Algebraic Structures ( Groups, Rings and Fields ) Scanned with CamScan1§ 6.7, Algebraic Structure : Definition : A system consisting of : (@) A nonvoid fanily of sets (6) A set of binary compositions defined on these sets, ; and (¢) A set of specified,axioms is called an algebraic Structure or sy ~~" $6.8. Groupoid or Binary Algebra : Definition : Pa A non empty set G equipped with one binary operation ' *' ic. Gis a groupoid if G is closed for* . Ii denoted by G, *) . For example: (N, +), (Z, -).(Q, x) etc. §6.9. Quasi Group : A nonvoid set S equipped with a bin sand the equations - - aex=b and yea=b have unique solutions is called groupoiy Quasi group itor —S For example, the algebraic structure ( Z, +) is aquasi group, since it is closed wrt addition + of integers and the equations ee — atx=b and xta=b have unique solutions in Z for a,b Z. However, the algebraic structure (Z,.) is not aquasi group since, for 2,5€ Z, 2.x =5 have no solution in Z, §6.10. Loop : Definition : A quasi group (G, *) is called a loop, if it has the identity elen composition * i.e. if there exist e such that : e*a=ate=a, V aeG Ae 6.11. Semi Group : Definition : An algebraic structure (G *) is called a semi group if the binary operation * satisfies associative property i.e. Sanaa ar “[G] (axb)*c=a*(b¥c), VW a,b,c€G Ex.1. The algebraic structures (N, +), (Z, +), (Z, x), (Q, x) are semi groups but the structure (Z, -) is not so because subtraction (~) is not associative, Ex.2. (Z, +) is a monoid since f has the identify element 0 wrt ¢, | Ex.3, The structures (P(S),U) and (P(S),) where P(S) is the power set of a set $ are | semi groups as both the operations union (UJ) and intersection (()) are associative. Theorem 6.1. Let (g,*) bea semigroup and ae G such that the equations aax=b and yea=b have solutions in G for all be G. Then (G,*) is a monoid. Proof. Since aax=b and ysa=b have solutions in G for all 6 ¢ G, these are also truc for ae G itself. That is aaxza and yeaza That is, these are satisfied for some x = ep and y =e,. Let any te G.then 'e! for k¥ep=(v*a)*eg =y*(ateg) =y*ank scanned WIth aand - ey *k=e,*(a*x) =(e,%a)*x -atx=k Thus kK*ep=k and ep *k=k, So eg and ey, are right and left identities in G respectively. But er *er =ep, since e,, is the left identity and en *er =ez, since ep is the right identity. So en =eR =e Hence G contains identity element and so (G,*) is a monoid. § 6.12. Monoid: Definition : [ Raj. B.Sc., 06] A semi group is called monoid if there exists an identity element! "in G such that: (G,]~~"esa=a*e=a, V aeG Ex.1, The semi group (WV, x) isa monoid because 1 is the identity for the multiplication. But the semigroup (N, +) is not so because 0, the identity for addition is not inn. Ex. 2. (Z,+) isa monoid since it has the identity element 0 wrt t. Ex, 3. The semi groups (P(S),U) and(P(S),) are monoid because. and S are the identities respectively for union (U) and intersection(()). in P(S). $6.13, Group : Definition [Raj. B.Sc,, 05,07; Ajmer B.Sc.,07] An algebraic structure of set G and a binary operation * defined in G i.e. (G *)is called a group if * satisfies the following postulates (Group Axioms) : [G] Associ: tivity : The composition * is associative in G ie. (a*b)*e.= a*(b*e), V a,b,ceG fence of Identity: There exist an identity element e in G ch that e*a=a*e=a, VaeG IG,] Existence of Inverse: Each clement of Gis invertible, cals nverse: for every a €G, there exist a“ in G such that rt sa *a = e (Identity) ‘Thus group (G, *) is a monoid in which each of its element is invertible - ata §6.14. Abelian group or Commutative group: Definition : A group (G *) is said to be abelian or commu IG] Commutiativity : a*b=b*a, Va,beG a G, Associativity [Semi Group| arb=e0" «. * isa binary composition in Q* Verification of group axioms in (Q*,*) : [G,] Associativity : Let: a,b,ceQ", then 4 (orecaSbacatl tic) 2 2 2 and >CaNNEeA WITN LAMSCONTAUQCOTAC OUTUCTNPES | AUF : (a*b)*c=a*(b*c) Therefore * is an associative operation. {G,] Existence of identity : 2 €Q" is the identity element of the operation * because for aeQr, 2*a=as2 [G] Existence of Inverse : 4 For every a eQ*, an" (:a#0) which is the inverse of a 4 Since fea Sax as a a 2 So every element of Q* is invertible, [G,] Commutativity : For any a,b abeR, *. ABEG which shows that G is closed for matrix multiplication, Verification of group axioms in (Gx): 1G] Since Matrix multiplication is associative. Therefore this is associative in G also. 10 [6] =) oes is the identity element because a0\f1o a0 eteate( 929) )o4, vee a0 1a 0 [6] For every (So }e9, a-(\ o}e (va eR=>1/aeR) which is inverse of A because scanned WIth Laman:fr SIV] wiscrete Matnematics 0) 1/a0) (10 ol . oooh (Identity) ab 0 ba 0 [G,] Since ao=( },04-( ‘ ° and ab=ba (by commutativity of multiplication of real Dumbers) Therefore AB=BA ‘ As such matrix multiplication is commutative in G . Hence Gis a commutative group for matrix multiplication. Ex, Show that Z;=(0,1,2,3,4} isan abelian group for the operation "+4" defined y follows ; | 7 ath, if a+b<5 | | O80) a4.b-5, if at b25 (Raj. BSc, 15 Sol. The composition table of (Z,,+,) is as follows | : uefa eee o}o 12 3 4 }}1 6.2 3 4 0 | 2/2 3 4 0 1 | 373 4 0 1 2 \ 414 0 1 2 3 From the table it is observed that (1) Alll the elements are members of Z, therefore '+5' isa binary. (2) Ois the identity element for the composition. (3) The inverse of 0,1, 2,3, 4 are 0, 4,3, 2,and1 Tespectively. composition in Z;. Again the base of '+5' is the addition composition of numbers which is associative and commutative, Therefore '+;' is also associative and commutative. Hence (Z,,+5) is acommutative group. | Ex.5. Show thatthe set (f,, fy, fy, Sy, Ses fo} i8 a finite non-abelian groupforthe | operation "composite of j functions" composite of functi¢ complex plane defined by: where f,,i=1,2,..6are transformations on the infinite wl a [ Udaipur, 17; Raj. BE 1M1(CS), 14] F=f Safa Safe} and o denote composite of functions. Now calculating all the possible products under this operation, we have the following : | fohr(2)=f f(en= (2) Ald== Ald} Aled=t-s Kl), Ble)=Zh, sold) Sel. Let G: f(z) | oh (2)=h Us (2)I= A (1-2) =f) Canned WITN LAM>CaN1en Sool weatnter=A( 5) - z-l roniedenister=h{ 45) = spotele)=$5deN= {=} =2=f(2) etc. rin these we oblain the following composition table of (G, 0) + The group axioms can be easily verified from the above composition table. Therefore (G0) isa finite group. Moreover since the table is not 5 symmetrical about the leading diagonal so it is a non commutative finite group. + Ex, 6, IfS is the set of real numbers other than —1, then show that (S, 0) is group where o is the operation defined as: — aob=at+b+ab, V a,beS [ Raj. B.Sc., 07; Kota B.Sc., 06] Sol. Let a,b eS .a#—1,b#-1 First of all we see that aob#~1, because if ob =—1, then aob =-1 >a+b+ab=-1 =>(a+lG+)=0 which is not possible, . aob #-1 Again =atb+ab+1=0 =a=-1 or b=-1 aeRbeR>a+b+abeR “a €8,b €S >a0b=a+b+ab eS Therefore o is a binary composition in S. Verification of group axioms in (S, 0) : IG) Let ab,ces, then (a0b)oc=(a+b+ab)oc =(a+b+ab)+c+(a+b+ab)c =a+b+c+ab+be+ca+abe ao(boc) ao(b+c+be) =d+(b+o+be)+a(b+e+be) =a+b+c+ab+be+ca+abe and ws Te en yhod “ Therefore o is an associative composition, ' scannea witn vam>int[G,] 0 8 is the identity clement of the operation o because fora € S “~~ Qoa=0+a+0a=a and ao0=a+0+a0=a : a 1G] Foreveryaes, 7785 + (a#-1) which is the inverse of a because 7a a -a -a =a 7a = loan! =" |4a+( 2 la=0 a8 2 a4 2 4af =2)_ (=) (3) 7 (= and (=) oa (0 From the above discussion, (S, 0) is a group, | Ex.7. If G=((a,6) | a,beR,a#0} and o is the operation defined in Ga (a,b)o(c,d)=(ac,be+d); then show that (G, 0) is a non-abelian group. Sol. Verification of group axioms in (G, 0): IG] Let (a,6);(¢,4);(e,/) be any elements of G, then U(4,5) 0 (¢,4)] 0 (e, f)=(ae,be+d) o(e,f) =((acle,(be+d)e+f) =(ace,boe+de + f) and (a,b) 0 [(¢,d) 0 (e, f)|=(a,b) 0 (ce,de+f) =(a(ce),b(ce) +de+f) = (ace,bee +de+ f) # 1(.8) 0 (c.4)]0(¢,/)=(a,8) o(e.4) 0,1] Therefore o is associative. [G,] Here(1,0) €G is the identity element of the operation because for every (a,b)eG “(10)0(a8)=(10,00+)=(0.5) and (aA) o(40}=(alb1+0}=(a8) [G] If (a,b) eG, then a#0 : 1b :.a#0,a,b€R>teR— eR =(t ec ae 1b Again (as)o(2~ *) ew ele re . (E2)oam-(t at 248)-(40) 7 @ tec is the inverse of (a, 6) a’ a Thus the inverse of every element of G also exists in G. Hence (G 0) isa group. [G,} ‘The composition of the group is not commutative because if «, bc, care different numbers, then (2.8) 0(ed)=(aobo+<) canned WITN LaM>cCant# (ca,da+b)=(c,d) 0 (a,b) = (a,b) 0 (¢,4)#(c,d) 0 (a,b) ‘As such (G, 0) is a non abelian group. § 6.17. Some Important Properties of Groups: For convenience, we shall now generally use the symbol ' *' for the group composition and we shall write a*5 simply as ab unless there is any ambiguity. Theorem 6.2. (Uniqueness of identity) : The identity element in a group is unique. [ Raj. BE MI (CS), 15] Proof: Let (G, *) bea group having two identities e and e’, then eis identity of G =ee'=e' wl) e' is identity of G =>¢e'=e (2) " ce’ is a unique.clement of G. Hence from (1) and (2), it is proved that ¢'= ¢ Therefore the identity clement of a group is unique . 2 Theorem 6.3. (Uniqueness of inversc) The inverse of an element in a group is unique. [Raj. BE DI (CS), 14] Proof : Let a be any clement of the group (G, *) which has two inverses-b and c-in the group. b =>. ba=e=ab and © > ca=e=ac Now ba=e = (ba)e=ec .. = b(ac)=c [by G, and G,} => be=e [by (2) ] => b=e [by G, } Therefore the inverse of every element of a group is unique. -e Remark. The inverse of the identity of a group is itself. Theorem 6.4. If Gis a group then for a,b eG: wt | ie hasty ala) = ee | ay OO) a Dei ( (a?) "=a S [ Raj. B.Sc., 16] (b) (ab) =571a (Reversal law) [ Bikaner, 06} Lethe inverse of the product of two elements is the product of their inverses in the reverse order. Proof : (a) Since a! is the inverse of a, therefore aa™ a >a? a=e=aa" => inverse of a“! =a, i Remark, Mor the additive operation -(-a)=a (b) Since a,b,a7',5-!,ab,b-'a” allare clement of G therefore (ab)(6"'a"")=a(66"!)a"™ ity) =aea" [by G) SCORNED WITN Lam>cant: = aa (6g) =e (20)(b"'a-')=e “4 Asin (69a) (o"4 =b eb Toya) =b'b Uy) =e Ibyg) (b'a""\(ab)=e 0 From (1) and (2), (ab)(6"'a"") ‘')(ab) > (aby '=b1a7 . Generalised reversal law : By the principle of induction, the above theorem can be generalised as: (abe...p) t= plc bat Remarks 1. /f the composition is addition (+) , then this can be written as : ~(a+b)=(-6)+(-a) 2. IfG is a commutative group, then for a,b €G (ab)! =a™ eorem 6.5, Cancellation laws: \% If abc are elements of a groupG, then : (a) ab=ac => b=c eft cancellation ta) (b) ba=ca = b=e (Right cancellation la) Proof: -; aeGaa'eG [by G,] . ab=ac => a”! (ab)=a" (ac) = (a°la)b=(a"'a)e = eb=ec => b=e Similarly it can be proved that | ba=ca > b=c . . Theorem 6.6. Ifa, b are elements of a group G then the equations ax=b and ya have unique solutions in G Prof: +: aeG >a eG {by} . a6G,beG => a beG : Now o(a""8)x(aa"")b {by4l =eb oy =b canned witn Lamscantax, the (a) (b) © @ eee ee oe ee Therefore x=a~'b isa solution of the equation ax=b inG Uniqueness: Let the equation x=6 have two solutions x=x, and x=x, inG then zh and ax,=b => ax,=ax, => x= [ by left cancellation law] Therefore the solution of ax=6 is unique in G Similarly its can also be proved that the solution of the equation ya=6 is unique in G. e §6.18. Order of an clement of a group : Definition : Ifais of finite order, then the least positive integer n such that a" =e is called order of a. It is denoted by O (a). | §6.19. Properties of the order of an clement of a group: The order of the identity of every group is I and it is the only clement of order 1. The order of every element of a finite group is finite and less than or equal to the order of the group i.e.,. O(a) < O(G), V aeG If order of an clement a of a group (G,*) isn, then a” =e, iff m isa multiple of n. For any element a ofa groupG: O(a)=O(x"'ax), V xeG If the order of an element a of a group Gis, then the order of @” is also n provided p and nare relatively prime. § 6.20, Complex of a group : Definition = “Any non emply sub set Hf of a group G is called a complex of the group G ; Subgroup : Definition : ‘A rion emply subset Hof a group Gis called a subgroup of G if: (i) His stable (closed) for the composition defined in G and (i) Hf itself a group for the composition induced by that of G_ mn ‘oper (or Trivial) subgroup + Proper and Impr “Every group G of order greater than 1 has atleast two subgroups which are : re itself) HMiiy {e} he. the group of the identity alone. The above two subgroups are known as Improper or Trivial subgroups. A subgroup other than these two isk wn as a Proper Subgroup. Properties of Subgroup. a The identity of H is the same as that of G. . . The ie of any clelment a of H is the same as the inverse of the same regarded as an clement of G . rane The order of any clement a of // is the same as the order of a in G. Anon void subset // of a group G isa subgroup iff acH,beH = ab! eH A nonvoid finite subset 7 of a group Gis a subgroup it aeH,beH >abeH x The following theorems can be easily proved : canned with Lam>tantaro aus Theorem 6.7. Anon void subset H of a group Gis a subgroup iff acH,bcH >ab'eH. Proof : (=) :Let Hbe a subgroup of the group G and 6 « /7 then beH = b"eH [ by existence of inverse in G } acH,beH > acH,b' eH sab eH by closure property in #7 Therefore if H is a sub group of G, then the condition is necessary. Conversely (<=) : Suppose the given condition is true in H, then we shall prove tha H will be a sub group. w H#> Let aeH _ Now by the given condition, acHa' eH >aa'=eeH Therefore identity exists in H. ~ Again by the same condition, ecH,a! cH = ea TeH Thus the inverse of every element exist in H. Finally, a €H,b eH >a cH,b' cH = a(b'y'=ab eH His closed for the operation of G. ‘Therefore His a sub group of G which proves that the given condition is sufficient for H to be a sub group. . Remark. Jf the operation of the group is addition (+), then the above condition will be: acH,b cH > (a-b)eH Using the complex property, the above condition may also be written in the form of the following corollary: A nonvoid subset H of a group Gis a subgroup iff (a) HI cH @® w= Ke Intersection of subgroups + ‘heorem 6.8. The intersection of any two subgroups of a group Gis: again a subgroup ofG ~~ [ Raj. BE III(CS), Hw!7] Proof : Let H, and H be two sub groups of a group G._ re eHy,e eH, => e eH, NH, = HAH, #6 Now let a,b €H,(\H,, then : » a,b CH, AH, = a,b €H, and a,b eH, = ab" eHandab™ ef, [sand Hf, are syivgrvns) = ab eH NH, : | * HH, isa subgroup of G. scanned WIth BA scan