Ore Geology Reviews 148 (2022) 104984

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Ore Geology Reviews

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Mineralization of ion-adsorption type rare earth deposits in Western

Yunnan, China
Xiangping Zhu a, b, *, Bin Zhang b, Guotao Ma b, Zewei Pan c, Zhaoguo Hu d, Baotao Zhang d
a
Chengdu University of Technology, Collge of Earth Sciences, Chengdu, Sichuan 610059, China
b
Chengdu Center of China Geological Survey, Chengdu, Sichuan 610081, China
c
Yunnan Institute of Geological Survey, Kunming, Yunnan 650216, China
d
Geological Exploration Institute of Shandong Zhengyuan, China Metallurgical Geology Bureau, Jinan, Shandong 250013, China

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: With the widespread application of heavy rare earth elements (HREEs) in high-tech fields, ion-adsorption type
Rare earth elements rare earth element (iREE) deposits have attracted much attention as the main output deposit type of HREE
iREE deposits metals. In recent years in western Yunnan, southwest China, iREE deposits have made some large discoveries and
Metallogenesis
received a high degree of attention. In this article, we summarize the metallogenic background, distribution, and
Granite Regolith
The Western Yunnan China
metallogenic characteristics of iREE deposits in the Tengchong and the Lincang Granite Belt in western Yunnan,
and analyzes the roles of ore-forming parent rock, regional metamorphism and alteration, epigenesis, and granite
regolith composition in the metallogenesis of the iREE deposit in western Yunnan. It is believed that the high REE
content granite parent rocks, metamorphic or magmatic-hydrothermal alteration, hot and humid climate, gentle
topography, large and thick granite regolith are all favorable factors for iREE deposit formation. The long-term
and multi-stage magmatic evolution formed high REE content granite parent rocks. Strong magmatic-
hydrothermal activity and strong metamorphism associated with regional slip movement have contributed to
the enrichment of REE elements and the formation of easily dissociated REE-bearing minerals, laying the ma­
terial foundation for iREE deposits. The humid, hot and rainy climate and the vegetation-rich surface environ­
ment are conducive to weathering, which contributes to the formation of granite regolith and clay minerals, and
the dissociation of REE-bearing minerals. Favorable topographical areas help to retain large-scale and thicker
granite regolith, in which the clay minerals continue to adsorb the REE ions which have been infiltrated and
migrated by the aqueous solution downward, leading to the gradual enrichment of REE elements and the for­
mation of iREE deposits.

1. Introduction
Rare earth elements (REEs) are critical raw materials in modern
manufacturing, which are widely used in modern economic fields. REE
metals have excellent ductility, plasticity, and optical, electrical, mag­
netic, thermal, and other characteristics, making them play an increas­
ingly important role in the high-tech technology industry (e.g. Wall
et al., 2017). With the gradual expansion of REEs applications, REEs
resources have attracted more attention. Although the abundance of
REEs is relatively high in the crust, they are scattered and difficult to
enrich into ore deposits. Therefore, the amount of resources discovered
is small and their global distribution is extremely uneven. China is a
major producer of REE metals. In 2019, China’s REE output still
accounted for 62.9% of the world’s total output (US Geological Survey,
2020). REEs are divided into light rare earth elements (LREEs) and
heavy rare earth elements (HREEs). The abundance of HREEs in the
crust is much lower than that of LREEs (Rudnick and Gao, 2003). HREE
resources are more widely used in high-tech fields, and the consumption
of HREEs has been increasing greatly in the past decades, and more
attention has been paid. China is also the major producer of HREEs in the
world, while, HREEs are mainly produced in southern China and are
occurred in ion adsorption type (iREE) deposits (Kynicky et al., 2012;
Wall et al., 2017; Wang et al., 2018; Xie et al., 2016).
The iREE deposit is also known as the regolith-hosted REE deposit,
which is formed by the accumulation of REEs in the regolith. The
favorable parent rocks include alkaline mafic and ultramafic rocks, REE-

* Corresponding author at: NO.2, Section 3, 1st Ring Road North, Chengdu City, Sichuan Province 610081, China.
E-mail address: zhuxiangping3@hotmail.com (X. Zhu).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.oregeorev.2022.104984
Received 23 December 2021; Received in revised form 20 March 2022; Accepted 8 June 2022
Available online 15 June 2022
0169-1368/© 2022 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-
nc-nd/4.0/).
X. Zhu et al. Ore Geology Reviews 148 (2022) 104984

Fig. 1. The tectonic framework and the distribution of iREE deposits in West Yunnan, China. a- the tectonic framework in West Yunnan, China; b-the sketch
geological map showing the distribution of iREE deposits in West Yunnan, China; c- Distribution of iREE deposits in the Lincang granite belt; d- Distribution of iREE
deposits in the Tengchong granite belt.

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X. Zhu et al.
Fig. 2. Chondrite-normalized REE and primitive mantle-normalized trace element patterns of REE deposit parent granite (C1 chondrite data are from Sun and
Mcdonough, 1989).
rich granite, syenite, rhyolite, and other metamorphic rocks, which are
subjected to long-term physical and chemical weathering (Sanematsu
and Watanabe, 2016; Zhou et al., 2020). Currently, iREE deposits are the
dominant source of global HREE production (Simandl, 2014). In China,
iREE deposits are mainly distributed in five provinces including Jiangxi,
Guangdong, Guangxi, Fujian, and Hunan (Xie et al., 2016). Before 2015,
only one iREE deposit, the long’an deposit was found in the Yunnan
province (Li et al., 2010); since 2017, through the geological survey and
REE deposit exploration, many new prospecting discoveries have been
made in Western Yunnan (Zhang et al., 2018; Zeng et al., 2019; Zhang
et al., 2019; Lu et al., 2019, 2020), highlighting a large REE resource
potential. The sharply REE metal increase production in recent years
makes Myanmar an important supplier of HREEs after China, while the
main REE metal producing area of Myanmar is located in the south
extension of the granite belt in West Yunnan, making the REE resources
in West Yunnan more concerned. In this paper, essential metallogenic
factors and the metallogenic mechanism of iREE deposits in western
Yunnan are summarized, aiming to guide the prospecting of rare earth
deposits.
2. Geological setting
The iREE deposits currently discovered are mainly concentrated in
the southern part of the Sanjiang metallogenic belt in the western
Yunnan area. The southern part of the Sanjiang metallogenic belt was
formed via Paleotethyan ocean closure and the subsequent amalgam­
ation of Gondwana-derived micro-continental blocks and Paleozoic arc
terranes (Metcalfe, 2013; Yin and Harrison, 2000). After the amalgam­
ation, it was influenced by the subduction of the Meso-and Neotethyan
oceanic plates from Jurassic to Paleocene (e.g. Deng et al., 2014), and
the large scale of intraplate magmatism was triggered during multistage
tectonic movements. In the western Yunnan area of the Sanjiang met­
allogenic belt, from west to east, four tectonic units are recognized, i.e.
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the Tengchong tectonic block, the Nujiang – Gaoligongshan – Ruili fault
zone, the Baoshan tectonic block, and the Changning - Menglian tectonic
zone (Fig. 1). The Nujiang – Gaoligongshan – Ruili fault zone is an
important ductile shear and active fault zone in the region (Deng et al.,
2014; Wang and Burchfiel, 1997; Zhang et al., 2017), which divides the
Tengchong and Baoshan blocks. IREE deposits in this area are mainly
occurring in the Tengchong and the Lincang granite belt, which is
located in the Tengchong tectonic block and the Changning - Menglian
tectonic zone.
2.1. The Tengchong tectonic block and granite belt
The Tengchong block is located in the southeastern margin of the
Qinghai-Tibet Plateau between the Nujiang and Myitkyina sutures,
formed by the successive subduction and extinction of the Central
Tethys Nujiang Ocean and the Neo-Tethys Myitkyina Ocean (Yin and
Harrison, 2000), extending south to the Mogok belt of Myanmar
(Mitchell, 1993). The Tengchong block contains high-grade meta­
morphic rocks, Cambrian–Triassic sedimentary rocks, Mesozoic-
Cenozoic granites, early Pliocene to Holocene volcanic rocks, and
small Neogene basins (Li et al., 2000; Kornfeld et al., 2014; Xu et al.,
2015). Due to northward subduction of the Indian plate and the clock­
wise rotation around the eastern Himalayan syntaxis, a series of NNE-
trending strike-slip shear zones were activated in Cenozoic (Tappon­
nier et al., 1986; Xu et al., 2015), forming several shear zones bounded
by the Gaoligongshan shear zone in the east.
Accompanied by the tectonic amalgamation (Xu et al., 2012) and
deformation, four major magmatic episodes are distinguished, i.e. early
Cretaceous (126–108 Ma) in the eastern Tengchong Block (Xu et al.,
2012; Zhu et al, 2015), late Cretaceous (76–66 Ma) in the central and
northwestern Tengchong Block (Xu et al., 2012; Yang et al., 2018),
Paleocene to early Eocene (66–45 Ma) in the western and southeastern
Tengchong Block (Wang et al., 2014; Yang et al., 2018; Zhu et al., 2015),
X. Zhu et al.
Fig. 3. Layered structure of granite regolith hosting iREE deposits in West Yunnan, China (modified from Zhang et al., 2016).
and Cenozoic volcanism (Li et al., 2012; Wang et al., 2006). Including
granites, gabbro–granite complex, and leucogranite, intrusive rocks
intruded into the Paleozoic and Mesozoic strata and metamorphic rocks,
with locally and partly overlain by Cenozoic sediments and volcano-
sedimentary sequences. Confine to the regional tectonic framework
and late deformation (Xu et al., 2015), most of those intrusive magmatic
rocks outcrop in irregular long shapes, parallel or sub-parallel to the
regional NNE-trending strike-slip shear zones.
The Tengchong granite belt is an important Sn(-W) metallogenic belt
in southwest China, which extends to Southeast Asia and is connected to
the Southeast Asian tin belt, with a high Sn metallogenic potential (Mao
et al., 2020). To date, 28 Sn(-W) deposits have been discovered in this
region, including two large Sn deposits (Fig. 1c). Some W and Be de­
posits are also discovered in that area (Fig. 1c).
2.2. The Lincang granite belt
The Lincang batholith and associated volcanic rocks are located to
the east of the Changning-Menglian Paleo-Tethys suture, which repre­
sents a remnant of the Paleo-Tethys Ocean (Sone and Metcalfe, 2008).
Triggered by Changning-Menglian Paleo-Tethys oceanic crust Triassic
eastward post-subduction, felsic magmas upwelled and intruded into the
intrudes Proterozoic metamorphic rocks (the Lancang Group) to the
west and was defined by a major compressive fault zone to the east
forming the Lincang batholith, which was unconformably overlain by
the terrestrial red-beds of the Middle Jurassic Huakaizuo Formation (e.g.
Cong et al., 2020). The N-S striking Lincang granite occurs as a “Z” shape
and covers an area of 7400 km2, with a length of 370 km and a width of
10–50 km, from Fengqing county in the north and to Jinghong city near
the China-Burma border in the West Yunnan area. The Lincang batholith
is mainly made up of biotite monzogranite, with minor granodiorite and
tonalite (e.g. Cong et al., 2020). Concerning its lithological attributes,
the granite mainly consists of an assemblage of fine- to medium-grained
potash-feldspar biotite monzogranites, belonging to high-K calc-alkaline
S-type granites with an intrusive age of ca. 200–250 Ma (Dong et al.,
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2013; Deng et al., 2018; Cong et al., 2020). The composition of the
Lincang Batholith records three magmatic episodes related to the Paleo-
Tethys evolution, corresponding to subduction (prior to ~ 252 Ma), syn-
collisional (250–237 Ma), and post-collisional (235–203 Ma) stages
(Deng et al., 2018).
2.3. Regional distribution of iREE deposits in western Yunnan
In the past five years, with the iREE deposits exploration pushing
continuously, many discoveries have been gained, especially in the
western Yunnan area (Lu et al., 2020). The newly discovered iREE de­
posits in western Yunnan are mainly concentrated in the Tengchong
granite belt and Lincang granite belt, and all of them are produced in
granite regolith.
As the firstly discovered iREE deposit, the Long’an deposit is located
in the southwest section of Banggunjianshan granite batholith in the
Tengchong granite belt (Li et al., 2010). In the north of the Banggun­
jianshan granite batholith, four large iREE deposits (i.e. the Yingpan­
shan, the Lulian-Longba, the Damanbie, and the Yiwanshui iREE
deposits, Fig. 1, Fig. 2) were discovered by geological survey and still in
exploration, showing the iREE metallogenic potential of the Banggun­
jianshan granite batholith. Both the Longan deposit and the four newly
discovered iREE deposits have geographical environment features and
mineralization characteristics, especially, they are located at the edge of
the Lianghe ductile shear zones (Xu et al., 2015). The Tuguanzhai de­
posit was also a newly discovered large iREE deposit, which is located in
the east of the Tengchong granite belt and on the west side of the
Gaoligong ductile shear zone (Zhang et al., 2019). Meanwhile, the
Jianshanjiao and the Jueyeba, together with some minor iREE deposits
were also discovered in that area. In the Yingjiang county area, located
in the central and west of the Tengchong granite, several large iREE
deposits were discovered (Yan et al., 2010), and all of them are closely
adjacent to the Yingjiang ductile shear zone (Xu et al., 2015). In addi­
tion, these granite intrusions host tin deposits in the north-central
Tengchong granite belt with high REEs content. In the granite regolith
X. Zhu et al.
at the periphery and shallow surface of the tin deposit (Fig. 1c), REE
mineralization was also confirmed. Thus, the granite regolith around Sn
deposits also has a large metallogenic potential (Li et al., 2017). All of
these discoveries of iREE deposits and REE mineralization in recent
years confirm that the Tengchong granite belt is an iREE metallogenic
belt.
Several iREE deposits were also discovered since 2017 in the Lincang
granite belt (Fig. 1, Fig. 3), which is supposed as a barren area. The
Menghai iREE metallogenic district is the most prospective area, which
is located in the south of the Lincang granite belt (Fig. 1, Fig. 3), con­
taining five medium to large iREE deposits (Zeng et al., 2019; Zhang
et al., 2020), i.e. the Huilongka, the Pagong-Suhu, the Manao-
nannuoshan, the Manguangwa, and the Huopanshan iREE deposits.
And all of these newly discovered deposits are still in exploration now.
Some iREE deposits were also discovered in Lincang City and Lancang
County (Fig. 3) (Lu et al., 2020; Lu et al., 2019), while typical repre­
sentatives include the Shangyun REE deposit in the Lincang County and
the Linpaipo REE deposit Lancang County (He Xianchuan et al., 2016).
The discovered iREE deposits produced in the regolith of the Lincang
granite belt so far are mainly concentrated in the south of Lincang city
(Fig. 3) and north of the Menghai county, showing that the Lincang -
Menghai granite belt is also an REE metallogenic belt.
3. Metallogenic features of iREE deposits
The iREE deposits distributed in western Yunnan are all produced in
the granite regolith, which is similar to these regolith-host REE deposits
in South China (e.g. Bao and Zhao, 2008; Zhou et al., 2020). Meanwhile,
the special output environment in the southeast of the Tibet plateau
makes them own some unique features. The REEs content of parent
granite rock, the metamorphism and alteration of parent granite rock,
the distribution of granite regolith in plateau landforms, the material
composition of granite regolith, and the characteristics of ore bodies all
have regional characteristics.
3.1. Characteristics of ore-forming parent granite rock
Both the Tengchong and the Lincang granite belt were formed by
long-lived magmatic evolution and contain multi-stages of granite in­
trusions. As for the strong inhomogeneity of REEs concentrations, the
resistant granite rock near the REE deposits owns more representative
features of parent rocks. The Longan, the Yingpanshan the Lulian-
Longba, the Damanbie, and the Yiwanshui iREE deposits are produced
in the Banggunjianshan granite batholith, which contains fine-grained
granite, granodiorite, and biotite monzogranite in lithology (Wu,
2014; Zhao et al., 2017). The outcrop scale of fine-grained granite is
relatively small and intruded earlier (ca.73~74 Ma) (Wu, 2014); the
subsequent emplaced diorite and biotite monzogranite have the
concentrated ages of ca.50 Ma (Wu, 2014; Zhao et al., 2017). Biotite
monzogranite within the Banggunjianshan granite batholith is close to
or outcrop in those REE deposits, indicating that biotite monzogranite
acted as the parent granite rock of the Long’an and other iREE deposits.
Furthermore, the intrusive ages and geochemical features of biotite
monzogranite are the features of parent rocks of those iREE deposits.
Biotite granite mainly contains the major mineral composition of
plagioclase, orthoclase, quartz, and biotite, and the accessory mineral
composition of zircon, apatite, and titanite (Zhao et al., 2017). The
parent rock that formed the Tuguanzhai iREE deposit is the Xinhuaxiang
mylonitized biotite monzogranite, its mineral components are ortho­
clase, plagioclase, quartz, biotite, muscovite. And the accessory minerals
include magnetite, zircon, apatite, ilmenite. The intrusive age of the
Xinhuaxiang mylonitized biotite monzogranite is ca. 46 to 48 Ma (Lin
et al., 2014). The parent granite rock that formed the Jianshanjiao iREE
deposit belongs to monzogranite, its mineral components include
orthoclase, plagioclase, quartz, biotite, muscovite, and accessory min­
erals include apatite, ilmenite, tourmaline, garnet, zircon, with the
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Ore Geology Reviews 148 (2022) 104984
intrusive ages ranging from 52 to 56 Ma (Xu et al., 2012; Li et al., 2014).
The parent granite rock forming these newly discovered iREE deposits
are also monzogranites, their main mineral components are feldspar,
plagioclase, quartz, biotite, hornblende and the accessory minerals
include allanite, zircon, apatite, titanite, and their intrusive ages are
concentrated within 41–53 Ma (Yan Lijun et al., 2020). The above ore-
forming parent rocks of iREE deposits indicate that monzogranite is the
main ore-forming parent rock in the Tengchong area, and the intrusive
ages are concentrated in the Eocene. In the Tengchong granite belt, these
Eocene granites were mainly formed by magma mixing of mafic and
felsic magmas during the subduction rollback of the Neo-Tethyan slab
(Wang et al., 2014; Yang et al., 2018), and the process of mantle-derived
melt injection into the source region may play an important role to the
REEs enrichment of Eocene granites, which is similar to the metallogenic
background of some iREE deposits in southern China (Sanematsu and
Watanabe, 2016).
The REEs content of the parent rocks of iREE deposit in the Teng­
chong granite belt is relatively high, with 260–809 ppm in the Bang­
gunjianshan monzogranite, mostly higher than 300 ppm (Wu, 2014; Wu
et al, 2015; Zhao, 2017; Zhao et al., 2017); 312–558 ppm in the Xin­
huaxiang monzogranite (Lin Musen et al., 2014); and relatively low in
the Jianshanjiao alkali granite (146–304 ppm, Li et al., 2014). The
granite host rocks of the mineralization are all enriched in light REEs
and depleted in HREEs, with obvious Eu negative anomalies (Fig. 3). The
(La/Yb)N values of the Banggunjianshan monzogranite range from 2.4 to
43.6, the (La/Yb)N values of Xinhuaxiang monzogranite range from 8.6
to 12.5, and the (La/Yb)N values of Jianshanjiao alkali granite range
from 1.6 to 22.9 (Table S1). In the Tengchong area, the parent rocks are
characteristic of high REEs content, its (La/Yb)N values are also gener­
ally high, although some heavy HREEs deposits are still formed in its
regolith.
The rare earth ore-forming parent rocks discovered in the Lincang
Granite Belt are all biotite monzogranites (Zeng et al., 2019; Lu et al.,
2019; Zhang et al., 2020; Zhang et al., 2018), with plagioclase, ortho­
clase, quartz, black mica, as the main mineral components, and ilmenite,
magnetite, limonite, monazite, apatite, zircon, thorite, as the para­
genetic minerals (Lu et al., 2020). The intrusive zircon U-Pb ages of
these granites in the Lincang belt are mainly concentrated within
219–230 Ma (Catlos et al., 2017; Dong et al., 2013) and formed in a post-
collisional environment (Cong et al., 2020; Deng et al., 2018; Dong et al.,
2013). The biotite monzogranite parent rock forming the iREEs deposits
in the Menghai area are enriched in LREEs and depleted in HREEs, with
relatively weak negative Eu anomalies (Fig. 3), (La/Yb)N values of 6.7 to
44.8, and total REEs content of 172 to 357 ppm (Catlos et al., 2017; Dong
et al., 2013). The biotite monzogranites nearby the Lincang also have
similar rare earth distribution characteristics, with total REEs content
varying from 159 to 328 ppm (average 204 ppm) and (La/Yb)N values of
7.4 to 34.6 (Deng et al., 2018). The REE element content of REE ore-
forming parent rocks within the Lincang granite belt is relatively low
and pegmatite veins are usually developed in mostly REE deposits.
Although the (La/Yb)N values of parent granite are high, some HREEs
deposits can also be formed in the granite regolith.
3.2. Characteristics of granite regolith
As the iREE deposits in western Yunnan are mainly hosted in granite
regolith, the distribution and composition of granite regolith have a
strong controlling effect on regional REE mineralization. The regolith is
a thin discontinuous crust composed of weathering products formed by
weathering and distributed on the surface of the continent, which is the
surface layer of the earth crust destroyed by weathering and formed a
loose pile in situ. Due to the differences in weathering factors, mode,
intensity, and nature of the original parent rock under different climatic
conditions, the regolith often forms multi-layered residual layers with
different compositions and structures along the vertical direction. The
material composition, thickness, and distribution of granite regolith in
X. Zhu et al. Ore Geology Reviews 148 (2022) 104984

Fig. 4. Chondrite-normalized REE patterns of drilling cores from the Tuguanzhai iREE deposit in the Tengchong granite belt, and the Huilongka and the Pagongsuhu
REE deposit in the Lincang granite belt (Light green icons represent samples from the pedolith horizon, black icons represent samples from the full-weathered granite
horizon, blue icons represent samples from the semi-weathered granite horizon, and red filled icons represent samples from the ore bodies; C1 chondrite data are
from Sun and Mcdonough, 1989). (For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)

western Yunnan are mainly controlled by the nature of the parent rock
and the weathering factors, weathering mode, and weathering intensity.
Similar to the regolith in the iREE deposits in South China (Bao and
Zhao, 2008), for the well-developed weathering profiles, the granite
regolith shows a layered structure from the surface to the bedrock,
depending on the degree of weathering, which can be divided into a
surficial humic horizon (0–0.5 m thick), a pedolith horizon (0.5–3 m
thick), a full-weathered granite horizon (more than 15 m thick), a semi-
weathered granite horizon (2–6 m thick), and granite bedrock from the
surface downwards (Fig. 4), with transitional gradations between the
layers. The weathering degree gradually becomes weaker from top to
bottom. The surficial humic horizon is mostly sloping deposition, gray-
black, and black-brown, mainly composed of black clay and plant roots,
and a small number of quartz particles are seen. The pedolith horizon is
mostly brick red, partly gray-yellow, mainly composed of clay minerals.
Although the pedolith horizon is continuous on the plane, its thickness
varies greatly, and some of the REE deposits in this horizon contain REE
ores. The full-weathered granite horizon is the most dominant compo­
nent of the granite regolith and the main REE ore hosting horizon. In this
horizon, the original rock structure is partially destroyed with mineral
artifacts preserved, and weathering-resistant minerals (e.g. quartz) are
partially retained. The semi-weathered granite horizon is relatively
loose, sporadically containing hard granite inclusions and granite
spherical weathering residue. Rocks in this horizon can retain the
original rock structure, and easily weathered minerals (such as plagio­
clase, mica, orthoclase) are partial to completely weathered. The top
part of the semi-weathered granite horizon near the fully weathered
layer has relatively high REE content, locally can form the industrial ore
body. The bedrock layer is hard, except for the feldspar which is slightly
weathered, retaining the structure of the original granite structure, and
the REE content represents that of the granite parent rock.
IREE deposits are commonly found in the tropical and subtropical
regions, the epigenetic environment in these regions is mainly a rainy,
hot, and humid climate, which facilitate forming a gently undulating
hilly landscape. Moreover, the hot rainy climate and gentle terrain are
conducive to chemical weathering and the formation and preservation
of regolith (Li et al., 2017; Zhou et al., 2020). The granites of western
Yunnan, located in the subtropical climate zone, were influenced by
multi-phase tectonic movements and formed a north-northeast striking
“gully-valley-basin” system, where low and gentle hills, slopes, and
ridges are distributed on both sides and the perimeter of the “gully-
valley-basin” chain (Zhang et al., 2018). Favorable climatic environ­
ments and topographic conditions laid the foundation for the formation
of thick granite regolith. Controlled by regional tectonic movements,
granite belts are spreading in a northeast to north–south direction, and
granite regolith and REE deposits are also controlled by the spreading of
granite belts; in the lateral basin-mountain system, granite regolith is
more developed in the gently sloping parts of low and high mountain

6
X. Zhu et al.
Fig. 5. A descriptive model of iREE deposits in West Yunnan, China (modified from Zhou et al., 2020).
hills in the basin-mountain transition zone, and iREE deposits are hosted
in them (Zhang et al., 2018). The extensive vegetation cover, abundant
precipitation, dry and wet climatic environment, and favorable topo­
graphic and geomorphological features result with the regolith in the
Tengchong granite belt relatively developed, and the thickness of the
granite regolith is mostly 20–30 m (Zhang et al., 2018), and the thickest
can exceed 40 m. The Lincang granite belt experienced Triassic orogenic
uplift, and the influence of climatic factors may be more obvious,
resulting in granite regolith and REE deposits mostly concentrated in
low-latitude areas. The granite regolith is also the product of the balance
between weathering and denudation, and its spreading characteristics
are controlled by the influence of surface precipitation and river dis­
tribution, resulting in a variety of forms of regolith spreading. The in­
fluence of surface water and rivers on the spreading of granite regolith in
the Lincang-Menghai area is particularly obvious. The thickness of
weathering crusts in the Lincang granite belt varies significantly from
north to south, with the thickness of granite weathering crusts mostly
ranging from 1 to 3 m near Fengqing County in the northern section;
near Lincang City, the thickness of REE ore hosting granite regolith
mostly ranges from 5 to 20 m, and the local thickness can exceed 30 m
(Lu et al., 2019; Zhang et al., 2018); the thickness of mineralized granite
regolith in Menghai area mostly exceeds 10 m (Zhang et al., 2020), and
the thickest can exceed 40 m. The thickness of the weathering crust is a
sign of the intensity of weathering (Zhang, 1990), and the thickness of
the granite regolith gradually increases from north to south, indicating a
gradual increase of weathering.
The thickness of the granite regolith has a positive relationship to
REE mineralization. In the Tengchong granite belt, the larger granite
regolith usually has greater thickness and hosts the larger REE deposits,
and REE ore body grade is relatively higher (Zhang et al., 2018); the
higher grade and larger scale REE deposits in the Lincang granite belt are
distributed in the southern end of the Lincang granite belt (Zhang et al.,
2020), which are also hosted in those thicker granite regoliths.
3.3. REEs migration and mineral composition changes during weathering
The material composition of the granite regolith is controlled by the
parent granite rock components and the chemical weathering experi­
enced. Meanwhile, elements in the granite regolith were enriched or lost
in the weathering process due to the difference in their geochemical
properties. For example, in the Tuguanzhai REE deposit of the
7
Ore Geology Reviews 148 (2022) 104984
Tengchong granite belt, Fe, Mg, Ti, MnO, and REE are enriched to
different degrees from the semi-weathered layer to the fully weathered
layer, while Ca, Na, K, and P are migrated out to different degrees
(Zhang et al., 2019). In most ore-bearing granite regolith of the Lincang
granite belt, Na, K, Mg, Fe, Ca are migrated out with increasing
weathering degree, and Al and Si are mostly retained in situ (Lu et al.,
2019).
Corresponding to the elemental changes, minerals in the granite host
rock are decomposed during weathering, and secondary minerals are
also formed. The clay minerals in the granite regolith of REE deposits in
the Lincang granite belt are also mainly kaolinite, followed by a small
amount of illite, montmorillonite, vermiculite, and chlorite. Vermiculite
is mainly found in the upper part of the full-weathered granite horizon,
and chlorite is mainly distributed in the full-weathered granite horizon
and below; the content of kaolinite gradually decreases from the surfi­
cial humic horizon to the fully weathered layer, while the content of
illite and montmorillonite gradually increases (Lu et al., 2020).
3.4. Metamorphism and alteration characteristics
The iREE ores are hosted by granite regolith, it is difficult to identify
their structure and mineral composition directly because the original
rocks are weathered, and their metamorphic and alteration information
can only be judged by the adjacent parent rock outcrops. The Tengchong
block is controlled by intra-land slip shear (Xu et al., 2015), and the
adjacent granites have been mylonitized to different degrees, and some
rocks have developed silicification, and zircon radiogenic lead in the
granites have been lost to some extent, indicating that the mylonitized
granites have been affected by late magmatic-hydrothermal and meta­
morphic thermal events (Lin et al., 2014). REE deposits produced close
to the ductile shear zone, such as the Tuguanzhai, the Longan, and the
series of rare earth ores produced within the Banggunjianshan granite
batholith, perhaps have been significantly affected by ductile shear
metamorphism in their ore-forming host rocks. The development of
pegmatite and other hydrothermal veins is also a typical feature of
newly discovered REE deposits in western Yunnan, and pegmatite veins
can be seen in the parent granite rocks or regolith of REE deposits in
western Yunnan. Multiple hydrothermal veins containing beryl-
tourmaline-fluorite pegmatite or fluorite veins are developed in the
depth of some REE deposits (e.g., Jianshan foot rare earth ore) (Li et al.,
2014). Some of the REE deposits (e.g., the Jianshanjiao REE deposit) are
X. Zhu et al. Ore Geology Reviews 148 (2022) 104984

Table 1
XRD analysis results of mineral composition of granite regolith in drilling hole HCZ008 of the Tuganzhai iREE deposit, Lianghe County, Yunnan Province.
Sample Mineral content (%)

quartz K-feldspar plagioclase calcite dolomite siderite magnesite hematite anhydrite anatase diaspore gibbsite TCCM

HCZ008-H1 41.6 18.2 \ 1.4 2.5 \ \ 1.2 2.7 \ 5.0 3.3 24.1
HCZ008-H2 29.0 26.2 1.0 1.0 4.4 0.7 2.1 \ 2.0 \ 10.1 4.1 19.4
HCZ008-H3 36.8 25.7 \ 1.7 3.8 \ 3.9 1.7 \ 5.4 3.6 17.4
HCZ008-H5 25.5 26.4 \ 2.2 4.5 \ 1.2 3.2 \ 8.1 \ 28.9
HCZ008-H7 33.3 30.7 \ 2.5 5.5 \ 1.3 4.3 \ 7.4 1.0 14.0
HCZ008-H9 26.1 34.5 \ 2.1 4.5 1.9 \ 3.0 \ 6.1 \ 21.8
HCZ008-H11 32.3 27.2 \ 1.7 5.8 \ 2.6 3.5 \ 4.6 \ 22.3
HCZ008-H13 27.1 39.2 5.0 2.1 5.1 \ 1.0 2.9 \ 5.2 \ 12.4
HCZ008-H14 32.3 11.5 9.8 \ 2.5 2.6 \ \ 11.3 \ \ 30.0
HCZ008-H16 28.6 6.8 20.6 \ 4.3 1.4 \ 2.0 4.9 2.0 \ 29.4

Note: TCCM-Total content of clay minerals; The mineralogical phases were determined by optical microscopic observation and powder X-ray diffraction spectrometry
(XRD). The XRD measurements were carried out at Chongqing Institute of Geology and Mineral Resources using a D8 advance diffractometer equipped with a Cu-target
tube and a curved graphite monochromator, operating at 40 kV and 40 mA. Samples were step-scanned from 3◦ to 45◦ with a step size of 0.02◦ (2θ). The analytical
procedures follow the method described by Chinese National Standard SY/T5163-2010 (Zeng et al., 2010).

developed at the surface and outskirt of tin and rare metal deposits (e.g.,
the Xinqi tin and rare metal deposit), and multiple hydrothermal veins
such as beryl-tourmaline-fluorite pegmatite veins or fluorite veins are
developed. The granite batholith in the Lincang-Menghai area, which
has a high potential for rare earth ore search, is widely developed with
pegmatite veins, and hydrothermal alteration is inevitable in all granites
adjacent to hydrothermal veins.
3.5. Mineralization characteristics
It is generally believed that iREEs ores are adsorbed by clay minerals
and can be extracted by ion exchange. The process of REEs being
enriched in granite regolith gradually is the process of REEs minerali­
zation, the fugacity state of REEs in clay minerals is not yet clear (Zhou
et al., 2020), and the quantitative evaluation of REEs enrichment is more
difficult to identify by visual observation. REE ore bodies are produced
in the middle of the granite regolith in a stratified form, mainly in the
full-weathered granite horizon, and REE ore bodies can be extended into
the lower part of the pedolith horizon and the upper part of the semi-
weathered granite horizon in some deposits. The REE ore bodies are
stably produced in parallel to the topography at a similar altitude; in the
transition zone of the basin and mountains, the REE ore bodies are
controlled by the topographic undulations. Within the same deposit, the
thickness of the weathered crust is positively correlated with the
enrichment of REEs (Zhang et al., 2018; Zhang, 1990). In the relatively
high mountainous area, the enrichment of REEs is weaker due to the
lower degree of weathering; in the gully area, the surface water and
groundwater are abundant, the denudation rate is high, and the REEs are
depleted by migration.
In western Yunnan, REEs are gradually enriched from the surface
down to the top of the fully weathered layer, generally reaching the
highest grade in the upper part of the fully weathered granite horizon;
the REE grade gradually decreases from the fully weathered granite
horizon to the semi-weathered granite horizon and granite bedrock.
Usually, in West Yunnan, the percentage of LREEs is 70–80% of the total
REE content, and low to 40–50% in some deposits. The REE composition
in REE deposits inherits the REE composition characteristics of the
parent granite rock (e.g., the Tuganzhai REE deposit of the Tengchong
granite belt, Zhang et al., 2019; the Pagong-Suhu REE deposit of the
Lincang granite belt, Fig. 5), but the REE ore grades are all higher than
the REE content of the granite parent rock, indicating that the epigenetic
process has an obvious enrichment effect on REEs. In the epigenetic
process, the geochemical behavior of different REEs is different, and the
enrichment degree is also obviously different. The LREEs are enriched in
the shallow part and vary greatly in the superficial pedolith horizon,
which can be higher or lower than the bedrock layer (Lu et al., 2019;

Table 2
XRD analysis results of clay minerals (TCCM) composition of granite regolith in drilling hole HCZ008 of the Tuganzhai iREE deposit, Lianghe County, Yunnan Province.
Samples The relative content of clay minerals(%) Mixed-layer ratio(%S)

kaolinite chlorite illite smectite illite–smectite mixed-layer chlorite -smectite mixed- illite–smectite mixed-layer chlorite -smectite mixed-
mineral layer mineral mineral layer mineral

HCZ008- 47 34 9 / 10 / 6 /
H1
HCZ008- 46 32 5 / 6 11 5 10
H2
HCZ008- 92 / 6 / 2 / 5 /
H3
HCZ008- 43 33 6 / 18 / 5 /
H5
HCZ008- 70 / 9 / 21 / 5 /
H7
HCZ008- 44 / 20 / 36 / 5 /
H9
HCZ008- 46 / 25 / 29 / 5 /
H11
HCZ008- 54 / 18 / 28 / 5 /
H13
HCZ008- 12 27 14 2 45 / 54 /
H14
HCZ008- 9 12 15 14 50 / 46 /
H16

Note: Analytical technique and method are the same as those listed in Table 1.

8
X. Zhu et al.
Zhang et al., 2020; Zhang et al., 2019), but much higher than the
bedrock in both the fully weathered and semi-weathered granite hori­
zons. The HREEs are mostly enriched gradually in the fully weathered
granite horizon, but the enrichment ratio is weaker than that of LREEs
(Lu et al, 2019; Zhang et al., 2019).
4. Sampling and analytical methods
As iREE deposits are produced in granite regolith, it is e difficult to
collect fresh granite samples in iREE deposits. Adjacent granites with
outcrops are widely studied, and the published data are summarized and
used as a basis for discussion. In response to the shortcomings of pre­
vious studies and metallogenic features of iREE deposits, drilling core
samples taken from complete granite regolith and thicker ore body were
analyzed by X-ray powder crystal diffraction. Sample HCZ008-H1 was
collected from the surficial humic horizon, sample HCZ008-H2 was
collected from the pedolith horizon, samples from HCZ008-H3 to
HCZ008-H13 were collected from the full-weathered granite horizon,
and sample HCZ008-H14 and HCZ008-H14 were collected from the
semi-weathered granite horizon.
The mineralogical phases were determined by optical microscopic
observation and powder X-ray diffraction spectrometry (XRD). The XRD
measurements were carried out at Chongqing Institute of Geology and
Mineral Resources using a D8 ADVANCE diffractometer equipped with a
Cu-target tube and a curved graphite monochromator, operating at 40
kV and 40 mA. Samples were step-scanned from 3◦ to 45◦ with a step size
of 0.02◦ (2θ). The analytical procedures follow the method described by
Chinese National Standard SY/T5163-2010 (Zeng et al., 2010).
5. Results
The mineral composition taken from drilling hole HCZ008 of
Tuganzhai iREE deposit analyzed by X-ray is listed in Table 1 and
Table 2.
The data of mineral content (Table 1) shows that plagioclase was
almost completely decomposed during weathering, and orthoclase was
partially decomposed, forming secondary minerals such as calcite,
gypsum, magnesite, hematite, diaspore, clay minerals. As accessory
minerals, only anatase is found to disappear with the degree of weath­
ering (Table 1). Due to the presence of dark minerals such as biotite and
hornblende in the parent granite rock, because of the chemical insta­
bility of dark minerals, combined with the characteristics of field ob­
servations, it is presumed that partial weathering and decomposition
may have also occurred.
The relative content of clay minerals in Table 2 shows that the newly
generated clay minerals are dominated by kaolinite, followed by chlo­
rite, and a small amount of illite and illite/smectite mix-layered min­
erals. From the granite bedrock upward to the full-weathered granite
horizon, the relative content of kaolinite gradually increases with
increasing weathering degree, and the relative content of illite and illite/
smectite mix-layered minerals is higher in the early stage of weathering,
and the proportion gradually decreases with increasing weathering de­
gree. Chlorite is present in the bedrock to the semi-weathered granite
horizon and in the upper part of the full-weathered granite horizon to
the pedolith horizon.
6. Discussion
6.1. Comparison of iREE deposits in western Yunnan and southern China
Although iREE deposits in western Yunnan and southern China are
both produced in the regolith, and in the two regions they have some
differences in topographic terrain, ore-forming parent rocks, thickness,
and structure of regolith, ore body output location, and ore-forming REE
metal species. The difference in occurring altitude is the most obvious
difference between the iREE deposits in western Yunnan and southern
9
Ore Geology Reviews 148 (2022) 104984
China. IREE deposits in South China are mainly produced at altitudes
below 500 m (Li et al., 2017), and iREE deposits in western Yunnan can
produce an altitude of 1000–2500 m (Lu et al., 2020), concentrated in
1100–1800 m. Consequently, iREE deposits in South China are located
in the hilltops and hillsides in hilly landscapes, and iREE deposits in
western Yunnan are mainly produced in the hillsides in the basin-
mountain transition zone. The parent rocks of iREE deposits in west­
ern Yunnan are all biotite monzogranites. Differently, there are many
types of metallogenic parent rocks of iREE deposits in south China.
Muscovite and/or two-mica alkaline granites and syenites are common
parent rocks of HREE-enriched iREE deposits, intermediate granodio­
rite, and quartz monzonite are usually parent rocks of Eu-enriched iREE
deposit, and monzogranites are parent rocks of LREE-enriched iREE
deposit (Wang et al., 2017). There are some differences in weathering
profile structure, near the same latitude, the granite weathering regolith
is relatively thin in western Yunnan. Humic horizon within regolith
hosting iREE deposits in western Yunnan is thin or missing, the full-
weathered granite horizon is thicker and accounts for the main part of
the weathering crust, the pedolith horizon, and the semi-weathered
granite horizon is thinner. In southern China, the humic horizon is
mostly present, the semi-weathered horizon is thicker and can be locally
comparable to the thickness of the full-weathered horizon (Zhao et al,
2017). The REE ore bodies in the iREE deposits in the Tengchong granite
belt are mainly produced in the full-weathered horizon, although REE
ore bodies can extend into the pedolith or the semi-weathered granite
horizons partly; the REE ore bodies in the iREE in the Lincang granite
belt are mainly produced in the full-weathered horizon, suggesting that
the occurrence of REE ore bodies within iREE deposits in the Western
Yunnan are generally stable. REE ore bodies vary greatly in the regolith
in southern China, and more than 5 models were proposed (Wang et al,
2017; Zhao et al, 2017). The REE ore body can usually span the pedolith,
the full-weathered, and the semi-weathered granite horizons levels
longitudinally, and its grade varied greatly. The REE metallogenic metal
species in western Yunnan are dominated by LREE, and the content of
HREE is mostly around 30%, and some of them can reach 40~50%.
Although the iREE deposits in south China are mainly LREE deposits,
HREE deposits are also widely distributed (Li et al., 2017), which may be
closely related to a variety of parent rocks.
6.2. Metallogenic factors of iREE deposits
6.2.1. The controlling effects of parent granite rocks
The content and partition of REEs in parent granite rocks have a very
important effect on REE mineralization. Parent granite rocks with higher
REE mineral content are more likely to be mineralized in their regolith.
For example, the Banggunjianshan and Polunshan granite batholith,
which are located in the south of the Tengchong Granite Belt, are
immediately adjacent granite batholiths (Fig. 2), formed in the Eocene
(ca. 50 Ma) and Paleocene (62–67 Ma), respectively (Wu, 2014; Wu et
al, 2015; Zhao et al., 2017). The total REEs of the productive Eocene
Banggunjianshan granite batholith are mostly higher than 300 ppm
(Wu, 2014; Wu et al, 2015; Zhao, 2017; Zhao et al., 2017), while the
total REEs content of the barren Paleocene Polunshan granite batholith
ranges from 204 to 288 ppm (Wu, 2014; Wu et al, 2015; Zhao, 2017;
Zhao et al., 2017), which is significantly lower than that of the granites
in the Banggunjianshan granite batholith. The similar geographical
location determines that the two granite rocks have a similar external
natural environment with similar weathering conditions. All of these
newly discovered iREE deposits are produced in the regolith of the
Banggunjianshan granite batholith, while the regolith of the Polunshan
granite batholith is barren. Meanwhile, the intrusive ages of ca.50 Ma,
and the REEs higher than 300 ppm of the monzogranite may be in­
dicators of productive parent granite of the iREE deposits in the Teng­
chong Granite Belt. Although the detailed geochemical granite parent
rocks of the Lincang granite batholith are still ambiguous due to the
thick surface cover, the REE contents of the granite parent rocks are also
X. Zhu et al.
higher than 300 ppm (e.g. Zeng et al., 2019).
The composition and elemental partition of REEs in iREE deposits are
inherited from the parent granite rock, and HREE deposits are mostly
produced in granite regolith where the parent granite rock is relatively
enriched in HREEs, and LREE deposits are mostly produced in granite
regolith where the parent granite rock is relatively enriched in LREEs (Li
et al., 2017; Zhou et al., 2020). The percentage of LREEs of total REEs
content in Banggunjianshan granite batholith varies from 72.91% to
89.96% (Wu, 2014; Zhao, 2017; Zhao et al., 2017), mainly concentrated
around 80%, and the percentage of LREEs of total REEs content in the
granite regolith above the Banggunjianshan granite batholith is
77.67–85. 71%. The percentage of LREEs of total REEs in the granite of
Xinhuaxiang is 74.63–79.31% (Lin et al., 2014), with 88.47% of LREEs
of total REEs in its granite regolith from the Tuganzhai REE deposit. The
percentage of LREEs of total REEs in the granite of Jianshanjiao granite
is 42.79–86.44% (with lower LREEs partition in muscovite granites, Li
et al., 2014), which produced the Jianshanjiao REE deposit in its rego­
lith with 88.27% of LREEs of total REEs. In the Menghai area, the per­
centage of LREEs of total REEs in the granite is 71.63–89.37% (Catlos
et al., 2017; Dong et al., 2013), and that is 65.80% to 84.70% in the
series of regolith-hosted REE deposits. The above-mentioned REE
partition data in parent granite rocks and related regolith-hosted REE
deposits show that the iREE ores inherited the REE partition charac­
teristics of the parent granite rocks. Moreover, the REE deposits pro­
duced near the ductile shear zone (e.g., the series of the
Bangguanjianshan granite regolith-hosted REE deposits and the
Tuganzhai REE deposit) are more enriched in LREEs than the parent
granite rocks, and the REE deposits containing pegmatite veins (e.g., the
granite regolith-hosted REE deposits in the Menghai area) are usually
more enriched in HREEs than the parent granite rocks.
The evolution and mineral composition of parent granite rocks also
have a significant influence on the elemental partitioning of iREE de­
posits. Parent granite rocks in the Tengchong granite belt are concen­
trated in the emplacement of ca.50 Ma, controlled by the subduction
rollback of the Neotethyan slab, and formed by magma mixing between
upwelling mafic and felsic magmas (Ma et al., 2014; Yang et al., 2018).
These parent monzogranites formed late-stage of the late regional
magmatism, and have relatively high REE content gained by the cu­
mulative effect of multi-stages magmatic-hydrothermal evolution.
Muscovite granite parent rocks are significantly enriched in HREEs than
biotite granites (Sanematsu and Watanabe, 2016). For example, the (La/
Y)N values of muscovite granites from the Zudong HREE deposit in
Longnan County, Jiangxi Province is merely 0.31 to 0.95 (Huang et al.,
1989), and the biotite granite in the adjacent area has a significantly
higher (La/Y)N value (He et al., 2017; Huang et al., 1989), the muscovite
granite parent rocks may be a key element in the formation of the
Zudong HREE deposit (Sanematsu and Watanabe, 2016; Zhou et al.,
2020), while the muscovite granites are usually formed by high degree
magmatic evolution. In the Jueyeba REE deposit, located in the south of
the Tengchong granite belt, muscovite granite and pegmatite veins are
distinguished within the parent rocks, which probably resulted in the
relatively low LREE partitioning in the REE ore.
6.2.2. Metamorphism and alteration of parent granite rocks and the
influence on REE mineralization
The REE enrichment characteristics of iREE deposits are not only
controlled by the geochemical properties of the parent rocks but also
controlled to a certain extent by the category of REE-bearing minerals in
the parent rock (Zhou et al., 2020), which can affect not only the
mineralization but also the elemental partition of iREE deposits. The
main rock-forming minerals in the granite parent rock, such as feldspar
and mica, contain REEs, mainly LREEs; HREEs are mainly contained in
accessory minerals, including xenotime, monazite, zircon, and sphene,
allanite, apatite, fluorine carbonates. Some REE-bearing minerals such
as monazite, phosphorite, and zircon are strongly resistant to weath­
ering and are difficult to form iREE bearing minerals (Huang et al.,
10
Ore Geology Reviews 148 (2022) 104984
2021), but hydrothermal activity can alter these strongly resistant to
weathering minerals into weakly resistant to weathering minerals (Bern
et al., 2017), thus, hydrothermal alteration of REE-bearing minerals in
parent rocks plays an important role in its mineralization. During
weathering, fluorocarbonates are more easily dissolved in acidic
aqueous solutions relative to silicate, oxide, and phosphate minerals
(Sanematsu and Watanabe, 2016).
Metamorphism has an influential role in the weathering of REE-
bearing minerals, the mylonitization process can cause mineral frag­
mentation, metamorphic hydrothermal fluids can also alter some REE-
containing accessory minerals into weakly resistant to weathering
minerals. For example, allanite and titanite, which act as the main REE
host minerals in granites, can be was replaced by bastnaesite (Giere and
Sorensen, 2004) and anatase + calcite + bastnaesite (Middleton et al.,
2013), bastnaesite and other REE-bearing fluorocarbonates are easily
dissolved in acidic surface water environments (Sanematsu et al., 2015),
but direct evidence is more difficult to obtain due to weathering. The
distribution of iREE deposits along the shear zone in the Tengchong
granite belt may indicate the controlling role of deformation meta­
morphism on iREE mineralization, away from the ductile shear zone,
even if the parent rock has high REE content and strong weathering, it is
more difficult to form economic deposits (e.g., basalt volcanic rocks in
the Tengchong block, Zeng et al., 2021).
REEs migrate in hydrothermal fluids mainly with complex migration
of Cl-, F- and CO2–3 (Migdisov et al., 2009; Tsay et al., 2014; Xu et al.,
2017), and hydrothermal activity can activate and enrich REEs (Mig­
disov et al., 2019; Xu et al., 2017). Most of the tourmaline containing
pegmatite veins associated with some REE deposits in western Yunnan is
widely developed, indicating that hydrothermal fluids are rich in vola­
tile fractions such as fluorine and have the basis for enrichment of REEs.
The REE content in the granite parent rocks of the associated pegmatite
veins is generally lower than the granite parent rocks without hydro­
thermal alteration, which may indicate that the hydrothermal activity
activated and carried REEs to join, and realized the pre-enrichment of
REEs. Besides the granite host rocks with high REEs content near the
mylonite belt, the granite parent rocks with lower REE content in the
associated pegmatite veins can also be weathered to mineralization,
showing the difference in the metallogenic ability of different geological
characteristics of the granite parent rocks, i.e. metamorphism may only
change the REE-bearing mineral species in the host rocks, while
magmatic-hydrothermal activity may provide more REEs sources, which
is more conducive to mineralization.
6.2.3. The influence of epigenesis on mineralization
As a product of epigenesis, iREE deposits are controlled by different
epigenetic geological effects, including weathering, erosion, and
groundwater migration (Zhou et al., 2020). The Tengchong granite belt
in western Yunnan is located in a tropical-subtropical monsoon climate
zone, with an average annual temperature of 18–20 ◦ C and annual
rainfall between 1400 and 1700 mm. The hot, humid, wet, and dry
climatic environment is conducive to weathering (Sanematsu and
Watanabe, 2016), especially the chemical weathering rate, which in­
creases with increasing rainfall and temperature (Gislason et al., 2009).
Meanwhile, weakly acidic atmospheric precipitation can carry organic
acids from surface humus downward (Nesbitt and Markovics, 1997) and
furtherly accelerate the chemical weathering. Stronger chemical
weathering contributes to the chemical weathering of granite-forming
minerals and paragenetic minerals, which facilitates the decomposi­
tion of REE-bearing minerals, and the dissociation and migration of REE
ions (Bao and Zhao, 2008; Zhou et al., 2020).
Hosted by granite regolith, the formation and preservation of which
are essential for iREE mineralization, and granite regolith is formed in
areas where weathering and denudation are in balance (Li et al., 2017).
Crustal uplift increases the denudation energy of various epigenetic
forces (such as water, gravity, Zhou et al., 2020), accelerates the overall
denudation rate, and is positively correlated with surface denudation
X. Zhu et al.
(West et al., 2005). The western Yunnan region has experienced multiple
stages of tectonic evolution, and the crust has been uplifted several
times, especially during the Cenozoic, with a relatively high elevation
and strong physical weathering and denudation. At the same time, the
western Yunnan region is located in a subtropical monsoon climate and
rich surface vegetation cover, with strong chemical weathering. Ce can
be converted from Ce3+ to Ce4+ in a relatively oxidized environment and
easily form Ce-bearing minerals or precipitate in Fe-Mn hydroxides,
which result in Ce enrichment in the weathered surface horizon and Ce
deficit in the subsurface horizon (Bao and Zhao, 2008; Sanematsu and
Watanabe, 2016), and Ce anomalies can be used as an indicator of
weathering and denudation rate. In western Yunnan, the REE deposits in
the Tengchong and the Lincang Granite Belt are produced at high alti­
tudes areas (up to 2500 m, Lu et al., 2019), negative Ce anomalies are
abundant in the surface horizon(mostly 0–3 m) from the continuous REE
composition data of drill hole samples (Lu et al., 2019; Zhang et al.,
2019), Positive Ce anomalies are locally found (Lu et al., 2019), indi­
cating that the surface REE-rich zones are mostly denuded, and the
denudation rate is faster in western Yunnan, which is different from the
weathering and denudation characteristics of iREE deposits in southern
China (Bao and Zhao, 2008). Compared with these REE deposits, surface
samples from drilling holes of REE deposits produced in the Menghai
area have more positive Ce anomalies (Fig. 5), indicating that the
regional denudation rate is relatively slow in the Menghai area, which is
perhaps closely related to the relatively gentle topography in the region.
Affected by Cenozoic the large-scale strike-slip tectonic movement
and subsequently strong weathering and denudation, the western
Yunnan area has formed low and gentle hills and gentle slopes and
ridges on both sides and around the “gully-valley-basin” and the pe­
riphery, which can be roughly divided into three topography types, i.e.
the Quaternary basins, the basin-mountain transition zones, and the
high hill or mountain areas. Furthermore, the basin-mountain transition
zones can be subdivided into low-mountain hilly areas and steep
mountain areas. IREE deposits in West Yunnan are invariably located in
gently sloping terrain areas of low-mountain hilly areas and high hill or
mountain areas (Zhang et al., 2018). Especially sloping areas of low-
mountain hilly areas, where are productive for large and high-grade
IREE deposits. The gently sloping terrain areas are relatively easy to
preserve the granite regolith by rain and gravity, which is a necessary
condition for iREE deposit formation. Meanwhile, the strong chemical
weathering in the region results in high REEs geochemical background
in the granite belt in the region. Therefore, within the granite belt of
western Yunnan, which has high REE content parent rocks and a high
chemical weathering intensity environment, the areas favorable to the
preserve granite regolith are favorable for iREE deposit formation.
Consequently, iREE deposits are distributed as clusters and belts.
6.2.4. The composition of granite regolith and its influence on REE
migration and mineralization
The accessory minerals in granites usually contain more than 70% of
the total REEs (Bao and Zhao, 2008). Although the main rock-forming
minerals such as feldspar, quartz, and mica contain less REEs, weath­
ering of rock-forming minerals such as Na- and K-feldspar, and plagio­
clase in feldspathic magmatic rocks will form a large number of clay
minerals such as halloysite and kaolinite with high surface area, high
porosity, and low cleanliness, which promotes the absorption of REEs (Li
and Zhou, 2020; Zhou et al., 2020). Therefore, the weathering of
accessory minerals mainly determines the source of REEs, while the
weathering of main rock-forming minerals affects the process of rare
earth element adsorption. Based on the weathering resistance of REE-
bearing minerals, they can be divided into three groups, i.e., strongly
weathering-resistant REE minerals (such as zircon, xenotime), moder­
ately weathering-resistant REE minerals (such as fergusonite, monazite,
allanite), and weakly weathering-resistant REE minerals (such as bast­
naesite and other fluorocarbonates) (Bao and Zhao, 2008; Cheng, 1993).
The F- presence plays an important role in iREE mineralization, and the
11
Ore Geology Reviews 148 (2022) 104984
easy decomposition of fluorocarbonate at low temperature can provide
REE ions for ore formation. Meanwhile, the presence of F- helps
decompose REE-bearing minerals such as titanite and allanite into easily
weathered REE-bearing fluorocarbonates (Sanematsu and Watanabe,
2016).
Taking the Tuguanzhai REE deposit in the Tengchong granite belt
ore as an example, XRD analysis shows (Table 1 and Table 2) that the K-
feldspar gradually decreases with depth from bottom to top of the
HCZ008 drilling hole, plagioclase only appears in the semi-weathered
granite horizon and deeper, indicating that controlled by the differ­
ence of weathering resistance, the main source of clay minerals is
plagioclase weathering, and a small amount comes from K-feldspar
weathering. Calcite, dolomite, magnesite, and other carbonate minerals
have a trend of increasing and then decreasing from the pedolith horizon
through the fully weathered to the semi-weathered granite horizons,
calcite and magnesite are not found in the semi-weathered granite ho­
rizon, which indicates that the aqueous solution of the granite regolith is
rich in CO2–
3 , especially in the shallow of granite regolith. Anhydrite has
a similar change pattern to carbonate minerals, which also indicates the
presence of SO2-4 in the solution. Diaspore appears in the pedolith and the
fully weathered granite horizons, which may be the product of feldspar
weathering. In addition, abundant anatase (4.9–11.3%) was found in the
semi-weathered granite horizon, which may be a product of titanite
weathering (Middleton et al., 2013); anatase disappears in the shallow
part, indicating that anatase was decomposed in weathering.
From the pedolith horizon downward to the semi-weathered granite
horizon, clay minerals have irregular changes in content, with the
content range between 12% and 30% (Table 2). Kaolinite proportion in
total clay minerals tends to gradually decrease from shallow to deep, and
the relative content is mostly 40~50% in the pedolith horizon to fully
weathered granite horizon and decreases to less than 10% in the semi-
weathered granite horizon. The proportion of mixed layered illite/
smectite and illite gradually increases from shallow to deep. Chlorite
only has higher relative content in the surface layer and deep, and
almost disappears in full-weathered granite horizon. There is a positive
correlation between kaolinite content and REE grade, which may indi­
cate that kaolinite is the main clay adsorption mineral. In the relatively
low kaolinite content part, the REE grade still reaches 700 ppm, indi­
cating that illite and montmorillonite also have REE ion adsorption
ability, but are weaker than kaolinite. In addition, some of the parent
rocks enriched in LREEs in western Yunnan can form HREE deposits
(>50% heavy rare earth content), such as the Yingpanshan REE deposit
in the Tengchong granite belt and the Linpaipo REE deposit in the Lin­
cang granite belt, which may indicate that the differential adsorption of
clay minerals on REEs can significantly affect the REE partitioning of
ion-absorption type REE deposit.
The groundwater in the environment of the Tengchong granite belt is
rich in anions such as CO2− 2−
3 , SO4 , which contributes to the dissociation
of REE-bearing minerals and the migration of REE ions. According to
weathering resistance, REE-bearing silicate minerals (such as titanite
and allanite) were gradually altered and decomposed. The decomposed
REE-bearing fluorocarbonate and altered silicate minerals during
weathering are the possible main sources of REE ions, while the
decomposed rock-forming minerals (such as plagioclase and dark min­
erals) are the secondary sources of REE ions. Kaolinite is the main clay
mineral adsorbed by REE ions, while some other clay minerals (such as
illite and montmorillonite) are also involved in the adsorption of REE
ions. The grades of REE in the fully weathered granite horizon are
significantly higher, which indicates that the infiltration of REE ele­
ments with the soil solution is an important mechanism for the REEs
enrichment.
6.3. Metallogenic mechanism of iREE minerals
West Yunnan has experienced multiple stages of collision orogeny. In
the late plate collision orogeny, a series of crust-derived granites were
X. Zhu et al.
Fig. 6. A regional metallogenic model of iREE deposits in West Yunnan, China (modified from Brady and Weil, 2017).
formed. Some of these monzogranites have high REE content, and some
of them contain magmatic-hydrothermal veins that increase the REE
content. The above two types of granites are the main parent rocks of
REE deposits in western Yunnan (Fig. 6a). Controlled by the collision of
the Asian-European and Indian plates, the western Yunnan region was
extruded and uplifted (Xu et al., 2015), with strong weathering and
erosion. Affected by the metamorphic hydrothermal activity associated
with the regional large-scale strike-slip movement or late-stage hydro­
thermal activity during magmatic-hydrothermal evolution, the REE-
bearing minerals within the granite were altered into weakly resistant
to weathering REE-bearing minerals, which laid the main material basis
for iREE mineralization (Fig. 6b). Along with crustal uplift, the crust-
derived granite was uplifted and eroded to surface exposure.
West Yunnan is located in a subtropical monsoon climate zone. The
humid, hot, alternating dry and rainy environment, and rich vegetation
are not only conducive to weathering, but also an acidic surface water
environment, which can accelerate the weathering and decomposition
of granite parent rocks and REE-bearing minerals. Weathered granite
forms a granite regolith in a favorable terrain area where weathering
and denudation rates are balanced. REEs are dissociated from minerals
and accompanied by downward infiltration and migration of aqueous
solutions. During the downward migration, REE ions with high atomic
weight and high atomic value are adsorbed and fixed by kaolinite-
dominated clay minerals, which were formed by weathering and
decomposition of feldspathic minerals. The cumulative absorption of
REE ions by clay minerals continuously promoted REE enrichment (He
et al., 2015; Wang et al., 2013) and gradually enriched to form REE ores
(Fig. 6c). Located at the periphery of the strike-slip fault zones, granite
batholiths with high rare earth element content or rich in hydrothermal
veins, combined with the tropical-subtropical humid, hot and rainy
environment, covered by abundant vegetation, is preferred to form iREE
deposits on the surface. IREE deposits are usually located in the basin-
mountain transition zone, where the terrain is low and gentle (Fig. 6).
7. Conclusion
The granite parent rocks that formed iREE deposits in western
Yunnan are mainly crust-derived biotite monzogranites and are all
produced in post-collision backgrounds. The granite parent rocks with
high REEs content, and granite parent rocks rich in pegmatite veins are
beneficial to the formation of iREE deposits. The REE content of pro­
ductive granite parent rocks is mostly higher than 300 ppm in western
Yunnan, southwest China.
12
Ore Geology Reviews 148 (2022) 104984
The main granite belts in western Yunnan have high mountain hilly
terrain and suffer strong weathering. Hosted by granite regolith, the
iREE deposits are mostly dispersed distributed on the surface of granite
belts and both sides of the regional strike-slip fractures, granite parent
rocks and the regional strike-slip shear accompanied by metamorphism
have controlling effects on REE mineralization. The iREE deposits are
often produced in the granite regolith where pegmatite veins are
developed and in the granite regolith on the periphery of tin and rare
metal deposits, which may indicate that magmatic-hydrothermal ac­
tivity resulting in hydrothermal alteration is a favorable process for iREE
deposit mineralization.
Granite parent rocks with high REE content, metamorphic or
magmatic-hydrothermal activity, hot and humid climate, gentle topog­
raphy, large scale, and thick granite regolith are all favorable factors for
iREE deposits formation in western Yunnan, southwest China. Multiple
phases of magmatism occurred forming widely distributed high REE
content granite rocks, moreover, the climatic environment is favorable,
and weathering is strong, highlighting the potential the large potential
for REE mineralization and the prospective iREE exploration area in the
western Yunnan, southwest China.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgment
This research was supported by China Geological Survey Projects
(DD20179604, DD20160346, DD20190379).
Appendix A. Supplementary data
Supplementary data to this article can be found online at https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.oregeorev.2022.104984.
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