Name Representation Meaning Negation =p “not p” Conjunction BAG “pand q” Disjunction pv “por q (or both)” Exclusive-OR peg “either p or q, but not both” Implication pq “if p then q” Biconditional peg “p if and only ifq” The truth value of a compound proposition depends only on the value of its components. Writing F for “false” and T for “true”, we can summarize the meaning of the connectives in the following way: Pp q =p PAG PVG p@q p>q peg iT T F - T F T T T F F F T T F FE F T iT F T, T T F F F T F F F T° T15 Converse, CoNTRAPOSITIVE AND INVERSE For the proposition P > Q: (i) The proposition Q - P is called its converse. (ii) The proposition ~ Q -» ~ P is called its contrapositive. (iii) The proposition ~ P -> ~ Q is called its inverse. For example, for the proposition “If it rains, then I get wet”, Converse: If I get wet, then it rains, Contrapositive: If I don’t get wet; then it does not rain. Inverse: If it does not zain then I don’t get wet.Language of Logie Lo 1.6 TauToLocy, ConTrapicTion, ConTINGENCY 1. Tautology : A proposition is said to be a sautology if its truth value is T for any assignment of truth values to its components. E.g., the proposition pv ~q is a tautology. 2. Contradiction : A proposition is said to be a contradiction if its truth value is F for any assignment of truth values to its components. E.g., the proposition p \~q is acontradiction. 3. Contingency : A proposition that is neither a tautology nor a contradiction is called a contingency.Lisr oF IDENTITIES T_ [Peevey Tdempotence of v 2. | Pes (PAP) Tdempotence of A 3. [@vQeQvP) ‘Commutativity of v 4. [@AQ@ QrP) 5. [Pv QvR] [Pv QvR) 6 [IP AQAR]S PAAR) 7. ~PvQ)o(~Pa~Q) DeMorgan's law 8. ~PAQe(-Pv~Q) ‘DeMorgan's law 9. [PaQvRa[PAQv PAR] Distr’ sutivity of A over v 10._| [Pv QaRJo(PvQaPvR Disteibutivity of v over A T_| @v True) > True 12. (PA False) <> False 13. (Pv False) <> P 14,_| (Pv True) > P 15._|(Pv~P)e Tue 16._| Peo~(-P) Double negation 17. | P2QeCPvQ Implication 18. | Po Qe [P>QAQ>P)) Equivalence 19._| [(PrQ)—>R] @ [P> (Q>R)] Exportation 20 | {P>Qa P>~Qle-P Absurdity Letus see some example statements in English that more illustrate above identities written in table, 1. Peo (PvP) (Idempotence of v) ‘What this says is, for example, that “Tom is happy.” is equivalent to “Tom is happy or Tom is happy”. This and the next identity are rarely used, if ever, in everyday life. However, these are Useful when manipulating propositions in reasoning in symbolic form.2, Peo (PAP) (Idempotence of ») Similar to 1, above. 3. (PvQ)<>(Qv P) (Commutativity of v) ‘What tis says is, for example, that “Tom is rich or (Tom is) famous.” is equivalent to “Tom is famous or (Tom is) rich”, 4. (P-AQ)<2 (QAP) (Commutativity of x) ‘What this says i, for example, that “Tom is rich and (Tom is) famous.” is equivalent to“Tom is famous and (Tom is) rich”. S.[(Pv Ov R][PA(QAR)] (Associativity of ») Similarto$ above. 7. ~(PVQ) <2 Pa~Q)(DeMorgan’s law) For example, “It is not the case that Tom is rich or famous.” is true if and only if “Tom is not rich and he is not famous.” 8. ~(PAQ) <2 (~ Pv~Q) (DeMorgan’s law) For example, “It is not the case that Tom is rch and famous.” is true if and only if “Tom is not rich or he is not famous.” 9.[PAQv Ro [PAQ)v(PAR)] Distributivity of a over v) ‘What this says is, for example, that “Tom is rich, and he is famous or (he is) happy.” isequivalent to “Tom is rich and (he is) famous, or Tom is rich and (he is) happy”. 10. [PV(QAR]o[(PvO)a(PvR)] (Distributivity of v over A) ‘What this says is, for example, that “Tom is rich, or he is famous and (he is) happy.” is equivalent ‘to “Tom is rich or (he is) famous, and Tom is rich or (he is) happy”. A, (Pv True) e> True ‘Here True is a proposition that is always true. Thus the proposition (Pv True) is always true regardless of what P is. This and the next three identities, like identities 1 and, are rarely used, ifever, in everyday life However, these are useful when manipulating propositions in reasoning in symbolic form.eee (Pa Fabe) <> Fabe 13. (Pv False) True ‘What this says is that statement such as “Tom a 6 fetal oF he isnot 6 Fetal." i always te 16, (Pa~ P) <> False ‘What this saysisthata statement such as “Tom a6 feot tll and he not 6 eet tal." alway fle, 17. Peo~(~P) out ‘What this says is, for example, that “It is not the case that Tom is not 6 foot tall to “Tom is 6 feet tal.” regation) equivalent 18. (P3Q)o (~ PQ) (Implication) For example, the statement “If win the lottery, | will give you million dollars,” is not true, that is, Lam lying, if win the lotery and don’t give you a million dolla ‘Similarly, the statement “I don’t win the lottery or I give you a million dollars.” is false, if! win the letery and dont give yous million dollars. is true inal the other ase, Ths these two statements arelogcally equivalent. 19. (P<+Q)<>|(P-+ 0) A(Q—> P)] (Equivalence) ‘What this says is, for example, that “Tom is happy if and only if he is healthy.” js logically ‘equivalent to if Tom is happy then he is healthy, and if Tom is healthy he is happy.” 20,[( AQ)-+ 8] <2[P> (2+ 8)] (exportation) Forexample, “If Tom is healthy, then ifhe is rch, then he is happy." is logically equivalent to "If ‘Tom is healthy and rich, then he is happy.” 21. [(P-+0)a(P->-0)]eo~ P (Absurdity) For example, if“If Tom is guilty then he must have been in that room,” and “If'Tom i guilty ‘then he could not have been in that room.” are both true, then there must be something wrong about ‘he assumption that Tom is guilty, 22, (P-+Q)<>(~2-+~ P) (Contrapositive) For example, “If Tom is healthy, then he is .” is logicall ive “wl ee happy.” is logically equivalent to “If Tom is notExample 1.6 Construct @ truth table for @ 89%r © pop Solution: © [pal [p@a[@O08r © [p[pe] TIT/T] F | T| F titlF| F F Fl F ielr| sae [ek tlrje} t | or Firi[t] t | oF Fitfr] t | oo Fle|t] e | or Flelr| e | oF The final operation on a proposition pthat we discuss i the ‘P, denoted by ~ p, is the proposition not p. The truth table of ~ Example 1.7 Consider the following propositions : P: Today is Thursday. q:241=3, 1°: There is no pollution in New Jersey. Construct the truth table of [~ (pn q)] vr Solution: P[a[r [pag] =a | @aalvr TITITl TY] OF T titlrF| t | F F Fl\tir| e | or c Flrir| r | + iTExample 1.8 Construct the truth 1able of the implication p> @ ‘Solution: The truth table is pla[p>a TIT] 7 tlF| F Fit] T Fle| tr Example 1.9 Show that p > g=~ PY 4. IRTU 2009] Solution: [pq [~p | p>a|~Pva TITT)F| T | T TlF[ F] F F FT|] Te the, Flejt|] tr | rT It follows from the previous example that the proposition p -> g is always true if the hypothesis p is false, regardless of the truth value of g. We sey that p rq is true by default or vacuously true. In terms of words the proposition p> q also reads : @ ifp then g. (b) pimplies. (©pisa sufficient condition for g. (@) qs a necessary condition for p. © ponly if. Example 1.10 Use the if-then form to rewrite the statement “I am on time for work if T catch the 8:05 bus.” Solution: If I catch the 8:05 bus then I am on time for work. In propositional functions that involve the connectives ~/v,and—> the order of operations is that ~ is performed first and —> is performed last. Example 1.11 (a) Show that ~ (p >) =P 0~ 4 (8) Find the negation of the statement “If my car in the repair shop, then I cannot g0 to class.” Solution: (a). We use De Morgan’s laws as follows : =P ge~ PY DAAC PAWG RP AWD= serve mnememacen seructirey (@) “My caris notin the repair shop and I can get to class. The converse ofp ~>q is the proposition q+ p. The opposite or inverse fp» 4 the proposition ~ p > ~ 9. The contrapositive of p -» q isthe proposition ~q -> ~ p. Example 1.12 Find the converse, opposite, and the contrapositive of the implication : * today is Thursday, then I have a test today.” of the implication : “ly ‘Solution: The converse : If I have a test today then today is Thursday. ‘The opposite : If today is not Thursday then I don’t have a test today. ‘The contrapositive : If don’t have a test today then today in not Thursday Example 1.13 Show that p> q=~q->~P. ‘Solution: We use De Morgan’s laws as follows : prqs~Pva =~(a~a) (aap) a qv-P =qv-P 2-q>-p Example 1.14 Using truth table show the following : (@p>qea>P )praqe~p>~4 ‘Solution: (a) It suffices to show that~ p vq #~GVP Pla[-P[-4|-va] [=avP TITTE FL T T tlr[e |r| F jel 7 Flt] t|F| tT |*| F rlelt|r| t Tel) (b) We will show that~p vq # Pp ¥~@ Pla[-P[-a]|-eva]_[pv~a] T(T| FF T T T|FL F/T F t r[t|t|F| 7 |+| F FIFI TIT T T‘Faample 1.15 Show that ~q>~p =p >. Solution: We use De Morgen’s laws as follows : ~4>~peqv~P ~qAp) @r-9 pa pya =p>4 Example 1.16 Construct the truth table for p +> 4. Solution: e244. a als Jaa lt Example 1.17 Show that the biconditional proposition of p and q is logically equivalent 10 the conjunction of the conditional propositions p > q and q -> p- Solution: Pla[poa]4 >? [Pea] Pr OAG>—) Thy TPT | T Kisii 5 La r F F(t] tT | F | F F Fle} r | rit T. I connectives is as follows : ‘The order of operations for the five logii ee 2. a, inany order. 3. >, im any order. Example 1.18 (a) Construct the truth table ofthe proposition (p © q) v (~ pv ~ 9). Determine if this proposition is a tautology. (b) Show that pv ~ p is a tautology.‘Solution: @ [pla (pag pa~a) T|TTF/F| F | T T tlrFle|T| 7 F T F[t]/tT| Fl] F T Fle{rir] +r FE T Thus, the given proposition is a tautology. ©) [p[-p[pv~p TTF T Flr] tr Again, this proposition is a tautology. ‘Two propositions are equivalent if they have exactly the same truth values under all circumstances. We write p = 4. Example 1.19 Show that (@) ~pvg=~pr~g @) ~@AMe~pv~a @ ~Ci=p. ‘Solution: © [pla =4 | pva|~@v@ |~pa~a TIT)FLFLT | F F tlrlr |r| 7] F F F[r|ti/ Fi] Tt] F F Flritiri er] fr r © [pla ]=p[-a] pag [-@ag [~pv~a TITTF[F[ Tt] F F tlrFlr|t{ re] or m F[t{ti/ rl] er] 7 T Fleer fer | bes] oie r op : Eq 5 8 4 (@) prquqapandqvp=pva. ® @YOVr=pVvavryand pag rrapa@gan. ©) PADYT=@YAAGVr) and PV ara@anvipar [RTU 2009; Raj. Univ. 2007) eee me oy ty te He et te Be et Beee eee FREE EH BY 8] aie ee = ple ee a eee . ARs Sle ene + > & Zz Sle eee e 3 a fe be & al = <|e = & > & Be o = aq Sle me aE “[e ee & sl-5 6 ole =e & alee = a[F eee a s é Pla |? [pag] agar [@aaar | Paar) FeeRe ee© P\a|? | pag | pvr |qvyr | (pager | (pynagvr) T(tlT| T | 17 7 T tilrjF) t | or |r T T tlelt] e | rt £ a TlFlF) F | Tt |e F F F\t|t| F | t |r T T Fi[tjF| F |e | tT F F Fle|t] e | tj T T Fleje| e |e fe F FE Pa |? [pva| par | gar | var | (PANVGAn, TIhrT|t|) T/T] T T T title) tT | F | F F F tle|t] tT] tT |r] ot T tiele| t |r |e F F PTT tra Tet T Fi[tfr| t |e | F F F FlFi|t| FJ] Fe] F F F Flele| F | el] F F F Example 1.21 Show that ~ (p nq #~PA~4. Solution: We will use truth tables to prove the claim. P\q q| prg|~(Pag)| |~pa~q Tit) F/F|/ Tt] F F tlrFl}e|t| Fr] Tt fel F F[t|/T}]F/ Fe | Tt jel F Fle} tit] Fr | t Tr ‘A.compound proposition that hs the value F fr all possible values of the propositions i * called a contradiction. Example 1.22 Show that the proposition pr ~p is a contradiction. Solution: P [=P | PA~P TTF] F Flr] &Example 1.29 Rewrite the propasition “if a real mamber is an integer then i isa rational mumber™ ‘as @ universal conditional propasition. Solution: xe R, if isan inerger then xs rational number. Example 1.30 What is the negation of each ofthe propositions? @ YeeD,P) () WweD,P) © Yred,P~) >A) Solution: (@) 3reD,~P(x) © vred,~P(2) ©) Since PC) +Qx)=(~PE)VQa)_ then ~(¥rED,P(x)-> Q(x) #3x€ D, PCa) and ~ Qa) Example 1.31 Consider the universal conditional proposition Vee D, if P(x) then O(2). (@) Find the contrapositive. (@) Find the converse. (©) Find the inverse, Solution: (@) WreD, if ~Q(a) then ~P(x), ©) VreD, if Q(x) then PCa. © VreD, if ~P(x) then ~ Q(x), Example 1.32 Write the negation of each of the following propositions @ WreRx>3>x'>9, () Every polynomial function is continuous. (©) There exists a triangle with the property that the sum of angles is greater than 180° Solution: (@) AceR,x>3and 2’ <9, (b) There exists a polynomial that is not continuous everywhere. (©) Forany triangle, the sum of the angles is less than or equal to 180°,aaa efinition ofa limit. We say that ¢ = lim,_,4 f(x) ifandonly if W¢ >0,3 a positive number 8 such that if |x—a}s8 then |fx)~ 4) + Iftoday is Tuesday then grass is dry. © prq + Today is Tuesday and grass is dry. © peg + Today is Tuesday if and only if grass is dry. © pia + lftoday is not Tuesday then giass is not dry. ®@ pana + Today is not Tuesday and grass is not dry. ©) ~PY@Aq) + Bither today is not Tuesday or today is Tuesday and grass is dry ‘Example 1.37 Siate the converse, contrapositive and inverse of each of these implications (@ itis snows today, then I will stay at home. @) I you drive more than 600 miles, then you will need to buy diseal ‘Solution: (a) Let p: It snows today. q: I stay at home, ‘Then the given proposition is p > 4. Converse q-> p + IfTstay at home, then it snows today. Contrapositive ~q -> ~p fT do not stay at home, then it does not snow today. Inverse ~p > ~q :Ifitdoes not snow today, then I will not stay at home, (&) Let p: You drive more than 600 miles. 4 You need to buy petrol. ‘Then the given statement is p> g. Converse q > p + If you need to buy diseal, then you drive more than 600 miles. Contrapositive ~q > ~p : If you do not need to buy diseal, then you will not drive more than 600 miles. Inverse ~p > ~q + Ifyou do not drive more than 600 miles, then you will not need to buy diseal.1.23 Example 1-38 Prepare a truth table for each of these compound propositions * (@) ~prg () ~(pva>a © (Prd>(Pva @ (p>georqr>) @ peg of) (PVD > (POD @ (pagyr ®) (p>avep>n @ (Peadveqen, ‘Solution: (a) Following is the truth table for~p.~’g pa |~p | ~pag TIT/F | F TlF\/F| F | toe, Fle] Tt] F (b) Following is the truth table for pv q) > P| | pa | ~(va) | ~@va>g TI|T| T F T TlF| T F T Fi[T| 7 F T FlFl| F T F (6) Following isthe truth table for (p Ag) > (Pv) Pla] aa] Pva | PAD Ova) T|T T T T oD [ies oma er a FUT F T T FLF F F T (4) Following is the truth table for (p -> 9) > (~9 > ~P) Pia|pra =4 | =9>~P | > DOCI>~P) Pt]. F/F T 7 TiF] F FUT Ey a RoeT | pare T T PafePijeas eT T a