oligotrophic lake with a low level of nutrients.
Artificial input of nutrients from run-off and
discharge of effluent.
Eutrophic lake with a high level of nutrients.
Phosphorus is usually the
bio-limiting element in freshwater lakes.
 Rapid growth of algae and other biomass
resulting in a decrease in the concentration of
dissolved oxygen.
Turbidity (cloudiness) of water increases as does
rate of sedimentation.
Increased growth of rooted plants such as reeds.
 Algal blooms during the Summer months. Note
that dissolved oxygen levels are at their lowest at
night when plants respire rather than
photosynthesis.
Development of anoxic conditions and release
of noxious gases such as hydrogen sulphide,
thioalcohols and ammonia.
 Nontarget organisms
harmed by pesticides in
two ways:
1. Immediate or direct injury

2. Long-term consequences of
environmental pollution
 Harmful Effects

Protective Equipment
 Pesticides – Harm to Humans
• Hazard – risk of harmful effects due to:
• Toxicity – ability to cause harm
• Exposure – Contact of the chemical
with the body

• Hazard = Toxicity X Exposure

 Risk =
Toxicity x Exposure
 Label Signal Words –
(Toxicity to Humans)
•DANGER* - Highly toxic
•WARNING – Moderately toxic
•CAUTION – Slightly toxic

•*with POISON/skull/crossbones – high acute

toxicity
•Without Poison/skull/crossbones – high skin & eye
irritation potential
http://npic.orst.edu/ingred/
proddata.html
 Pesticide Sample
Label
Type of pesticide (used for?)
Company name
Brand name
Common/generic name (active
ingredient)
Chemical family (? atropine
under 1st aid)
Signal word (hazard level)
 Sample Pesticide Label

Directions Formulation

Re-entry
Ingredients
Statement
Storage &
Disposal
Child
Registry No. Warning
Manufacturer

Agrochemicals and Security: Homeland Security and Pest-08

Pesticides
 *

*DANGER/POISON
ingestion
= extremely toxic by

DANGER = extremely toxic high potential

Adapted from Richards, Kerry Penn State
for skin and eye irritation
University Extension Service
Routes of Exposure to
Pesticides
•Oral – mouth

•Dermal – skin

•Inhalation – nose (breathing)

•Ocular - eyes
Types of Toxicity to
Pesticides
•Acute – usually immediate,
obvious, reversible

•Delayed – “chronic”, usually

from repeated doses

•Allergic – immune system

response to chemicals
 Acute Effects
• Oral – examples: burned
mouth, sore throat, upset
stomach
• Inhalation – examples: pain or
tightness in chest
• Dermal (skin) – examples:
itching, blisters, rash
• Ocular (eyes) – examples:
irritation, temporary or
permanent blindness
Delayed (Chronic) Effects
• May appear long after
exposure:
• Tumors
• Gene effects
• Miscarriage
• Impotence
• Birth defects
• Infertility
• Sterility
• Nervous system disorders
 Types of Allergic
Effects
• Systemic – as asthma, shock

• Skin irritation – rash, blisters, sores

• Eye and nose – itchy/watery eyes,

sneezing

• Will occur with every exposure to the

offending chemical
c4
Why are they not protecting
themselves?
‘practical reasons’
Slide 252

c3 ctharp, 11/19/2010

c4 Photo on the left is an individual wearing PPE including a tyvek suit and respirator. Why is this uncomfortable for this applicator? It is
like a sauna in these suits and can be as warm as 110 degree F at 80 degree ambiant temperature. What if his neighbor doesn't wear
PPE and doesn't drop dead? That may eventually drive this same applicator to not wear PPE on the next application. If so that
breaches our first mode of entry: Inhalation, and a second: The Skin.

Photo on the lower right: Many applicators are required to wear eye protection as imaged on the lower right. What is the problem
with this? Goggles often fog up, applicators then remove eye protection, often clean eye protection with there contaminated hands,
and place back on their face. At that point they have breached a third mode of entry: EYES!

Photo on the upper right: Many applicators face plugged nozzles while in a field situation with little time and contaminated equipment
and field conditions. Applicators are often required to fix nozzles using EPA mandated chemically resistant gloves. These gloves are
often cumbersome and difficult to use to unplug nozzles. Applicators often will remove gloves to fix nozzles, thus contaminating
themselves once again. Mode of entry: SKIN

Photo
ctharp, 11/19/2010
Emergency Responses
• First aid

• Call physician/go to hospital

• Take chemical or labeling

• Call – Poison Control Center

• *pesticide illness may be confused with heat

stress, heat cramps, or plants poisoning
 Industrial Waste
• Industrial waste is process waste associated with
manufacturing.

– This waste usually is not classified as either municipal

waste or hazardous waste by federal or state laws.

– Regulatory programs for managing industrial waste

vary widely among state, tribal, and some local
governments.

• Each year, industrial facilities generate and manage 7.6

billion tons of nonhazardous industrial waste in land
application units.
258
 Municipal Solid Waste
• EPA definition
– includes wastes such as durable goods,
nondurable goods, containers and packaging,
food scraps, yard trimmings, and miscellaneous
inorganic wastes from residential, commercial,
institutional, and industrial sources.
–
• Examples of waste from these categories
include appliances, automobile tires,
newspapers, clothing, boxes, disposable
tableware, office and classroom paper, wood
pallets, and cafeteria wastes.

259
 URBANIZATION
or

HOW CITIES GROW

 URBANIZATION & CITIES
• Urbanization refers to the proportion of
people in living in cities.
• It also refers to the process in which rural
populations move to urban areas.
• Urbanization refers to all of the cities in a
country, considered as an urban system.
• The urban system is the network of
individual cities within a region or country.
 Sources of Urbanization
• The urban system of a country grows mainly by:

1. Natural population increase (births – deaths)

2. Migration from rural areas (especially in
countries with large rural populations)
3. Immigration from other countries (especially in
Europe and North America)
4. Reclassification of urban boundaries to
encompass formerly rural areas
 Waste Management:
practical application of
the new ethical concepts of
Eco-Ethics International Union

263
 What are Wastes?
Basel Convention Definition of
Wastes

“substances or objects which are disposed of

or are intended to be disposed of or are
required to be disposed of by the provisions
of the law”

Disposal means
“any operation which may lead to resource
recovery, recycling, reclamation, direct re-use
or alternative uses (Annex IVB of the Basel
convention)”

264
 Kinds of Wastes
Solid wastes: domestic, commercial and
industrial wastes especially common as co-
disposal of wastes

Examples: plastics, styrofoam

containers, bottles,
cans, papers, scrap iron, and other trash

Liquid Wastes: wastes in liquid form

Examples: domestic washings,
chemicals, oils, waste
water from ponds, manufacturing industries
and other sources

265
 Classification of Wastes
according to their
Properties

Bio-degradable
can be degraded (paper, wood, fruits
and others)

Non-biodegradable
cannot be degraded (plastics, bottles,
old machines,
cans, styrofoam containers and 266
others)
Classification of Wastes according to
their Effects on Human Health and the
Environment

Hazardous wastes
Substances unsafe to use commercially,
industrially, agriculturally, or economically

Non-hazardous
Substances safe to use commercially,
industrially, agriculturally, or economically

267
Sources of Wastes

Households

Commerce and
Industry

268
 Sources of Wastes
Agriculture

Fisheries

269
EFFECTS OF WASTE IF NOT
MANAGED WISELY

• Affects our health

• Affects our socio-economic
conditions
• Affects our environment
• Affects our climate

270
 WHAT SHOULD BE DONE
• Reduce Waste
- Reduce office paper waste by implementing a
formal policy to duplex all draft reports and by
making training manuals and personnel
information available electronically.

- Improve product design to use less materials.

- Redesign packaging to eliminate excess material

while maintaining strength.

- Work with customers to design and implement a

packaging return program.

- Switch to reusable transport containers.

- Purchase products in bulk. 271

 WHAT SHOULD BE DONE
Reuse

- Reuse corrugated moving boxes internally.

- Reuse office furniture and supplies, such as

interoffice envelopes, file folders, and paper.

- Use durable towels, tablecloths, napkins,

dishes, cups, and glasses.

- Use incoming packaging materials for

outgoing shipments.

- Encourage employees to reuse office materials

rather than purchase new ones.

272
WHAT SHOULD BE DONE

Donate/Exchange

- old books

- old clothes

- old computers

- excess building materials

- old equipment to local organizations

273
 WHAT SHOULD BE DONE
Education

- Develop an “recycling procedures” packet.

- Send out recycling reminders to all

including environmental articles.

- Training on recycling practices prior to

implementing recycling programs.

- Conduct an ongoing training process as

new technologies are introduced

274
WHAT SHOULD BE DONE

Preventing Waste

- packaging waste reductions

and changes in the
manufacturing process

- use biodegradable materials

275
 WHAT SHOULD BE DONE
Conduct outreach program adopting an
ecologically sound waste management
system which includes:

• waste reduction
• segregation at source
• composting
• recycling and re-use
• more efficient collection
• more environmentally sound disposal
276
 GLOBAL ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES
Mitigation
Priority Issues/ Solutions:

 Curbing Global Warming-

 Afforestation-
 Creating the Clean Energy Future-
 Reviving the World's Oceans-
 Defending Endangered Wildlife and Wild Places-
 Protecting Our Health By Preventing Pollution
 Ensuring Safe and Sufficient Water-
 Fostering Sustainable Communities-
 Practicing Organic Farming
 Implement and practicing three R’s (Reuse, Reduce, Recycle)
 GLOBAL ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES
Mitigation Strategy

The implementation of the solutions in this document as

well as those in the NEAP Volume 1 is categorized by
principal players thus:
a. Actions to be taken by people on their own;
b. Action to be taken by people with assistance from the
Government or non governmental agencies; and
c. Actions to taken by the Government alone.
 GLOBAL ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES
Mitigation
Involvement of Media:
There are an increasing number of
films being produced on environmental
issues, especially on climate change
and global warming. Al Gore's 2006
film An Inconvenient Truth gained
commercial success and a high media
profile.

Within the last twenty years, commercially

successful films with an environmentalism
theme have been released theatrically and
made by the major Hollywood studios.

The truth about Wildlife, Years of Living

Dangerously are some of the popular TV
shows based on Environmental
Conservation.
 GLOBAL ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES
Mitigation
There are literally dozens of environmental organizations in the world, with most countries
having at least one government ministry or agency with a dedicated role to monitor and protect
the environment.

In addition there are a large number of Private Organizations, sometimes known as Non-
Government Organizations (NGOs). A significant number of these have a worldwide coverage
and although some of them are relatively unknown outside a fairly specialized circle, several,
such as Friends of the Earth and Greenpeace have an international profile and reputation.
List of International Organization Working on
Environmental Issues:
• Earth System Governance Project (ESGP).
• Global Environment Facility (GEF).
• Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
(IPCC).
• International Union for Conservation of Nature
(IUCN).
• United Nations Environment Programme
(UNEP).
• World Nature Organization (WNO).
• Centre for Science and Environment (CSE).
etc.
 That ends my presentation.

I hope this lecture about

Environmental issues will make
you aware of what is happening
to our environment.

Thank you for listening!

281
& ITS Impact on Agriculture
 Projection of CO2 and global mean temperature

Increase in CO2 conc. Increase in O3 conc.

20-30 nl L-1
2100
350 ppm 700 ppm 60 nl L-1 2
 Future climate likely to be warmer

Although there
is considerable
Uncertainty about future,
all climate models
indicate a rising trend in
temperature

By 2100 a rise
of 1.8 to 4°c is
Expected

(IPCC, 2007)
 WEATHER AND CLIMATE
• Weather is the condition of the atmosphere at a particular place and
time
• relatively dynamic

Climate is not weather.

C limate is the average pattern of weather in a place.
• Relatively constant

4
 What is the difference between “global
warming” and “climate change”?
GLOBAL WARMING CLIMATE
is the increase of the
CHANGE
Earth’s average surface is a broader term that
temperature due to a refers to long-term
build-up of greenhouse changes in climate,
gases in the atmosphere. including average
temperature and
precipitation.
 GLOBAL WARMING AND CLIMATE
CHANGE

• John Tyndall, 19th Century physicist (1820-1893)

 Firstto confirm the warming properties of gases in Earth’s
atmosphere (“greenhouse effect”)
• Svante Arrhenius, swedish scientist (1859-1927)
 First to estimate warming effect of anthropogenic CO2
Increasing greenhouse gases trap more heat
“GREENHOUSE EFFECT”
 GREENHOUSE GASES
• Greenhouse gases maintain the earth’s temperature through
GREENHOUSE EFFECT.

Source: www.abcnews.com/sections/us/global106.html
8
(IPCC, 2007)
LANDSCAPE OF NEPAL
LANDSCAPE
LANDSCAPE

Cold Deserts in Mustang

 2000 1000

CHINA
150

500
2000
0

1000
25
150
0
0

2000
150 1500
0
3000
INDIA
1500
2000
3000
2000 1500
150
0 Bay of Bengal
1500
3000

2000
1500
150
0
2000
3000
 N
Physiographic Map of Nepal Elevation Climatic Mean annual
W E
(m) Zone Air Temp.
S
°C

5000 0
Arctic
4500
Alpine
4000 5

Subalpine

Altitude in (m)
3000 10

Cool

2000 15
Warm
Above 5000 Temperate
4500-5000 1000 20
4000-5000
Subtropical
3000- 4000
2000-3000 0 25
1000-2000 100 0 100 km
Below 1000
N
Population Distribution in Nepal
12

Population (million)
10 49%
43%
8
54103 km² 6
4 8%
2
60024 km² 0
Mountain Hill Terai
(Source: CBS 2009=
28.5 million)

33864 km²

Himal
Hill 100 0 100 km
Terai
Energy consumption in Nepal
 GLOBAL WARMING AND ITS EFFECTS

•Global warming is happening and it is

continuous.
•Itis estimated that average annual
temperature rise of is about 0.8°C .
•Global warming is rising due to higher
quantity of green house gases mainly
CO2 produced from burning of fossil fuels
that is being emitted into the atmosphere
from human activities
•It
is expected to rise about 2°C by 2050
and 4°C by end of this century.
•
Global warming impacts in
Nepal

•Our country nepal is also not free from

the impacts of global warming .

• The average annual temperature rise http://www.theguardian.com/environ

is about 0.6°C ment/gallery/2009

•HigherHimalayas are facing a high of

0.8°C and low land plains are facing
0.4°C of temperature rise.

http://localnepaltoday.com/wp-
content/uploads/2014/05/drought.jpg
 What is Climate Change?
Any change in climate overtime, whether due to
natural Variability or as result of human activities is
the Climate Change. (IPCC 2004)
Climate Change refers to a statistically significant
variation in either the mean state of the climate or in
its variability which may be due to natural processes
or external forcing, or to persistent anthropogenic
changes in the composition of the atmosphere or in
land use” (IPCC, 2001).
Climate encompasses the long-run pattern of
numerous meteorological factors (e.g. Temperature,
humidity, atmospheric pressure, wind, rainfall,
sunshine etc.) in a given location or larger region.
(Gutierrez 2010)
The average temperature of the earth’s surface has
risen by 0.74 degree Centigrade since the late 1800s
(IPCC, 2007).
 Causes of climate change

Natural Causes Anthropogenic Causes

1) Green Houses Gases

1) Continental drift Carbon dioxide (CO2)
2) Volcanoes# Methane (CH4)
3) The Earth’s Tilts Nitrous oxide (NO2)
4) Ocean Currents Chloro floro carbons (CFCs)
5) Intensity of Solar Radiation Ozone (O3)
Water Vapors (H2O)

2. Land Use Change

Deforestation
Urbanization
IMPACTS OF CLIMATE CHANGE

22
NATURAL CLIMATE FLUCTUATIONS –
EXAMPLE OF EL NIÑO AND LA NIÑA

Source: NOAA. Further information: WMO Website

Section 1: Introduction to Climate Change Science

23
 IPCC Video on the Human
Influence on the Climate
24
System

Video: The video summarizes the main

findings of the 2013 IPCC Report on the
physical science basis of climate change.
URL: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6yiTZm0y1YA&feature=youtu.be

Section 2: Anthropogenic Drivers of Climate Change

NASA Video on the
Greenhouse Effect

Video: Understand how water vapor,

carbon dioxide, and other gases cause the
Earth’s greenhouse effect
URL: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZzCA60WnoMk

Section 1: Introduction to Climate Change Science

25
Temperature and
Precipitation Projections for
the 21st Century

Video: This NASA video shows how

temperature and precipitation patterns could
change throughout the 21st century.

URL: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bFqO3_2dYxA

26
Section 4: Projected Trends and Impacts of Climate Change
HAVE HUMANS CAUSED
SOME OF THE RECENT
CLIMATE CHANGES?

ANSWER: POSSIBLY.
THE INTERGOVERNMENTAL PANEL
ON CLIMATE CHANGE (IPCC)

Assesses relevant
Leading body for scientific, technical
Established in 1988
the assessment of and socio-
by UNEP and WMO
climate change economic
information

Thousands of
scientists from all
Does not conduct
over the world
any research itself
contribute to its
work

30
Section 5: Sources of Scientific Data
EVIDENCE FOR CLIMATE CHANGE
1. 20th C was hottest in the past 1000 years
2. Global temp has risen 0.6°C (1.1°F) since 1861
3. 16 warmest years on record since 1980, 10 warmest
since 1990
4. Glaciers and sea ice are melting
5. Sea level has risen 100-200 cm over 20th C
 Why Agriculture vulnerable to climate change ?

 Highly diverse nature

 High rainfall dependency (2/3rd area rain dependent)
 Inadequate infrastructure facilities for supply of quality inputs
 Rapid degradation of soil and loss of soil fertility and nutrient levels
 Poor resources base of the farmers
 Poor technology penetration
 CLIMATE CHANGE SITUATION IN NEPAL
• Nepal is one of the most
vulnerable (4th) countries in
terms of climate change;
• Globally Nepal emits only 0.025
percent of total GHG emissions ;
• especially threatening the vital
biodiversity, water, energy and
food security.
• Rapid melting of glaciers,
formation of new supraglacial
lakes, expansion of existing
lakes, and disappearing of some
small lakes have been noticed.

33
CLIMATE CHANGE EVIDENCE IN NEPAL
• rise in maximum temperature at an annual rate of
0.04 – 0.06º C (MoE, NAPA 2010).High mountains are
warming faster (0.08º C per year) than lower hills
and the plains (0.04º C per year).
• Nepal is responsible for only about 0.025% of total
annual greenhouse gas emissions of the world
(Karki, 2007)
• Over two million Nepalese people depend on
climate sensitive sectors like agriculture and forestry
for their livelihood (Garg et al., 2007).
 CLIMATE CHANGE SCENARIO IN NEPAL

• OECD – mean annual temperature to increase by an

average of 1.20C by 2030, 1.70C by 2050 and 30C by 2100
against the baseline using the GCMs run with SRES B2
scenario
• Nepal Climate Vulnerability Study Team (NCVST) - mean
annual temperature to increase by 1.40C by 2030, 2.80C
by 2060 and 4.70C by 2090 using GCM and RCM
• Both studies show higher temperature increment for
winter compared to the monsoon season
• NCVST - higher increment of temperatures in western
and central Nepal compared to eastern Nepal for the
year 2030, 2060, and 2090
IMPACTS OF CLIMATE CHANGE IN NEPAL
• IPCC 4th Assessment Report submitted estimates that
by 2050 crop yields in South Asia can decrease by up
to 30%.
• Increase in pests, diseases and invasive species owing
to temperature change affect agricultural
productivity resulting in food insecurity and loss of
livelihoods.
• Atmospheric CO2 concentration will reduce Nepal’s
forest types from 15 to 12, and habitats and
ecosystem
• The adverse impacts on the Himalayas are expected
to affect both the upland and lowland systems,
especially threatening the vital biodiversity, water,
energy and food security;
36
 IMPACTS ON WATER RESOURCES
 Water is the most impacted sector by climate change. Water impacts are key for
all sectors.

 IPCC predicts that by 2050, freshwater availability in central, south, east and
south east Asia, particularly in large river basins, is projected to decrease.

 Effects of climate change on water resources could yield manifold implications

either due to too much and/or too little water (NAPA 2010).

 Due to rise in temperature, Himalayan region is noticeably impacted by climate

change. The reported impact is rapid reduction in glaciers.

 Climate change will increase the frequency and intensity of water induced
disasters.

37
 IMPACTS OF CLIMATE CHANGE IN NEPAL
Long–term impacts
• Agriculture and food security: 34.7% GDP of Nepal is from
Agriculture (DOA, 2011). Overall crop yield (wheat, maize and
rice) could decrease in Nepal by up to 30% by the end of this
century (IPCC, 2007).
©ccafs.cgiar.org
•Water resources: Projections for Nepal suggest a 20% loss of snow
and glaciated area with 1°C increase in temperature increasing
likelihood glacial lake outburst flooding (GLOF) (IPCC, 2007).

•Ecosystems and biodiversity: Tropical wet forest and warm

temperate rain forest will disappear, and cool temperate ©newsbusters.org/blogs/noel-sheppard
vegetation will turn into warm temperate vegetation. Currently,
there is no rain forest in tropical and subtropical regions in the
Nepal, but a doubling in carbon dioxide would see an emergence
of rain forest in these regions (IPCC, 2007).

• Human health and migration: Increasing temperatures and

floods combined are likely to yield a spread in pathogen and
©www.nepal-uncovered.com
insect borne diseases and exposure of communities to diseased
that they have no experience of or immunity to. Human casualties
and migration following extreme weather events is also to be
anticipated (IPCC, 2007).

©blog.waterdiplomacy.org
 IMPACTS OF CLIMATE CHANGE ON
AGRICULTURE
Direct impacts from temp/precip. changes,
plus:
 Increased variability in weather
 Extreme conditions
 Sea level rise & surge – inundating &
ruining coastal agricultural lands
 CO2 fertilization

(FAO 2003, IPCC 2008)

II. IMPACTS OF CLIMATE CHANGE ON
AGRICULTURE
Indirect impacts:
 Changing crop-weed competition
dynamics
 Range changes of pests & pathogens
 Expanded range predicted for many pathogens
 Less-cold winters allow increase in pests
 Different range changes between pests &
pathogens and natural controls
 Decreased biodiversity in natural
ecosystems
(Patterson et al. 1999, FAO 2003, IPCC 2008)
IMPACT ON AGRICULTURE
• Climate change and
agriculture are
interrelated processes.
• Soil processes : The
potential for soils to
support agriculture and
distribution of land use will
be influenced by
changes in soil water
balance.
• Crops
CONTD…
• The range of current crops will move northward
• New crop varieties may need to be selected
• Horticultural crops are more susceptible to changing
conditions than arable crops
• Field vegetables will be particularly affected by temperature
changes
• Phaselous bean, onion and sweetcorn are most likely to
benefit commercially from higher temperatures
• Water deficits will directly affect fruit and vegetable
production
 Effects and Sensitivity Vary by Commodity

• Corn: high nighttime temperatures, high temperatures during

pollination, water stress
• Soybean: water stress, high temperatures
• Wheat and small grains: extreme events, frost during
flowering, water stress
• Rice: temperature extremes during pollination, water management
• Cotton: high temperatures during boll fill
• Pasture and rangeland: water stress
• Fruit trees: chilling requirements not met, high temperatures during
fruit development
• Specialty crops: water stress, high temperatures
 Increased Biotic Stresses
Will Significantly Affect Agriculture
• Insect pests
• Greater numbers, increased insecticide resistance
• Geographic ranges increases & decreases
• Imports from foreign sources
• Pathogens
• Host-pathogen response changes (plants, insects, non-
crop reservoirs)
• Cultural control measures may be less reliable
• Extreme events can spread
• Weeds
– Increased vigor, herbicide resistance
– Geographic range increases & decreases
IMPACTS ON AGRICULTURE
 Nepal’s agriculture is facing risks due to
changes in the reliability of stream flow, a
more intense and potentially erratic monsoon
rainfall and flooding. About 64% of cultivated
areas are fully dependent on monsoon rainfall.

 Decline in rainfall from November to April

adversely affects the winter and spring crops.

 Rice yields are sensitive to climatic conditions

and may fall in western region and it may
threaten overall food security. A study carried
out by B.R.Regmi and A. Adhikary in 2007
reveals that climate change is posing threat to
food security due to loss of some local land
races and crops.

45
 CONT…
 Initial National Communication,2004 states that with the increase of temperature beyond 4
degree Celsius, the yield of Terai rice is projected to decrease. The effect of temperature on rice
crops in the hills is little more severe than in the Terai. But in mountain region it is better, but rice
is grown negligibly there.

 The yield of wheat is projected to fall down with the rise in temperature in Terai. The effect of
temperature on wheat yield in the hills is less than in Terai. There is insignificant decline of wheat
yield in mountain environment with rise in temperature.

 The rise in temperature will affect yield of maize crops in Terai more than wheat and rice crops.
It affects less in the hills than in Terai but increases production of maize in mountain areas.

46
 DISEASES INCIDENCE DUE TO CLIMATE CHANGE
Rice - blasts, sheath blight, and brown spots
Wheat- stem rusts such as yellow rust, black rusts
Maize – foliar blight (dollar disease)
Lentil and chick peas- Botrytis Gray Mosaic Virus (BGM)
Lentil- Lentil blight (organisms not known)
Potato- Late blight
Citrus- citrus cancer, greening virus, powdery mildews
• Nepal’s economy is overwhelmingly
dependent on agriculture. Approximately
40% of the country’s GDP came from
agriculture in 2000; down from 52% in 1990
• A heavy reliance on tourism and agriculture
makes Nepal’s economy very sensitive to
climate variability (World Bank, 2002).
• The temperature difference are most
pronounced during winter season and least
after the summer monsoon begins (Shrestha
et al., 2000).
• Glacial retreat not only contributes to the
variability in river and stream flows but also
can be an additional source of risk to
agriculture.
AGRICULTURAL SECTOR IN SOUTH
ASIA
Effects in South Asia will have ripple effect in Nepal. Therefore, it
is necessary to learn about the impacts on this sector in South
Asian countries too.

• The crop model indicates that in South Asia, average yields in

2050 for crops will decline from 2000 levels by about 50
percent for wheat, 17 percent for rice, and about 6 percent
for maize because of climate change. (source: www.ipfri.org)

• In a no-climate change scenario, the number of

malnourished children in South Asia would fall from 76 to 52
million between 2000 and 2050. Climate change will erase
some of this progress, causing the number of malnourished
children in 2050 to rise to 59 million in South Asia. (source:
www.ipfri.org)

• Although some crops may benefit from the extra CO2 in the
atmosphere, research suggests this may be offset by damage
from higher temperatures, water stress, more virulent disease
and pest attacks” (Yamin and Depledge 2004,22). 49
 Global climatic changes can affect agriculture through their direct and
indirect effects on the crops, soils, livestock and pests.
The in can :
 Reduce crop duration.
 Increase crop respiration rates.
 Alter photosynthate partitioning to economic products.
 Affect the survival and distribution of pest populations.
 Hasten nutrient mineralization in soils.
 Decrease fertilizer-use efficiencies.
 Increase evapo-transpiration rate.
 Insect-pests will become more abundant through a number of inter-
related processes, including range extensions and phenological changes,
as well as increased rates of population development, growth, migration
and over-wintering.
 An increase in atmospheric level will have a fertilization
effect on crops with C3 photosynthetic pathway and thus will promote
their growth and productivity.
IMPACT ON LIVESTOCK
Livestock production is highly sensitive to climate change.

Rising temperature increases lignifications of plant tissues

and reduces the digestibility (Minson, 1990), reducing meat
and milk production in range-based livestock production
system.

Increased heat stress is another pathway affecting the

livestock production. The increased heat alters heat exchange
between animal and environment affecting the feed intake and
metabolism (SCA, 1990; Mader and Davis, 2004). Such
stresses will affect growth and productivity of the animals. But,
effects vary from species to species.

Water buffaloes need frequent bath for heat exchange.

Drying of ponds due to drought can deprive the buffaloes for
taking baths affecting adversely the productivity of the
buffaloes.

Similarly, the increased energy deficits may decrease cow

fertility, fitness, and longevity (King et al., 2006). Increased
temperature and humidity will increase the risks of mortality 51
and morbidity among the livestock and poultry.
GRASSLANDS AND LIVESTOCK

• There is unlikely to be a significant change in suitability of

livestock
• Pigs and poultry could be exposed to higher incidences of
heat stress, thus influencing productivity
• Increase in disease transmission by faster growth rates of
pathogens in the environment and more efficient and
abundant vectors (such as insects)
• Consequences for food quality and storage
CONTD…
• Livestock and livestock-related activities are
responsible for over 18% of human-made
greenhouse gas emissions, including:
 9% of global carbon dioxide emissions
 35–40% of global methane emissions (chiefly due to
enteric fermentation and manure)
 64% of global nitrous oxide emissions (chiefly due to
fertilizer use.
 Worldwide, livestock production occupies 70% of all
land used for agriculture, or 30% of the land surface
of the Earth.
 Livestock Production is Vulnerable
• Feed Grain & Forage
– Quantity & Quality Decrease
– Production Cost Increase
• Animal Heat & Humidity Stress
– Reduces growth, reproduction,
production (meat, dairy, eggs)
-- Climate control costs increase
• Disease & Pests
– Frequency, intensity, distribution
– Abundance and/or distribution of competitors,
predators, & parasites of vectors themselves
IMPACTS ON FORESTS AND
BIODIVERSITY
 IPCC predicts that approximately 20 to 30% of plant and
animal species assessed so far are likely to be at
increased risk of extinction if increases in global average
temperature exceed 1.5 to 2.5 degree Celsius.
 Increased temperature and rainfall variability have
resulted into shifts in agro-ecological zones, prolonged
dry spells, and higher incidences of pests and diseases.
 New alien and invasive species are emerging and their
habitat is spreading at a fast rate.
 Migration of the forest towards the higher altitude,
change in their composition, and extinction of species.
 Extreme climatic conditions have led to increased
incidence of fire in recent years affecting more than
50,000 people and loss of large areas of productive
forest land. These changes lead to species and habitat
loss.

55
HEALTH DETERMINANTS AND HEALTH
OUTCOMES IN SOME SOUTH ASIAN
COUNTRIES

56
 IMPACT ON HEALTH
 Climate change has both direct and indirect impact on health.

 Drought, heat waves, and flash floods have direct impacts on health.

 Climate-induced economic dislocation, conflict, crop failure, and associated malnutrition and
hunger, and the spread and aggravated intensity of infectious diseases due to changing
environmental conditions have indirect impacts on health.

 The infectious diseases include the vector-borne diseases such as malaria, kala-azar, dengue,
Japanese enchepalities and water related diseases such as diarrhea.

 IPCC IV Assessment Report, 2007 reveals that endemic morbidity and mortality due to
diarrheal disease associated with floods and droughts are expected to rise in East, South and
South East Asia due to projected changes in the hydrological cycle.

57
 IMPACT ON LIVELIHOOD
By directly eroding the resources that Poor People depend on for their livelihoods, climate change
makes it easier for people to fall into poverty and harder for the poorest to escape from it:

• Physical resources. Shelter and infrastructure will be damaged or destroyed by an increased

frequency of flooding, storms and climate-related disasters.

• Human resources. Malnutrition and the incidents of infectious diseases are predicted to rise with
changing weather patterns.

• Social resources. Reduced livelihood security and prolonged or more frequent droughts and
floods will lead to the displacement of communities

• Natural resources. Ecosystems are directly threatened by climate change. Change to the natural
environment undermines the poor who depend on local ecosystems for a variety of goods and
services, and rely on the productivity of their environment to support agriculture. Changes in local
ecosystems may require changes to agricultural systems and practices.

• Financial resources. The repeated failure of crops or loss of infrastructure and homes leads to
increased household costs, decline in income, slower economic development and lower
livelihood security.
58
(Source: Promoting Adaptation to Climate Change in Nepal, Practical Action)
OTHER IMPACTS: FLOOD
• In Nepal, Flood is mainly restricted to Terai region. It has 6000
rives with 4 mega basin ( perennial, fed by snow melt) and 6
smaller basins.
• Rivers exhibit great variation in their dry and wet season flows.
Not only small rivers but also the larger ones exhibit seasonal
variations of more than 100 %. Intense cloudbursts in the
catchments result in devastating flood.
• Floods in Terai occur regularly and causes considerable
damage. In case of sudden release by GLOFs, damage
caused by cascading water and associated debris can be
catastrophic.
Source: www.saarc-sec.org

59
IMPACT: ECONOMIC LOSS
• The paper, titled Assessing the Costs of Climate Change and
Adaptation in South Asia, forecasts that six countries - Bangladesh,
Bhutan, India, the Maldives, Nepal, and Sri Lanka - will see an
average economic loss of around 1.8 % of their collective annual
gross domestic product (GDP) by 2050, rising sharply to 8.8 % by 2100
if the world continues on its current fossil fuel-intensive path.
• Mahfuz Ahmed, the ADB's Principal Climate Change Specialist and
co-author of the report, says in a DW interview that if climate
change slows in line with the two degree temperature rise under the
Copenhagen-Cancun agreement, then these countries will only lose
1.3 percent of their economies by 2050 and 2.5 percent by 2100.
(Source: http://www.dw.de/climate-change-to-severely-impact-growth-in-south-
asia/a-17867698)

60
ANNUAL ECONOMIC LOSS: SOUTH
ASIA

61
CLIMATE CHANGE, LAND DEGRADATION AND FOOD SECURITY

• Land degradation is one of the major environmental

problems in Nepal. About 28.24% total land area in the
process of desertification that has severe implication of
food security;
• Extreme climate events have exacerbated incidence of
landslides, floods, soil erosion, and drought in Nepal
which has negative impacts on food production (NARC,
2010).
• Increase in atmospheric temperature caused increase in
evapotranspiration, soil erosion, landslides, floods, and
inundation of standing crops and reduction of soil fertility
(Malla, 2008),
 CLIMATE CHANGE, LAND DEGRADATION AND FOOD SECURITY

• Nepal experiencing food deficit in the Mountain districts for 4-5

months and the situation will be worsen by further warming;
• In the year 2008, more than 300,000 people in nine hill districts
of far western and mid-western Nepal face a precarious food
situation after the crops failed due to drought ( UN WFP).
• The districts also have the country's highest rates of child
malnutrition, according to government health statistics.
RESPONSES OF AGRICULTURAL
SYSTEMS
• Changes in farmer behavior
• Changes in production, consumption, prices, and
trade patterns
• Domestic and global market response
• U.S. impacts depend on global response

• Economic effects depend on domestic and global

adaptive capacity
• Impacts vary by region, by sector, and by stakeholder group
 CLIMATE INITIATIVES
GLOBALLY NEPAL

 United Nations Framework Convention • Nepal signed UNFCCC on 12th June 1992
on Climate Change (UNFCCC) • Ratified Kyoto Protocol on 16th September 2005

 Conference of Parties (COP) • Formulating climate change relevant policies

which includes NAPA and National Climate
Change Policy.
 Kyoto protocol
• GOs and NGOs are promoting renewable and
 Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) clean energy through various programs. (AEPC)
and other NGOs are promoting alternative
energy like Biogas, Solar, and Micro- Hydropower
 Joint Implementation etc.

• Various organizations are conducting awareness

raising and advocacy campaigns against climate
change

65
ADAPTATION INITIATIVES IN NEPAL
• Sustainable Development Agenda (SDAN), 2003
• Climate Change Council 2009
• Climate Change Management Division, 2010, MoEnv
• NAPA, 2010
• Climate change policy 2011
• Climate Resilient Planning Tool, 2011 : NPC
• Local Adaptation Plan of Action (LAPA), November 2011
• Three year Plan 2010 emphasized on climate resilient planning of
infrastructure sector and integrated poverty environment initiatives

66
 CLIMATE CHANGE INITIATIVES
• Before COP 15
Nepal organized
a Cabinet
Meeting at
Kalapatthar, near
the base camp of
the Mount Everest,
and issued the
“Kalapatthar
Declaration.”

67
CLIMATE CHANGE INITIATIVES

• The South Asian Regional Climate Change Conference

“from Kathmandu to Copenhagen” was held and a
Memorandum of Understanding was signed by 14 donors
and development partners to support Nepal on climate
change activities.
• In FY 2010-11 the National Planning Commission initiated
climate-resilient planning tools to make the country’s
economy and infrastructure climate-resilient.
• In 5-7 September 2011 Nepal organized an international
conference of mountain countries on climate change and
cope up with “Kathmandu Declaration on Green
Economy and Sustainable Mountain Development”

68
 OVERCOMING CLIMATE CHANGE
MITIGATION
“avoids the unmanageable…”
• Energy efficient appliances and
vehicles
• Planting trees
• Reduction of green house gases
ADAPTATION
“avoids the unmanageable…”
 Landslide stabilization, Pond construction, Flood
control
 Increasing the height of the dykes can protect
from flooding
 Introduction of New variety of disease resistant
and high productive crops
 Introducing cash crops like banana in rice field
where precipitation has significantly reduced to
support rice plants
 Intercropping, crop rotation and shifting
cultivation
 Climate induced disaster Preparedness by the
community
69
ADAPTATION REQUIRED IN NEPAL
Agriculture is the most important contributor in the economy,
therefore, adaptation for this sector should be rightly
promulgated.
• Smart Agriculture system by Rain Water harvesting and use of
right nutrients. Drought and flood proofing measures,
promoting crop diversification, Integrated watershed
management program, etc. should be used.
• Proper management of water resources system, promotion of
indigenous and sustainable technologies, etc.

70
 ADAPTATION INITIATIVES
 The government of Nepal prepared the NAPA in 2010 to address its urgent and immediate adaptation
needs through a consultative and country-driven process.

 NAPA is a strategic tool to access climatic vulnerability, and symmetrically respond to climate change
adaptation issues by developing appropriate adaptation measures.

 Out of about 250 adaptation options proposed by the Thematic Working Groups (TWG), nine
integrated projects have been identified as the urgent and immediate national adaptation priority.

 The government of Nepal has approved the National Framework on Local Adaptation Plans for Action
(LAPA Framework) in 2011 that helps to integrate climate adaptation and resilience aspects in local and
national plans.

71
 CONT…
 The government of Nepal has approved the National Framework on Local Adaptation Plans for
Action (LAPA Framework) in 2011 that helps to integrate climate adaptation and resilience aspects in
local and national plans.

 Agriculture, forestry, health, water and sanitation, watersheds and micro-finance have been
identified as the main entry points. But it states that education, local infrastructure, disasters and other
environment-related areas may also be taken as entry points.

 Since 2013, the government is implementing 70 Local Adaptation Plan for Actions in 69 village
development committees and one municipality of 14 districts in the Mid and Far Western regions of
Nepal with support from Nepal Climate Support Programme: Building Climate Resilience in Nepal
Project funded by UNDP/DFID/EU

72
 LAPA PROCESS
The LAPA Framework consists of the following 7 steps for formulation and
implementation. They are:

 Climate change sensitization

 Climate vulnerability and adaptation assessment
 Prioritization of adaptation options
 LAPA formulation
 LAPA integration in planning process
 LAPA implementation
 LAPA progress assessment
LAPA Steps
STEP 1:
STEP 2:
SENSITISATION VULNERABILITY
{Carried out in & ADAPTATION
all steps} ASSESSMENT

STEP 7:
ASSESSING STEP 3:
PROGRESS PRIORITISATION
OF ADAPTATION
{Carried out in OPTIONS
all steps}

STEP 6:
STEP 4:
IMPLEMENTING
ADAPTATION PLAN
ADAPTATION
DEVELOPMENT
PLAN

STEP 5:
INTEGRATING THE
ADAPTATION
PLAN

73
ADAPTATION STRATEGIES TO CLIMATE CHANGE
Developing cultivars tolerant to heat and salinity stress.
Resistant cultivars to flood and drought.
Modifying crop management practices.
Improving water management.
Adopting new farm techniques such as Resource
Conserving Technologies (RCTs).
Crop diversification.
Improving pest management.
Better weather forecasting.
Crop insurance and harnessing the indigenous technical
knowledge of farmers.
Developing Climate-ready Crops.
Diversification of crop and livestock varieties.
MITIGATING THE IMPACTS OF CLIMATE CHANGE IN NEPAL
What initiatives could be undertaken to mitigate these impacts?
Mitigating the consequences of climate change due to anthropogenic emission
of Co2 and CH4 in the atmosphere in order to limit the temperature rise up to 2°C
is the major concern of whole world so as our country Nepal. The need to act has
never been more urgent. We need to

Act Now – Energy Revolution

Act Together – Global partnership

Act Differently – policy and legislations

NEPAL: WHAT CAN WE DO?
•Building Adaptive capacity
•Reducing Vulnerability
•Stringent national adaptation plans such as NAPAs
Act Now

•Reduce emission level and individual carbon footprint (at the local level)
•Promote sustainable transport system and lower the use of fossil fuels (at national level)
Act •Abide by the Global rules and regulations as initiated in Climate Change forums (at international level)
Together

•Use of Smart Technology in Agriculture, Innovative approach to adapt to consequences of climate change
•Use of Carbon free technology for further industrial development and restructuring of industries with larger emission by providing
subsidies to promote low carbon technology
Act •Promotion of Renewable Energies.
Differently

76
 emission from
rice cultivation could be
alteration in water
management, particularly
promoting mid-season
aeration by short-term
drainage; improving
organic matter
management use of rice
cultivars with few
unproductive tillers, high
root oxidative activity and
high harvest index.
Most efficient management practice to reduce
is site-specific, efficient nutrient management
nitrification inhibitors such as nitrapyrin and dicyandiamide
(DCD).

Some plant-derived organics such as neem oil, neem cake and

karanja seed extract which can also act as nitrification
inhibitors.

Mitigation of ₂ emission from agriculture can be achieved by

increasing carbon sequestration in soil through manipulation
of soil moisture and temperature, setting aside surplus
agricultural land, and restoration of soil carbon on degraded
lands.

Soil management practices such as reduced tillage, manuring,

residue incorporation, improving soil biodiversity, micro
aggregation, and mulching can play important roles in
sequestering carbon in soil.
BUILDING AGRICULTURAL RESILIENCE
• Enhanced understanding of the role of natural resource base (water and soil)
• Understand Potential Exposures
• Focus on extremes as well as mean changes
• Understand Sensitivities
• Define critical thresholds & interactions
• Enhance Adaptive Capacity
• Resilient systems: Climate-ready crops & production systems

• Improved treatment of uncertainty and risk in climate

and adaptation decision-making and policy
• Potential impacts are real but inherently uncertain
• Building resilience by
strengthening local adaptive
capacity
 Recognise and respect local
adaptation and innovation efforts
 Assist smallholders to improve and/or
validate local innovations /
adaptations
 Spread successful locally developed
innovations / adaptations
 Introduce new ideas / practices /
formal science into farmer-led
processes of joint innovation /
adaptation
 Create direct local access to resources
for experimentation, innovation and
adaptation funds (LISFs)
 Adaptation options
 Altered agronomy of crops
 Altering dates of planting & spacing
 Alternate crops or cultivars
 Change in cropping system
 Conservation agriculture
 Zero tillage/direct seeding
 Reduction in summer fallow
 Conservation of soil moisture
 Crop diversification
 Forage in rotations
 Integrated farming system
 Integrated nutrient management
 Improved land use & NRM policies
 Risk management- early warning systems and
crop insurances
Mitigation options
 Afforestation
 Watershed management
 Organic agriculture
 Changing land use- Horticulture, Agroforestry,
Silviculture
 Integrated farming system
 Use of nitrification inhibitors and fertilizers
placement practices
 Improved management of livestock population
 Feed and fodder bank
 Solar power
 1. Genetics & Breeding and Biotechnology
 Conversion of C3 plants to C4 plants
 Transfer of gene from legume to non-legume crops
 Need to develop extreme conditions (heat, drought, flood) tolerant crops and cultivars
 Develop climate ready crops (defining new Ideotypes)
 Need to develop new breeds (or poultry birds)- tolerant to harsh conditions (Cold/ heat
waves)
 Selection and breeding of high yielding rice cultivars with low methane emission
potential
 Breeding for new animals breeds – less methane emission
 Transgenic development for biotic and abiotic stress
SOME LOCAL INNOVATIONS TO COPE
CC
• Reintroduction of traditional crops: the traditional drought resistant crops such as sorghum,
pearl millet, finger millet that had been abandoned in favor of maize and beans were
reintroduced.
• Cropping calendar: traditional cropping calendar that provides the guidelines for livestock
and crops production activities: land preparation, selection of appropriate varieties and
breeds was done.
• Sand dams; to enhance perennial availability and accessibility of water two sand dams were
constructed which provided the partial barrier across river that traps water hence assist in
water conservation.
In case of Nepal the examples of such innovation are:

• Building houses on raised land to protect from flood.

• Rearing of goats and sheep on raised pens.

• change in cropping pattern e.g. in land near to river bed planting of sweet
potato, water melons, ground nut, sesame e.t.c.
• Position of seed vessels (kothiya) raised so that the cereals can be saved from
water.
• The stilt house (thati ghar) being built for preserving seeds, grains, cereals and
utensils during flood.
• Check bunds, dams, wall being built on their own traditional methods to deal
with changing pattern of weather.

• CBM
• Diversity of adaptation / innovation cases of Nepal :
 Reduction in tillage and mulching of garlic to cope
with less rain
 Additional millet crop in winter
 Hanging nurseries on platforms to protect seedlings
against floods
 Own crossbreeding to develop maize varieties that
withstand lodging
• Examples of pastoralist adaptation to CC: Ethiopia
 Developing own cut-and-carry feeding system
 Creating private and community waterpoints
 Increasing market interaction (credit, vehicle use)
 Changing herd composition
 Settling on islands in dryland lakes
 Diversifying livelihood sources by men & women
 Empowering traditional institutions
 Ethiopian pastoralists’ cut-and-carry innovation
COMBINING TECHNICAL AND SOCIO-ORGANISATIONAL INNOVATION
(COLLECTIVE ACTION WITHIN COMMUNITY)
• Some examples from other
countries
 Niger: Donkeys as dowry
for young women to cover
long distances to water
points
 India: Flood protection by
planting bamboo
 Jamaica: Protecting
banana plants from high
winds
 Indonesia: Fencing for flood
protection; early-maturing
beans; moving houses
3/31/2016 90
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