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Nonwovens: Process, structure,
properties and applications

Nonwovens: Process, structure,
properties and applications
T. Karthik
R. Rathinamoorthy
C. Praba Karan
WOODHEAD PUBLISHING INDIA PVT LTD

New Delhi
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First published 2016, Woodhead Publishing India Pvt. Ltd.

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Contents
Preface ix
Foreword xiii
List of figures xv
List of tables xxi
1. Introduction to nonwovens 1
1.1 Definition of nonwoven 2
1.2 Classification of nonwovens 3
1.3 History of nonwovens 4
1.4 Market growth of nonwoven industry 6
1.5 Features of nonwoven fabrics 10
1.6 Raw materials for nonwovens 11
1.7 Product properties and applications of nonwovens 27
2. Web formation 34
2.1 Introduction 34
2.2 Staple fiber web formation system 35
2.3 Polymer lay process 75
2.4 Comparison of different web forming techniques 88
3. Nonwoven bonding techniques 95

3.1 Introduction 95
3.2 Mechanical bonding 97
3.3 Chemical bonding 132
3.4 Thermal bonding 138
3.5 Comparison of different web bonding techniques 150
vi Nonwoven: Process, structure, properties and applications
4. Finishing of nonwovens 156

4.1 Introduction 156
4.2 Mechanical finishing 157
4.3 Chemical finishing 167
5. Testing of nonwovens 181

5.2 Characterization of bonding structures 182
5.3 Testing of nonwovens 185
6. Applications of nonwovens 211

6.2 Application of nonwovens in apparel 215
6.3 Application of nonwovens in agriculture 218
6.4 Application of nonwovens in geotextiles 222
6.5 Application of nonwovens in medical textiles 225
6.6 Application of nonwoven in automotive textiles 232
6.7 Application of nonwovens in filtration 235
6.8 Application of nonwovens in home textiles 242
6.9 Application of nonwovens in roofing and construction 244
6.10 Application of nonwovens in packaging 244
7. Composite nonwovens 249

7.1 Definition 249
7.2 Importance of composite nonwovens 250
7.3 Types of composite nonwovens 250
7.4 Composite nonwoven manufacturing processes 251
7.5 Application of composite nonwoven structures 271
8. Natural fiber nonwovens 285

8.2 Cotton fiber nonwovens 287
Contents vii
8.3 Flax fiber nonwovens 289

8.4 Jute fiber nonwovens 292
8.5 Hemp fiber nonwovens 295
8.6 Kenaf fiber nonwovens 298
8.7 Milkweed fiber nonwovens 299
8.8 Pineapple fiber nonwovens 303
8.9 Abaca fiber nonwovens 304
8.10 Sisal fiber nonwovens 305
8.11 Wool fiber nonwovens 307
8.12 Kapok fiber nonwovens 307
Index 315
Preface
Industries play a vital role in economy of nations as these industries

manufacture different kind of products and relive the nation from importing
them from other countries. Textile industries are also manufacturing different
kind of fabric for clothing, furnishing, and industrial utility applications. In
the conventional fabric, the fibre is first made into yarns; on the other hand,
nonwovens are manufactured sheets or webs directionally or randomly
orientated fibres, bonded through resistance, solidity or sticking together into
a fabric.
The demands for fabrics have increased sharply over the years and
conventional textiles are not in a position to meet the production cost and
higher cost of upgradation along with demanding consumers in new fields
of consumption. With better customization of characteristics into the fabric
and appropriateness to certain end uses being advantages, nonwovens have
emerged rapidly as the fabrics of the future. The ability to produce nonwovens
with excellent characteristics in lesser response time and at affordable cost is
the most vital factor contributing to its rapid development and commercial
acceptance worldwide. On the other hand, nonwoven fabrics hold some
natural characteristics, which led them to be counted for non-usable in certain
applications. At present, many research and development has been conducted
on enhancing the characteristics of nonwoven fabrics. Nonwovens are also
entering into some astonishing fields, with making its mark in fashion apparel
also.
Demand for nonwovens in developed countries is expected to accelerate
from the pace set from 2007 to 2012, when recessionary conditions for most
of the period brought outright declines in manufacturing and construction
activity. Between 2013 and 2018, the global nonwovens market will experience
projected annual growth rates of 7.6% (tonnage), 7.5% ($) and 8.2% (m2)
according to a new market report by Smithers Apex. Nonwovens are divided
into two major categories: disposable and durable nonwovens. According to
the report, disposable nonwovens surpassed durables in value growth between
2008 and 2013, increasing from $9.1 billion to $12.5 billion, resulting in an
annual growth rate of 6.7%. Within the same timeframe, durable nonwovens
grew from $15.3 billion to $20.6 billion tonnes, at an annual growth rate
x Nonwoven: Process, structure, properties and applications
of 6.1%. According to The Future of Global Nonwovens to 2018, spunlaid

is projected to grow at the highest rate of all processes, with consumption
projected to reach 5.8 million tonnes by 2018.
This book ‘Nonwovens: Process, Structure, Properties and Applications’
plays a vital role in outlining the basic concepts of selection of raw material,
manufacturing principles of nonwoven, finishing and characterization of
nonwovens. Further, the book provides brief about the composite nonwoven
structures and its applications and the application of natural fibre nonwovens
in various sectors.
Chapter 1 outlines the various definitions of nonwoven, their classification
and market potential of nonwoven based on manufacturing technologies
and application areas. Further, the raw material requirements for the
manufacturing of nonwoven such as fibres, additives and binders are also
discussed in detail. Chapter 2 outlines the various web formation techniques
for the manufacturing of nonwovens such as drylaid, wetlaid, spunbond and
meltblown. The web formation principle, influence of material and process
variables on web formation and product characteristics are discussed in detail
for all web formation techniques.
Chapter 3 discusses the different web bonding techniques such as
mechanical, chemical and thermal bonding methods. In case of mechanical
bonding needle punching, stitch bonding and hydroentanglement; in
chemical bonding saturation, spray, print, foam and powder bonding; in case
of thermal bonding hot and belt calendaring, through-air thermal bonding,
ultrasonic and radiant heat bonding methods are dealt in detail with respect to
principle, influence of machine and process parameters on bonding, product
characteristics. Further, comprehensive comparison of three web bonding
methods is also given in detail.
Chapter 4 provides brief information about the various kinds of finishes
for nonwoven structures categorized as mechanical, chemical and specialty
finishes with respect to the principle of finishing process, their application
areas and limitations.
Chapter 5 provides the comprehensive information about the various
testing methods and standards for testing of raw materials and nonwoven
products. Apart from the basic testing methods, porosity of nonwoven structure,
fibre orientation angle and distribution and contact angle measurement are
also discussed. Further, product-specific testing of nonwovens such as testing
parameters and standards for medical and hygiene textiles, house hold
products, protective clothing, geotextiles and filter media are also provided.
Preface xi
Chapter 6 discusses about the application areas of nonwoven products

in various sectors such as apparel, agrotech, geotech, medical and hygiene,
automotive textiles, filtration products, home textiles, roofing and construction
and packaging.
Chapter 7 provides brief information about the advanced method of
production of nonwoven called as composite nonwoven structures for specific
end-use applications. Various methods of production of composite nonwoven
such as blending of two or more fibres, layered composite nonwovens,
laminated composite nonwovens, hybrid nonwovens, particulate nonwovens
and nanofibre nonwovens and their application in medical & hygiene,
filtration, sound and thermal insulation products are discussed in detail. The
last chapter (Chapter 8) reviews the application potential of natural fibre based
nonwovens in various sectors. The natural fibres such as cotton, flax, jute,
hemp, kenaf, milkweed, pineapple, abaca, sisal, wool and kapok are discussed
with respect to their application as nonwoven structures.
This book is primarily a text book intended for Textile Technology
and Fashion Technology students in universities and colleges, researchers,
industrialists and academicians, as well as professionals in the apparel and
textile industry.
Foreword
This book ‘Nonwovens: Process, Structure, Properties and Applications’

has been authored by T. Karthik, C. Praba Karan and R. Rathinamoorthi.
The authors have several years of experience in the field teaching of textile
technology and apparel science to graduate and post-graduate students.
They have put huge efforts and used their practical experience in writing
this book.
I could find everything about nonwovens in this book. This book
begins with a well-structured introduction of nonwovens, commencing with
classifications and then proceeds to nonwoven market, raw materials and
applications. The chapters on web formation and bonding technologies are
dwelt in details and finally comparisons of different techniques are discussed.
The readers especially students would find this book very useful as a text book
for graduating students and serve as a reference book for students of higher
learning.
Mechanical and chemical finishing of nonwovens is discussed in detail
in this book with many references. One can find a wealth of information in
these chapters. Testing methods of nonwovens with reference to standards
are presented exhaustively. This would be definitely helpful especially to
personnel from industry.
The applications of nonwovens in various fields such as apparel,
agriculture, geotextiles, medical textiles, automotive, filtration, home textiles,
civil engineering and packaging industry are well documented. This will be
ready reckoner for people engaged in development of technical textiles.
Composite nonwovens are growing at a faster rate due to their appealing
functionality. Various composite nonwovens, manufacturing process and their
applications are discussed in detail in this book. Sustainable nonwovens are
the future to combat pollution arising out of disposing the nonwovens after
their use. Natural fibres have unique place which must be exploited by the
industry in developing sustainable nonwoven products in order to reduce
carbon footprint. The authors have explored many natural fibres for their use
in development of bio-degradable nonwovens. The chapter on natural fibre
nonwovens would be very useful to the readers.
xiv Nonwoven: Process, structure, properties and applications
The authors have put commendable effort in bring this book. This book
will be certainly useful to students, academicians, researchers and personnel
from industry.
Prof. R. S. Rengasamy
Department of Textile Technology
Indian Institute of Technology, Delhi
New Delhi-16
List of figures
Figure Description
No.
1.1 Structure of woven, knitted and nonwoven fabrics
1.2 Classification of Nonwovens based on production techniques
1.3 Classification of Nonwovens based on structure
1.4 Worldwide production of nonwovens by quantity
1.5 Worldwide productions of nonwovens by region
1.6 Nonwoven productions by web-forming processes
1.7 Nonwoven production by web-bonding processes
1.8 Worldwide Nonwoven Consumption in Leading Application
areas
1.9 World consumption of raw materials
1.10 Types of bi-component fibers
2.1 Classification of nonwoven based on web formation techniques
2.2 Dry-laid manufacturing process
2.3 Typical Blowroom line for processing of nonwoven
2.4 Schematic representation of a Bale breaker
2.5 Arrangement of beaters in Cleanomat
2.6 Multimixer blending machine
2.7 Tuft blender
2.8 Continuous dosing system
2.9 Storage trunk
2.10 Contifeed feeding system
2.11 Universal Roller Card
2.12 Action of Worker and stripper in card
2.13 Nonwoven Single Card
2.14 Tandem card
xvi Nonwoven: Process, structure, properties and applications
Figure Description
No.
2.15 Double doffer nonwoven card
2.16 Vibrating chute arrangment
2.17 Scan Feed Tuft Feeder
2.18 Micro-Weighing system
2.19 Scanning of feed weight
2.20 Parallel laying process
2.21 Camel back cross-laying process
2.22 Horizontal laying process
2.23 Diagramatic representation of Cross lapping angle
2.24 Struto perpendicular laying process
2.25 Principle of air-lay machine
2.26 Danweb air-laying process
2.27 Rando Opener
2.28 Random Card
2.29 Random Card K12
2.30 Random card K21
2.31 Wet-laid manufacturing process
2.32 Wet-laid nonwoven process
2.33 Pilot wet lay machine
2.34 Spunbonding process
2.35 Spunbonding process with a belt collector
2.36 Meltblown web formation process
2.37 Die design for meltblowing process
2.38 Web formation process
2.39 Schematic diagram of Meltblowing Process
3.1 Classification of bonding techniques used in nonwoven bonding
process
3.2 The basic principle of Needle punching process
3.3 Needle punching line
List of figures xvii
Figure Description
No.
3.4 Process flow in Needle punching
3.5 Needle Punching Technology
3.6 Needle punching needle barb structure
3.7 Structure of a felting needle
3.8 Structure of structuring needle
3.9 Conical needle
3.10 Stitch bonding process
3.11 The basic types of stitch structures
3.12 Stitch-bonding point and loop-formation cycle of Maliwatt
stitch-bonding machine
3.13 Steps in Stitch formation
3.14 Maliwatt stitch formation process and stitched nonwoven sample
3.15 Malivlies stitch formation process and the stitched fabric
3.16 Malimo stitch formation process
3.17 Malipol stitch formation
3.18 Voltex stitch formation process
3.19 Principle of hydro entanglement process
3.20 Working of hydro entanglement process
3.21 Hydroentangling Equipment and spunlace fabric
3.22 Chemical bonding of Nonwoven
3.23 Saturation bonding process
3.24 Foam bonding process
3.25 Spray bonding method for nonwovens
3.26 Print bonding technique for nonwoven
3.27 Powder adhesive sprinkling method
3.28 Types of calendar roller
3.29 Point bonding rollers
3.30 Embossing calendaring
3.31 Belt calendaring process
3.32 Through-air bonding with horizontal belt
3.33 Through-air bonding with rotary drum
xviii Nonwoven: Process, structure, properties and applications
Figure Description
No.
3.34 Ultrasonic bonding process
3.35 Infra-red bonding machine
4.1 Classification of Nonwoven finishing methods
4.2 Process of Nonwoven Compacting
4.3 Mechanism of Creping of nonwoven
4.4 Shearing process working mechanism
4.5 Raising rollers
4.6 Raising (napping) machine
4.7 Raising the face of the fabric
4.8 Line diagram of rotary-cylinder singeing machine
4.9 Principle of gas singeing
4.10 Line diagram of gas singeing machine
4.11 Rotogravure coating
4.12 Rotary screen coating
4.13 Spray coating
4.14 Wet or Cold laminating
4.15 Dry or Hot Laminating
5.1 Measurement of fiber orientation and orientation angle
5.2 Schematic diagram of GATS tester
5.3 Contact angle on different materials
5.4 Schematic diagram of contact angle
6.1 Nonwoven consumption of different product groups
6.2 Application of nonwovens in technical textiles
6.3 Market share of nonwovens in different application areas
6.4 Fashion apparel produced from nonwoven fabrics
6.5 Nonwoven frost covering fabric
6.6 Nonwoven mulching fabric
6.7 Nonwoven blanket fabric
6.8 Various functions of geotextile fabrics
List of figures xix
Figure Description
No.
6.9 Nonwoven in medical textiles
6.10 Application of nonwoven in a car
6.11 Global nonwoven filter market
7.1 Sandwich web-laying using multi card
7.2 Single stage multi-layered nonwoven using divider in card line
7.3 Multi-forming air-laid process
7.4 Three-layer headbox in wet-laid
7.5 Modified headbox system for improving the integrity of layered
nonwoven
7.6 Spunbond-spunbond-spunbond production process and fabric
7.7 SMS production process of Zimmer AG
7.8 SMS production process from same spinning line
7.9 SEM image of SMS nonwoven structure
7.10 CoForm® layered composite nonwoven process
7.11 Hydroknit® integrated spunbond-spunlace process
7.12 Evolon® spunlace process
7.13 SEM image of micro-fibers of splitted fibers
7.14 Laminated composite nonwoven structure from LDPE
7.15 Flame-lamination process
7.16 Hybrid nonwoven structure with scrim
7.17 VAPORWEB process
7.18 Principle of Electro Bubble Spinning
7.19 Production process of PVA nanofiber overlaid nonwoven
7.20 SEM micrograph of nanofiber overlaid nonwoven
7.21 Basic processes involved in production of nanofiber coated
textiles
7.22 SEM micrographs of nylon 6,6 electrospun fibers thermally
bonded onto viscose nonwoven
7.23 Particulates incorporated within the base substrate
xx Nonwoven: Process, structure, properties and applications
Figure Description
No.
7.24 SEM images of bonded particles between two nonwoven
structures
7.25 SEM photograph showing functional particles bonded to
bicomponent fibers
7.26 Decontamination three-layered wipe
7.27 SEM micrograph of three-layered composite nonwoven
7.28 Process sequence of production of pile-composite structure
7.29 Construction of composite nonwoven structure
7.30 3D Napco structure
7.31 3D Napco structure with PCM granules
8.1 Natural fiber classification
8.2 Oil sorption capacities of various natural fibers
List of table
Table No Description
1.1 Definitions of nonwovens
1.2 Worldwide Nonwovens Production by region
1.3 Worldwide Nonwovens Production in quantity
1.4 Properties of nonwoven fabrics
1.5 Fibers used in Nonwoven industry
1.6 Special types of binders and their application
1.7 Properties and application of nonwoven based on web formation
methods
1.8 Properties and application of nonwoven based on web bonding
methods
2.1 Wire point density for various parts of card (PPSI)
2.2 Card Width and Production rates
2.3 Relative merits of cross laying and parallel laying process
2.4 Merits and Limitations of Card Cross-lapping and Air laying
process
2.5 Relative merits of filament bonded and staple fiber bonded
Nonwovens
2.6 Comparison of Spunbond and meltblown fabrics
2.7 Comparison of Web Formation techniques
3.1 Different types of stitch bonding process
3.2 Application of thermobonded nonwovens
3.3 Comparison of different Web Bonding techniques
5.1 Standards for measurement of fiber properties
5.2 Various category of testing of various characteristics of
nonwoven products
5.3 ASTM Standards for testing of nonwoven
5.4 Standard conditions for measurement of nonwoven thickness
xxii Nonwoven: Process, structure, properties and applications
Table No Description
5.5 Common testing parameters and standards for nonwoven
application in different areas
6.1 Application fields of nonwoven fabrics
6.2 Application of different types of nonwoven fabrics
6.3 Application of nonwovens and fibers in different fields of
medical textiles
6.4 Application of nonwoven technology in automotive textiles
6.5 Comparison of Nonwoven technologies used in filtration
6.6 Application of different nonwoven products in home textiles
7.1 Composite nonwoven filters
8.1 Comparative properties of flax and other high modulus synthetic
fiber
8.2 Potential end uses of Jute based Nonwovens
8.3 Chemical composition of abaca fiber and natural fibers
8.4 Comparison of physical properties of natural fibers with sisal
fiber
1
Introduction to nonwovens
Abstract: This chapter provides the overall view of nonwoven industry. It

discusses the various definitions of nonwoven, classification of nonwoven based
on production technique and structure. The market growth potential of nonwoven
as well as features of nonwoven fabrics has also been discussed. The raw
materials for the production of nonwoven such as fibres, binders and additives
were discussed in detail. The brief description of various nonwoven products and
their properties and application were also provided.
Key words: nonwoven, binders, additives, bi-component fibres, nano fibres
Fabrics can be made from fibers as well as from yarns. In conventional

fabric production such as weaving and knitting, the fibers are converted into
yarns and consequently into fabric. The construction of woven, knitted and
nonwoven structures are shown in Figure 1.1. In nonwoven process, the fibers
are directly converted into fabrics. It eliminates the yarn production process
and makes the fabric directly from fibers. Nonwovens are unique engineered
fabrics offering cost effective solutions for an increasingly wide variety of
applications. Nonwovens are products with many different qualities.
Figure 1.1 Structure of woven, knitted and nonwoven fabrics [Source: intech.com]
The major advantages in nonwoven fabrics are the higher production

rate compared to conventional fabric formation since all yarn preparation
steps are eliminated. For example, to manufacture 600,000 meters of woven
fabric need two months of yarn preparation, three months of weaving on 60
looms and one month for processing and finishing. Nonwoven structure can
be produced with the same quantity within 2 months from order. Apart from
higher production rate, automation is possible is this system and need less
manpower and energy compared to conventional systems.
2 Nonwoven: Process, structure, properties and applications
1.1 Definition of nonwoven

A great deal of work has been done to define nonwovens and to distinguish
them from paper. Table 1.1 lists the various definitions of nonwovens.
Table 1.1 Definitions of nonwovens [Source: Hutten 2007]
S. no. Source Definition

1 Manual of Nonwoven fabrics are textile fabrics made of a fibrous
Nonwovens layer, which may be a carded web, a fiber web, or any
(Krema 1971) system of randomly laid or oriented fibers or threads,
possibly combined with textile or non-textile materials such
as conventional woven fabrics, plastic films, foam layers,
metal foils, etc., and forming them with a mechanically
bound or chemically bonded textile product.
2 Annual Book Nonwoven fabrics is a structure produced by bonding or
of Standards, interlocking of fibers, or both, accomplished by mechanical,
1989. ASTM chemical, thermal, or solvent means and the combination
International thereof. The term does not include paper or fabrics that
ASTM D 1117-01 are woven, tufted or those made by wool or other felting.
3 Man-Made Nonwoven fabric is an assembly of textile fibers held
Fiber and Textile together by mechanical interlocking in a random web or
Dictionary mat by fusing of the fibers (in case of thermoplastic fibers),
or by bonding with cementing medium such as starch, glue,
casein, rubber, latex, or one of the cellulose derivatives or
synthetic resins.
4 Nonwovens: Nonwoven is a manufactured sheet, web or batt of
Theory, Process, directionally or randomly orientated fibers, bonded by
Performance and friction, and/or cohesion and/or adhesion, excluding paper
Testing and products which are woven, knitted, tufted, stitch-
ISO-9092:1988 bonded incorporating binding yarns or filaments, or felted
(Houfek 1993) by wet-milling, whether or not additionally needled. The
fibers may be of natural or man-made origin.
5 The Dictionary of Nonwoven fabric is a cloth-like material made of fibers
Paper longer than those normally used in papermaking which,
instead of being woven on a loom, is formed by felting on
a line mesh screen from an air or water suspension with or
without binders.
6 Nonwoven fabrics A sheet, web or batt of natural and/or man-made fibers or
Handbook (INDA) filaments, excluding paper, that have not been converted
– (Association into yarn, and that are bonded to each other by any of
of Nonwoven several means.
Fabrics Industry, Note:
USA)
1. To distinguish wet-laid nonwovens from wet-laid paper
(Wakeman 1985) materials the following differentiation is made.
(a) More than 50% by mass of its fibrous content is made
up of fibers with a length to diameter ratio greater than 300.
Contd...
Introduction to nonwovens 3
Contd...
S. no. Source Definition

Other types of fabrics can be classified as nonwoven if,
(b) More than 30% by mass of its fibrous content is made
up of fibers with a length to diameter ratio greater than 600
and/or the density of the fabric is less than 0.4 g/cm3.
7 EDANA A manufactured sheet, web or batt of directionally or
(European randomly oriented fibers, bonded by friction, and/or
Disposables cohesion and/or adhesion, excluding paper and products,
and Nonwovens which are woven, knitted, tufted or stitch-bonded, or felted
Association) by wet-milling, whether or not additionally needled. The
fibers may be of material or manmade origin. They may be
staple or continuous filaments or be formed in situ.
Note:
1. To distinguish wet-laid nonwovens from wet-laid papers,
a material shall be regarded as a nonwoven if,
(a) More than 50% by mass of its fibrous content is made-
up of fibers with a length to diameter ratio greater than
300; or
(b) More than 30% by mass of its fibrous content is made
up of fibers with a length to diameter ratio greater than 300
and its density is less than 0.40 g/cm3.
8 A New System for Structure-based definition of nonwoven:
Classifying • Fiber web structures: Includes all textile sheet structures
Nonwovens, made from fibrous webs, bonded by frictional/mechanical
TAPPI Press restraints and/or covalent bonds obtained through the
use of resins, thermal fusion, or formation of chemical
(Hansen 1993)
complexes. Here, fibers or filaments are bonded so that
the average bond-to-bond distances are greater than 50–
100 times the fiber diameter giving textile-like qualities of
low bending and low in-plane stiffness.
• Net-like structures: Structures formed by extruding one
or more fiber-forming polymers in the form of a network or
film. The film may then be uniaxially or biaxially oriented to
fibrillate into a net-like structure.
• Multiplex structures: This class of fabrics combine and
utilize characteristics of several primary and/or secondary
structures, at least one of which is a recognized nonwoven
textile structure, into a single unitized structure.
1.2 Classification of nonwovens

Nonwoven can be broadly classified based on two aspects as shown in Figures
1.2 and 1.3 as
1. Based on production techniques
2. Based on structures
Classification based on production

techniques
Based on web formation Based on web bonding Based on web finishing
Dry-laid nonwovens Wet-laid nonwovens 1. Coated

1. Card laid 2. Laminated
• Parallel laid 3. Crimped
• Cross-laid 4. Printed
2. Random air-laid 5. Special finish
Spun laid
nonwovens
1. Spunbond Mechanical Thermal bonding Chemical
2. Metblown Bonding 1. Calendering bonding
1. Needle punch 2. Through air 1. Impregnating
2. Spun laced bonding 2. Foam coating
3. Stitch bonded 3. Sonic bonding 3. Spraying
4. Print bonding
Figure 1.2 Classification of nonwovens based on production techniques
Classification based on structure
Classification with respect to Classification with respect to

position of fibers bonding
Fiber situated in the Fiber situated perpendicular Mechanically Chemically and thermally
fabric plane to the fabric plane bonded textiles bonded textiles
Bonded by Bonded by Bonded by Segment Agglomerate Point

single fibers fiber bundles threads structure structure structure
Figure 1.3 Classification of nonwovens based on structure
1.3 History of nonwovens

The nonwoven industry has a different organisation in contrast to the
conventional textile industry. In spite of these two industries sharing a
certain legacy, the nonwoven industry has distinctive features of having its
advancements bolstered by the present wide production of synthetic fibers, by

the high production speed of its machinery and in many cases by the reduced
cost of its products, favoured by the use of technologies and innovative
processes with high value addition. Along these lines, the nonwoven industry
has developed a unique identity, different from that of the traditional textile
industry which is based on apparels and household fabrics.
When England was the principal textile producing country in the 19th
century, recognizing that huge amount of fiber were wasted as a trim, Mr.
Garnett, a textile engineer, developed a specialized carding machine (known
as Garnett machine) to tear up the waste material into fibrous form which can
be utilized as a filling material for pillows and beds.
Afterwards, machinery manufacturers in Northern England region
started binding the fibers using needles (mechanical) or by using binders
(chemical) into webs which are the precursors of today’s nonwovens. This
method remained similar in the middle of the 20th century and these batts are
specifically produced for insulation of railroad box cars in the United States
of America (Albrecht 2003). At present, the nonwoven fabric was utilized
between the Space Shuttle Discovery’s heat resistant tiles and the spaceship’s
skin and nonwovens were component of the space suits worn to the moon.
The development in nonwoven sector over the years is given below:
• 1936 Dr. Carl Nottebohm initiates development of nonwovens in
Weinheim
• 1948 Start of dry-laid staple fiber nonwovens production, introduction
of Vliesline garment interlinings and Vildea window cloth.
• 1950 Joint Venture to produce dry-laid nonwovens in USA (Pellon)
• 1960 Joint Venture to produce dry-laid nonwovens in Japan (Japan
Vilene Company)
• 1965 Introduction of spunbonded polyamide nonwovens technology
developed by Dr. Ludwig Hartmann.
• 1973 Production of wet-laid nonwovens is started. Production of
polyester spunbond begins at new Kaiserslautern plant.
• 1982 Production of lightweight polypropylene nonwovens.
• 1984 Start-up of the first non-European facility to produce polyester
spunbonded nonwovens in North Carolina (USA).
• 1985 Acquisition of a leading producer of staple fiber nonwovens in
Brazil
• 1988 Opening of a new research and development centre for staple
fiber nonwovens incorporation using hydro entanglement technology
in Weinheim.
• 1994 Joint Venture with Japanese partner Japan Vilene Company to

produce interlinings in Suzhou/China.
• 1997 Merging of the staple-fiber and spunbonded Nonwovens Business
Groups. Formation of 6 divisions with global responsibilities.
• 1998 The Italian company Marelli & Berta, a manufacturer of woven
interlinings joins the Freudenberg Group.
• 1999 Evolon, a new technological breakthrough is achieved. The
first continuous microfiber spunlaced fabric is developed with a large
number of applications.
• 2002 New Plant Concept: A 50 million investment to modernize and
restructure the facilities in Europe and North America.
• 2006 Freudenberg Nonwovens acquires Scimat Ltd, Swindon/UK –
the leading finisher of battery separators.
• 2007 Restructuring of the North American industrial business
to simplify product ranges and improve supply chain efficiency.
Commissioning of a new spunbond line at Fiberweb’s site at
Norrköping, Sweden.
• 2008 Creation of two global hygiene business units – Consumer
Fabrics and Airlaid Fabrics, and three regional industrial businesses
– Americas Industrial, Europe Industrial and Terram. Acquisition of a
Chinese polyester nonwoven fabric producer – Hengguan
• 2009 Commissioning of a new spunbond line at Fiberweb’s site at
Trezzano Rosa, Italy. Formation of a 50/50 JV between Petropar
(Brazil) and Fiber web, comprising Fitesa Brazil and Fiber web
spunbond sites at Washougal, USA and Queretaro, Mexico to form
Fitesa Fiber web, the second-largest spunbond producer in the
America.
1.4 Market growth of nonwoven industry

The nonwoven industry is one of the rapidly developing industries in the
world. It is acquiring a sophisticated and diverse market over the years. For
the past 30 years, it has been exhibiting an average growth of about 8% and is
expected to sustain this rate of growth for the next ten years. The technology
in nonwoven industry has seen a marked improvement in nearly all available
major manufacturing processes, including those of spunbond, meltblown,
needle punched, spunlaced, wet laid and dry laid fabrication (Ramkumar
2012; INDA 2004, 2006, 2007). The ability to produce nonwovens with extra-
ordinary properties in less time and at affordable prices is the most critical
factor contributing to its rapid development and commercial acceptance

worldwide.
The nonwoven industry developed in the three fundamental industrialized
regions of the world, the USA, Western Europe and Japan. All of them have
made a significant contribution to the technological development of the
nonwovens industry and also fuelling its growth by finding new applications
for nonwovens (Russell 2007). The worldwide-nonwoven production in terms
of quantity and in different regions of the world is given in Tables 1.2 and 1.3
and Figures 1.4 and 1.5, respectively. From the tables and figures, it can be
clearly seen that the nonwoven production has a very good growth rate in the
upcoming years and Asian countries have immense potential to increase their
contribution in the nonwoven market.
Table 1.2 Worldwide nonwovens production by region [Source: INDA Estimates &
Rory Holmes, INDA-CAB Conference 2012. www.inda.org]
1997 2002 2011 2016 Growth Rate Growth Rate

1997–2010 2011–2016
(%/Year) (%/Year)
Dollars $11 $15 $26 $37 6.2% 7.8%
(billions)
Sq Meters 61 93 205 305 8.7% 9.0%
(billions)
Tonnes 2.7 4.0 7.6 11.1 7.7% 7.8%
(millions)
Table 1.3 Worldwide nonwovens production in quantity (millions of tonnes)

[Source: INDA Estimates & Rory Holmes, INDA-CAB Conference 2012. www.inda.org]
2006 2011 2016 Growth Rate Growth

2006–2011 Rate 2011-2016
(%/Year) (%/Year)
NAFTA 1.61 1.87 2.2 3.00% 3.30%
Europe 1.56 1.95 2.6 4.60% 5.90%
China 0.97 1.65 2.82 10.50% 12.00%
Other Asia Pacific 0.51 0.59 0.78 3.00% 5.70%
Japan 0.33 0.33 0.35 0.00% 1.20%
Middle East 0.26 0.32 0.45 3.60% 7.70%
Rest of World 0.44 0.9 1.88 16.60% 14.60%
TOTAL 5.68 7.61 11.08 6.00% 7.80%
12 300000
10 250000
8 200000
Tonnes (millions)
6 150200
m2 (millions)
4 100000
2 50000
0 0
2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015
Figure 1.4 Worldwide production of nonwovens by quantity [Source: INDA, 2012]
NAFTA Greater Europe Asia ROW
8000
In '000 tonnes
7000
6000
5000
4000
3000
2000
1000
0
2001 2006 2011
Figure 1.5 Worldwide productions of nonwovens by region [Source: INDA, 2012]
By considering the nonwoven market with respect to web forming and

web-bonding technologies as shown in Figures 1.6 and 1.7, respectively, it is
clearly shown that the dry laid, polymer laid web forming technologies and
needle punched web-bonding technology dominates the nonwoven market.
The spunlace technology growth is also found to be rapid particularly in
specific application areas (INDA 2004, 2006, 2007).
4000
3500
3000
2500
In '000 tonnes
Dry-laid
2000
Wet-laid
1500 Polymer-to-web
1000
500
0
2001 2006 2011
Figure 1.6 Nonwoven productions by web-forming processes [Source: INDA, 2012]
1800
1600
1400
1200
In '000 tonnes
1000 Needle punched
800 Spunlace
Thermal/Resin
600
400
200
0
2001 2006 2011
Figure 1.7 Nonwoven production by web-bonding processes [Source: INDA, 2012]
The drylaid process has continually progressed and has established itself
as the primary web forming technique. It is however very varied, especially
in terms of web bonding. In recent years, there has been a remarkable
increase of hydro-entangling, particularly related to the development of
wiping applications (Schoffmann and Schwend 1991; INDA 2007). Airlaid
fabrics using short fibers, which are the latest newcomer, are also making
quick progress. Although the wetlaid sectors have doubled their inputs in that
same time span, this appears to be insignificant when compared to the other
processes. The market consumption of nonwovens in different application

areas are shown in Figure 1.8.
Others
13%
Hygiene
26%
Construction
13%
Other
Medical
industrials
5%
4%
Wipes
Automotive
12%
6%
HF&B
Filtration 9%
7% Apparel
5%
Figure 1.8 Worldwide Nonwoven Consumption in Leading Application areas

[Source: INDA, 2012]
From Figure 1.8, it is clear that the hygiene sector plays a vital role
in consumption of nonwovens. Nonwovens are widely employed in the
development of incontinence products and also in the baby care sector like
cover stocking, leg cuffs, tapes, acquisition/distribution layer, textile back
sheets, etc. Unfortunately, the oligopolistic market condition in the hygiene
sector has caused the nonwovens manufacturers to reap lower profits in this
sector (EDANA 2014). Another sector, which took off recently, is the wipes
sector, be it for personal, industrial or household applications. The geotextiles
and roofing applications have trebled in 15 years time.
1.5 Features of nonwoven fabrics

Nonwovens neither depend on an organized geometrical structure or the
interlacing of yarn for internal cohesion. They are essentially the effect of the
relationship between a single fiber and another. Hence nonwoven fabrics have
characteristics of their own, with new or improved properties (absorption,
filtration). These properties open them up to a wider range of applications.
Nonwovens are versatile owing to their ability to provide innovative,
economical and sometimes unexpected solutions to innumerable business
challenges. Innovative products and solutions can be created using
nonwovens which helps to solve intricate problems and meet specific needs
by incorporating appropriate properties. These properties are frequently used

in combinations to create fabrics suited for specific end use, while achieving
a decent balance between product use-life and cost (Batra and Pourdeyhimi
2012). By selecting suitable raw materials and methods or by adopting
finishing treatments to nonwovens, such as printing, embossing, moulding,
laminating etc, the desired properties can be developed in the nonwovens. The
basic properties expected from nonwovens are given in Table 1.4.
Table 1.4 Properties of nonwoven fabrics
• Abrasion resistant • Lint free • Elastic

• Absorbent • Liquid repellent • Filtration
• Antistatic • Long-lasting • Flame resistant
• Biodegradable • Mouldable • Foldable
• Breathable • Non-conductive • Glueable
• Colour fast • Non-fading • Heat sealable
• Conductive • Permeable • Impermeable
• Crease resistant • Porous • Ironable
• Dense • Printable • Kind to skin
• Drapeable • Protective • Light
• Dry cleanable • Tear resistant • Resilient
• Durable • Washable • Rot and mildew resistant
• Dust free • Weatherproof • Sewable
• Dyeable • Weldable • Smooth
• Stiff • Stretchable • Soft
• Strong • Sterilisable • Stable
1.6 Raw materials for nonwovens

The three main categories of raw materials used to produce a nonwoven fabric
are:
• Fibers
• Binders
• Additives
1.6.1 Fibers
Nonwoven structures are fundamentally composed of fibers. Consequently,
the utility properties and performance of a nonwoven is dependent on the
fibers used to a significant extent. A fiber may be defined as any natural
or manmade substance, characterized by a high ratio of length to width,
flexibility, a certain minimum strength, elasticity and sufficient temperature

stability which is suitable for being processed into a fabric.
The choice of fibers in the manufacture of nonwovens is markedly
dependent on intended application of the fabric such as strength characteristics,
abrasion resistance, resistance to water, chemicals, weather and light. A
wide range of fibers, both natural and manmade, has been employed in the
production of nonwovens. Almost all the fibers known to mankind have been
used in the production of nonwovens at one time or another. However, the
commercially significant nonwoven fabrics have been restricted to relatively
few types of fibers, owing to their availability and properties (Batra 1989).
These include both the conventional fibers, as well as the high performance
fibers. The properties of the final nonwoven product depend on the choice of
fibers. The factors influencing the choice of fibers are customer requirement,
cost, process ability, changes of properties because of web formation and
consolidation. The fibers can be in the form of staple fiber, filament or even
yarn. Table 1.5 lists the significant fibers used in the nonwovens industry all
over the world. The world consumption pattern of different natural as well as
synthetic fibers is shown in Figure 1.9.
Table 1.5 Fibers used in nonwoven industry
Traditional fibers High performance fibers

• PET • Aramid (Nomex/Kevlar)
• Polyolefin (PP/PE) • Conductive Nylon
• Nylon • Bi-component
• Cotton • Melamine (heat & flame resistant)
• Rayon • Superabsorbent
• Wool • Hollow fibers
• Lyocell • Spandex fibers (polyether)
• Modacrylic • Fusible co-PET fiber
• PA-6 support/matrix fiber
• Glass micro-fiber
• Chlorofiber
• Antibacterial fiber
• Stainless steel
• Rubber thread
• PTFE
• Nanofibers
Figure 1.9 World consumption of raw materials [Source: ANFA, EDANA, INDA]
Wood pulp is the only natural fiber to be used in large quantities in the
nonwoven industry. Wood pulp is characterized by high water absorbency,
bulk and low cost which makes it preferable despite of being far shorter in
length than the traditional fibers. Cotton fibers facilitate easy fabrication into
nonwovens owing to their excellent inherent properties. The disposables
and sanitary products sector extensively makes use of viscose rayon fibers.
Rayon fibers can be effectively processed into webs and easily bonded into
nonwovens fabrics (Hansen 1993). The fibers like cotton, rayon and acetate,
being composed of cellulose, are moisture absorbent in nature. This moisture
absorbing tendency makes them act as carriers for microbes, thereby providing
them strength along with biodegradability.
Viscose rayon was a prominently used in the nonwovens manufacturing
until 1985. Over the years, the US and Western Europe have gradually cut down
the production of viscose rayon due to higher costs of the fiber. The reduction
in the costs of PP and PET in comparison with viscose rayon, (especially there
was big drop in 1989) and the inherent superior tensile properties of these
fibers forced the slow decline of shipment of viscose rayon fibers. Due to
the cleanliness and absorptive properties of viscose rayon fibers, nonwovens
manufactured from these are mainly utilized in medical/surgical/sanitary
sectors and in wet wipes (Lee and Cassill 2006). Likewise, the tampon and
incontinence products make use of cotton fibers. The utilization of cotton
fibers has stabilized at 40–45 million pounds.
Polypropylene (PP) is the most widely used man-made fiber. PP fibers
are well-known for their hydrophobicity, voluminous and thermoplastic
nature. PP is cheap and possesses good rheological characteristics to form
fine fibers. Polyethylene terephthalate (PET) is used in nonwovens requiring
tensile strength and mechanical properties to a greater extent. Nylon fibers are
utilized in nonwovens owing to their excellent resiliency properties (Albrecht
2003). Being more expensive than most of the other fibers, nylon is less used.
The other “special fibers” listed in Table 1.1 have only a limited market share,
probably no more than 15 percent of the whole nonwovens market.
Bi-component fibers, fibers containing dissimilar polymers in the core
and sheath find extensive applications in thermally bonded nonwovens. The
segmented pie and islands in sea structures are recent developments in bi-
component fiber structures. The nature of the product being manufactured and
the fabrication process being used determines the properties required by the
constituent fibers. Considering that each manufacturing process produces a
range of fabrics with distinct properties, all the fibers cannot be used in equal
volumes in all nonwoven processes.
In spite of the availability of a large number of fibers, few fibers namely,
the polyolefins, polyester, and rayon dominate the commercially important
nonwoven fabrics. These three fibers constitute a major share of the nonwovens
market. The olefin-based fibers are gaining constantly importance, replacing
the natural fibers, viscose rayon and polyester in many applications. This shift
in fiber consumption can be regarded as the effect of increased use of olefin-
based nonwovens in absorbent products around the world.
The reasons for high consumption of PP in nonwoven sector are due to
the following properties:
• Low density enabling lightweight fabrics to be made
• Low glass transition and melting temperature, economical for thermal
bonding
• Inherent hydrophobicity
• Good bulk and cover
• Chemical stability
• Resistance to mildew, perspiration
• Stain and soil release
• Good mechanical strength and abrasion resistance
The two unconventional fibers emerging in nonwoven applications
namely, bicomponent fibers and nanofibers are discussed in detail below.
1.6.1.1 Bi-component fibers

Bicomponent fibers can be defined as fibers composed of two components
which are distributed over the entire length of the fiber. Each component may
possess different physical or chemical properties. The components may either
be similar polymers or entirely different polymer types (Russell 2007). By
“co-extruding” two polymers into one single fiber, the different properties
of both polymers are combined. Hence the newly created fiber has improved
properties and can be designed to suit many new applications. The properties
of the individual components, the choice of combination of the different
polymers, additives and the shape of the bicomponent fiber are the major
factors influencing the resultant properties and possible applications of the
bicomponent fibers.
Common bicomponent configurations

Most commercially available bicomponent fibers are configured in a sheath/
core, side-by-side, or eccentric sheath/core arrangement as shown in Figure
1.10.
(a) Concentric sheath/core (b) Eccentric sheath/core (c) Side-by-side (d) Pie Wedge (e) Island/Sea
Figure 1.10 Types of bi-component fibers [Source: www.centexbel.be]
(a) Concentric sheath/core

This concentric sheath/core configuration is mainly used in melt fibers; fibers
with a sheath made of polymers with a low melting point around a core with
a high melting point. When melt fibers are heated, the sheath will melt; the
consequent cooling will bind the nonwoven or composite structure without
affecting the core polymer. This configuration can also be used to produce
fibers with an expensive core with weaker/cheaper polymer layer forming the
sheath and vice versa.
(b) Eccentric sheath/core
In the eccentric sheath/core configuration, the core polymer is eccentric or
moved out of the radial centre. Both the polymers have different shrinking
ratios, causing the fiber to curl when it is heated in a relaxed state. This process
adds to add crimp and volume to the fiber.
(c) Side-by-side
In the side-by-side configuration, both the polymers occupy an equal part
of the fiber surface. Depending on the difference in shrinkage nature of the
chosen polymers, the fiber may develop more crimp than the eccentric sheath/
core configuration.
(d) Pie wedge

This construction contains sixteen adjoining “pie wedges”. Every pie wedge
of a particular polymer A is separated from wedges of the same polymer on
both sides by wedges of another polymer B. The pie wedge arrangement is
made to split into microfibers of 0.1 to 0.2 denier be the action of mechanical
forces.
(e) Islands/Sea
In this configuration, polymer A represents the islands, and polymer B
represents the sea. This fiber structure facilitates numerous fine filaments of
one polymer to be dispersed in the matrix of another soluble polymer. By
dissolving the latter, the fabric structure is made up on the basis of very fine
microfibers. Hence, microfibers can also be produced in this method apart
from the direct extrusion methods.
These five basic configurations can be adapted in function of the desired
fiber or yarn properties. It is for example possible to limit the number of
islands to produce conductive yarns. On the other hand, it is possible to
provide a hole in the pie-wedge configuration (hollow pie wedge) to split
the filaments even more easily. The yarn diameter can be adapted to produce
trilobal (instead of round) filaments with a sheath/core or side/side structure
for carpet applications.
Polymers for bi-component fibers
A wide range of polymers apart from the regular polymers like polyethylene
terephthalate (PET), nylon, and polypropylene (PP) can be used in
a bicomponent fiber. Polymers such as polycyclohexanedimethanol
terephthalate, polytrimethylene terephthalate, polybutylene terephthalate,
PET glycol and a huge range of copolyesters are being utilized. Aliphatic
polyesters such as polylactic acid and polyhydroxyalkanoates, which are
environment friendly and derivable from renewable sources are gaining
importance.
The range of available polyamides and polyolefins has been augmented
by the co-polymerisation technology. The expanded range include nylon 6;
nylon 6,6; nylon 11 and nylon 12; copolyamides; high-density polyethylene
(HDPE); linear low-density LDPE; syndiotactic PP; and polymethylpentene.
But the most captivating aspect is the application of engineering polymers
in nonwovens manufacturing. These polymers have extra-ordinary properties
but their usage in commodity applications has been restricted by their costs.
The list of engineering polymers includes polyphenylene sulfide, polyvinyl
alcohol, polyetherimide, and thermoplastic polyurethanes and many more
polymers are also available.
Applications of bicomponent fibers

Bicomponent fibers can provide:
• Thermal bonding
• Self bulking/self crimping
• Very fine fibers (microfibers/nanofibers)
• Unique cross sections
• The functionality of special polymers or additives at reduced cost
Applications requiring engineering polymers make use of the basic
sheath/core configuration. Engineered polymers having excellent surface
properties can be used as the sheath in bicomponent fibers. Subsequently, the
fiber’s core can be made with a suitable lower-cost polymer. This helps to
deliver the benefits of the more expensive polymer at a lower cost.
Side-by-side bicomponent fibers typically are based on the difference in
shrinkage characteristics between the two polymers to produce self crimping
fibers. The application of heat introduces shrinkage in the fibers. On the
application of heat, the two polymers shrink at different rates, causing the
fiber to curl into a helix. Hence the nonwoven can be manufactured flat and
can be made to expand during application.
Microfibers are produced using the pie wedge configuration. Direct
spinning of microfibers is a costly process producing low throughputs. Also
direct spinning of microfibers cannot produce fibers as fine as 0.3 to 0.5 denier
per filament (dpf) – and expensive, as throughputs are low. Whereas spinning
a 2–3 dpf pie-wedge fiber overcomes the throughput limitations (Gamayunov
et al. 1994). Once a nonwoven web is formed from these fibers, it can be
split into microfibers usually about 16 segments per fiber by subjecting to
mechanical agitation like hydroentangling process. This drastically reduces
the cost of production compared to direct spinning. Further advancements
are hollow and partial-wrap versions of this cross section that improve of the
fiber›s relative splittability.
The sea/islands configuration also generates microfibers. In this case,
the microfibers are obtained by dissolution of the sea polymer in a suitable
solvent – typically, a light, hot caustic bath or warm water. The nonwoven
fabric made of sea/islands fibers is passed through the solvent bath to produce
the microfiber fabric. One major drawback associated with this method
is that some of the microfibers may also be washed down the drain. More
finer microfibers can be produced using this configuration compared to the
piewedge configuration.
Advantages of bicomponent thermal binder fibers

• Uniform distribution of adhesive can be achieved
• Fiber remains as a part of the structure and adds integrity
• Customized sheath materials can be selected to bond various materials
• Wide range of bonding temperatures
• Cleaner and environmentally friendly fabrication (no effluent)
• Recyclable
• Lamination/molding/densification of composites also possible
1.6.1.2 Nano fibers

The National Science Foundation (NSF) defines nanofibers as fibers having
at least one dimension of 100 nanometer (nm) or less. But in general, the
nonwoven industry treats fibers having a diameter of less than one micron
as nanofibers. Nanofibers are a relatively new class of materials utilized in
many important applications like medical, filtration, barrier, wipes, personal
care, composite, garments, insulation, and energy storage (Huang et al. 2003).
Nanofibers find applications in many sectors ranging from medical to consumer
products and industrial to high-tech applications for aerospace, capacitors,
transistors, drug delivery systems, battery separators, energy storage, fuel
cells, and information technology owing to their unique properties.
By and large, the electro spinning process is adopted to produce polymeric
nanofibers. The fibers produced by this process have diameters ranging from
10 nm to several hundred nanometers. The factors influencing the spun fiber
properties include field uniformity, polymer viscosity, electric field strength
and DCD (distance between nozzle and collector).
Alternatively, nanofibers can be produced by spinning bi-component
fibers with Islands-In-The-Sea configuration. Usually, these bi-component
fibers are spun in deniers of 1–3 with about 240 to as much as 1120 filaments
of one polymer surrounded by a dissolvable polymer (Subbiah et al.
2005). On dissolving the surrounding polymer, the matrix of nanofibers is left
behind, which can be further subjected to stretching or mechanical agitation.
Fibers such as nylon, polystyrene, polyacrylonitrile, polycarbonate, PEO,
PET and water-soluble polymers are commonly used. The island: sea
ratio in the bicomponent fiber is generally around 80:20. The resulting
nanofibers will have a diameter of approximately 300 nm (Bognitzki et al.
2001; Baumgarten 1971). In comparison with electrospinning, nanofibers
produced from bicomponent fibers are coarser and will have a very narrow
diameter range.
Properties of nanofibers
Nanofibers are characterized by special properties chiefly due to extremely
high surface to weight ratio compared to conventional nonwovens. Nanofiber
nonwovens are suitable for specific filtration applications due to its low
density, large surface area to mass, high pore volume, and tight pore size.
Application of nanofibers
Nanofiber webs have higher surface area compared to meltblown webs and
hence have substituted meltblown webs in critical filtration areas. Their highly
porous structure with high surface area makes them ideal for many filtration
applications. These nonwovens are most suitable for filtering submicron
particles from air or water. Some of the applications of nanofiber-based
nonwovens are aerosol filters, facemasks, and protective clothing (Li and Xia
2004). Recently, military fabrics make use of laminated layers of nanofibers
along with carbon fibers to enhance chemical and biological protection.
Nanofibers are also utilized in medical applications like drug and genes
delivery, artificial blood vessels, artificial organs, and medical facemasks. In
this field, carbon fiber hollow nano tubes which are finer than the blood vessels
are widely use. These carbon fiber hollow nano tubes have potential to carry
drugs into the blood cells thus enabling medicines to be directly transferred to
internal tissues (Baumgarten 1971). Companies like Johnson & Johnson and
Genzyme Corporation have developed anti-adhesion materials. Researchers
have developed nanofibers from compounds naturally present in blood for
applications in bandages and sutures which are capable of gradually dissolving
in blood. It has the advantages of reduced infection rates, minimized blood
loss and is capable of disintegrating without causing harm to the body
Layered composite structures are used to meet specific filtration
applications. These filters are composed with multiple meltblown layers
structured using fine to coarse filaments to constitute the bulk. These MB
layers are combined nanofiber webs. The MB layers incorporate fluid
resistance properties and the nanofiber layers provide smoothness for health,
wear and comfort (Doshi and Reneker 1995).
1.6.2 Binders
In fiber bonding, adhesives are usually polymeric in nature and for optimum
performance the adhesive-fiber combination should have most of these
characteristics:
• Polarity – The adhesive and fiber should be of similar polarity. Thus,
polar water soluble animal glue will stick to cellulose as both are
highly polar. But rubber adhesive will not adhere to cellulose.

• Surface tension – The adhesive must be capable of wetting the fiber,
thus reducing the surface energy between the adhesive and fiber.
This essentially means lowering the contact angle between the two
surfaces.
• Surface properties of fibers – The fiber characteristics, especially
physical surface properties, are also determinant of magnitude of
adhesive bonding strength. The three most important variables are (i)
primary fiber roughness, (ii) fiber cross-section, and (iii) multi-fiber
substrate geometry and porosity.
(a) Primary fiber roughness – With the increase in the roughness
of the fiber the adhesive bond strength increases. However, the
wetting of the fiber by the adhesive is of great importance as
good wetting increases the adhesion.
(b) Fiber cross-section – Generally fibers are of circular cross-
section. However, crenulated cross-section increases the
surface area and as a consequence adhesion increases.
However, this is to be weighed against increased stiffness of
the nonwoven product.
(c) Multi-fiber substrate geometry and porosity – It is known
that substrate geometry and total porosity affect adhesion
characteristics substantially.
• Glass transition temperature (Tg) – One of the most important factor
for adhesive binder in nonwoven is Tg. Hardness and flexibility of the
polymer at normal temperature is dependent on the Tg of the binder.
Tg of the binder is adjusted as per the requirement of the finished
fabrics by copolymerisation of different monomers.
For a long time, the structural integrity is imparted to most of the
nonwovens by means of chemical binder. Moreover, the binders were selected
accordingly to contribute properties required to enhance the performance of
the nonwoven. In the initial stages, nonwovens were bonded using different
types of natural resins and glues. Later on, synthetic binding agents were
engineered to satisfy the requirements in terms of structural and performance
aspects of nonwoven fabrics.
Latex binders provide economical methods of web bonding and achieving
specific properties. In most cases latex binders prove to be cheaper than the
use of special binder fiber. As a general practice, synthetic binders are used
in combination with mechanical and thermal bonding techniques, to achieve
the finished fabric which otherwise cannot be produced by using either one of
the techniques alone (Young 1996). Also, most binder systems are compatible
with pigments and dyes and help in colouration of nonwoven fabrics.
Binders may be classified, by their physical state at the time of
application, into the two broad classifications of dry or wet binders. The
dry systems are made up of thermoplastic fibers or powders. Wet systems
include solutions, of both aqueous and solvent types, as well as polymer
dispersions and emulsions.
1.6.2.1 Dry binders

Attempts have been made to use thermoplastic polymers in powder form
for binding nonwoven fabrics. Some thermoplastic polymer powders have
been developed commercially. Even though these thermoplastic powders
are satisfactory for binding, their usage has been limited due to problems of
uniform powder distribution in the web and holding them in required places
for efficient binding. Meanwhile, the use of thermoplastic fibers is practicable
and is in commercial usage. This method provides a more uniform distribution
of the binder throughout the web, the fiber itself a binder which can be
incorporated into a fiber blend (Young 1996; Morris and Mlynar 1995). The
actual bonding may be achieved by passing the web containing the bonding
fiber between heated smooth or patterned rolls, depending on the type of end
product desired and the amount of bonding fiber present. Infrared or hot air
heating may also be used for bonding.
Theoretically, any fiber which softens and flows at a temperature lower
than that of the remainder of the web can be used as a thermoplastic fiber. In
actual practice, polyviny1 chloride, polyethylene, or vinylidene polymers and
copolymers, polyamides or polyesters or acetate fibers with very low melting
points are used. Thermoplastic fibers offer a number of advantages as binders
for nonwoven fabrics. The exact amount of binder used can be determined
exactly as it is part of the web blend. The distribution of the binding fiber can
be controlled very well depending upon the type of web forming equipment
used. Special impregnating system is not required as the binder was part of
original web (Walton 1996). Thermoplastic fibers may also serve in heat
sealing the product to other materials.
However, thermoplastic fibers have not gained much prominence as
nonwoven binders probably because of the nature of the fibers themselves. To
have a low melt temperature the polymers should have low molecular weight
and therefore inherently low strength. Such fibers generally are not compatible
where for high strength applications. The use of latex binders restricts the
operational flexibility and the type of products being manufactured.
1.6.2.2 Wet binders

Only very few nonwoven fabrics are manufactured using solvent solutions
as binders. Although both the process efficiency and the end product are
excellent, the major problem arises from the use of solvents. The use of
solvents is costly unless recovery systems, which are very expensive, are
available. Furthermore, solvents are hazardous in nature, both by fire and
toxicity (Morris and Mlynar 1995). Water solutions of natural gums, proteins,
starches, and some synthetic water soluble polymers are limited in use as
binders. None of these are used as the primary binder for quality items except
where stiffness can be tolerated as in cheaper decorative fabrics. In some
cases these materials are used as pre-bonding agents before other treatments.
The water-based emulsion systems, which include the polymer lattices
dispersed and stabilised in water medium, are the most versatile and popular
of the nonwoven binders. Their ease of handling and non-hazardous nature
makes them attractive in comparison with other wet binders. Special types of
binders along with their application areas are shown in Table 1.6.
Table 1.6 Special types of binders and their application [Source: Mukherjee et al. 1992]
S. no Type of binders Applications

Acrylic Binders
1. Acrylic acid grafted oxidised starched copolymers Super absorbent wet by nonwovens
cross-linked with N,N’, methylene bisacrylarnide
2. Alkyl methacrylate, methacrylic acid; C-polyol Self-sealing materials for water
methacrylate copolymer roofing cable lines, geotextiles,
medicines
3. Copolymers of unsaturated water soluble Useful for bonding cellulose fibers
carboxylic acid or derivatives and methacrylic acid and pulp in paper, wipes or towels,
hydroxy alkyl ester monomers combined with a diapers
SBR latex
4. Copolymer of 2-ethylhexyl acrylate, styrene, Web-based wallpaper with
acrylic acid & vinyl acetate emulsion starch based extending gluing time.
binder
5. Acrylic polymer emulsion, paraffin emulsion and Moisture permeable – waterproof
water 6 nonwoven fabrics
6. Acrylic acid, Bu-arylate, styrene copolymer (Mol Coated nonwoven emulsion binder
Wt 636000 and Tg 45°C) with reduced flammability
7. Aqueous 65% potassium acrylate cross-linked Highly hygroscopic webs for
with 0.085% N,N’, methyl bisacrylamide disposable diapers
8. Copolymer of CI–4 alkyl acrylates, CI-4 alkyl Binders for nonwovens with good
methacrylates and unsaturated C3-Scarboxylic impregnating properties
acid
9. Emulsion polymer of methyl methacrylate, Emulsion adhesive for heal sealing
ethylhexyl acrylate, methacrylic acid and of tea bags
acrylamide
Contd...
Contd...
10 Butyl-acrylate, styrene copolymer Self cross-linking resin for porous
separator material in batteries
11. Butyl acrylate copolymer Adhesive tape for water proof
fabrics
12. Copolymer of Bu-acrylate, acrylonitrile and Nonwoven material with improved
N-methylol acrylamide ironability
13. Emulsion polymer of acrylic unsaturated Aqueous dispersion type pressure
monomers (homo or copolymer; Tg = 2500K) sensitive adhesives for nonwoven
and aqueous dispersion of polymers prepared by
emulsion polymerization of ethylenic monomers
14. Acrylic acid ester copolymer; blended with 20% Interlining materials with good
SBR emulsion resilience, improved tensile strength
15. Butyl acrylate-vinyl acetate copolymer dispersion Air permeable nonwovens with
shape memory
16. Butyl acrylate, acrylonitrile, N-methylol acrylamide Nonwoven fabric for lining with
copolymer good laundering and dry cleaning
resistance
17. Latex containing acrylic acid-2-ethyl Polyolefin nonwovens with high wet
hexylacrylate-vinyl chloride-vinylidine chloride strength retention
copolymer
18. Carbonized sulfonated styrene-di-vinyl benzene Spun-bonded nonwoven protective
copolymer later o a suitable acrylate fabric having flame resistant and
flexibility
19. Acrylic polymer emulsion blend with ethylene vinyl Stretchable wrinkle fibrous sheet
acetate copolymer
20. Acrylic acid-acrylonitrile copolymer Hygroscopic products for sanitary
goods and sealing materials
21. Acrylic resin modified with chlorohexidine Antibacterial electric fiber webs
for filters and wipers are prepared
using the binder
22. Emulsion polymer of acrylic acid ester, M.F. resin, Laminated pattern paper for textile
organic amine printing
23. Acrylic polymer emulsion (Tg – 80–0°C) Two ply nonwoven fabric laminate
24. Cross-linkable polyacrylates impregnated with Non-blocking, non cross-linking
binder containing 10% silicone dispersion adhesively bonded fleeces
25. Vinyl chloride emulsion blended with small High loft polyester nonwovens.
amount of aminoplast Good flame resistance better
wash and dry-cleaning resistance,
resilience and compression
recovery
26. Ethylene-vinyl chloride copolymer Laminates of nonwoven fabric
with wood composite base for rear
package automobile interiors
27. Polyvinyl chloride emulsion Antistatic finish for textile and carpet
backings
28. Vinyl chloride-vinylidine chloride- copolymer or Chemical resistant fabrics for
Ethylene vinyl acetate copolymer protective garments
Contd...
Contd...

29. Vinyl chloride homo or copolymer with plasticiser Fire resistant particulate binders for
and chemical stabiliser automobile felts
30. PVC emulsion binders Glass fiber nonwovens with good
tensile strength, breaking strength
31. Ethylene vinyl ester-vinyl chloride copolymer Composition for fabric and paper
binder emulsion
32. Ethylene vinyl acetate copolymer emulsion Synthetic nonwovens for retention
of volatile liquid
33. Ethyl vinyl acetate copolymer Adhesives for bonding textiles
(polyester cotton fabrics)
34. Polyvinyl acetate aqueous emulsion Thermal insulating nonwoven bulky
product
35. Ethylene vinyl acetate copolymer blended with Coated nonwoven fabric with
40% SBR latex increased oil adsorption
36. Polyvinyl acetate, blended with lubricating oil, Reinforcing glass fiber material
epichlorohydrin-polyamide copolymers
37. Copolymers of ethylene, vinyl acetate and Nonwoven textiles
N-methylol compound
38. Aqueous latexes or emulsion of vinyl acetate and Ageing resistant, cold sealable
natural rubber coatings for packaging materials
39. Polyvinyl acetate hot melt adhesive Interlining
40. Ethylene vinyl acetate copolymer emulsion Highly absorptive binders for
polyester nonwovens
41. Polymer of ethylenic unsaturated carboxylic acid Water-resistant binders for
with ethylene or vinyl acetate and compound polyester nonwovens
containing atidirine
42. Vinyl butyl resin solution Nonwoven reinforcement for
composite (carbon fiber and glass
fiber)
SBR BINDERS
43. SBR latex binder, mica, titanium pigment, kaolin Nonwoven coated paper or cloth
clay, sodium pyrophate, casein, ammonia, with pearly gloss, good printed
antifoaming agent gloss and printability
44. Binder comprises a copolymer of butadiene Nonwoven webs for sanitary use
styrene, ethynically unsaturated carboxylic acid
45. SBR latexes of acrylate polymers High strength, high modulus
interlining fabrics
46. Emulsion of styrene butadiene, MAA, Binders for nonwoven fabrics for
N(butoxymethyl acrylamide) imparting stiffness, water and
solvent resistance
47. Carboxylated SBR (carboxy content 0.5–2%) Alkali resistance nylon nonwoven
fabrics for elastic rolls
48. SBR latex, U.F. resin, ethylene glycol, Na CM- General adhesives for nonwovens
cellulose
49. Carboxylated SBR latex Carpet backing adhesive
Contd...
Contd...

50. Copolymer latex of butadiene, styrene and Hydrophobic nonwoven fabrics
acrylamide suitable for use as diaper
coverstock, prepared by bonding
polyester fibers with the binder
51. SBR latex Nonwoven fabrics for floor
covering with good pilling and wear
resistance (carpet water proofing
siloxane)
NBR Binders
52. Butadiene aerylonitrile latexes Impregnating heat sensitive binder
for nonwoven fabrics
53. Carboxyl containing butadiene acrylonitrile latex Polyester fabric nonwoven polishing
and a dispersion of chloroprene-Me methacrylate material
copolymer
54. Different binder layers of vulcanised nitrile rubber Laminated floor covering (Floor
and plasticised PVC covering consist of a base of
nonwoven needle punched fabric,
a layer of vulcanised nitrile rubber,
and a layer of plasticized PVC)
55. Nitrile rubber phenolic blend Abrasive nonwoven polyester
fabrics with high tensile strength
56. Carboxylated nitrile rubber latex crosslinked with Nonwoven fabric lining and filtering
hexamethylol melamine material with high strength
Natural rubber
57. Natural rubber Adhesive tape coated on both sides
with adhesive
Other types
58. Phenol formaldehyde resin Laminates of carbon fleece and
graphite foil with improved flexural,
compressive strength, thermal
conductivity and permeability
Nonwovens glass wool or rock wool
for thermal insulation
59. Water soluble phenolics, urea resins and Thermosetting adhesive sheets
optionally ureas
60. Powdered adhesive containing hydro-quinone Impregnating compositions for
diglycidyl ether polymer, phenolic novolak, nonwoven glass fabric with high
2-methyl imidazole flexibility, elasticity and improved
deformation properties
61. Bisphenol-A epoxy resin Waterproof sheets are prepared
by forming a nonwoven fabric from
blends containing melt-resistant
synthetic fibers with low softening
temperature and vinyl fibers on a
paper making machine and then
impregnating the web with melted
asphalt
62. Asphalt binder Water resistant felt of nonwoven
cloth
Contd...
Contd...

63. Coal tar and coal pitch 100, PVC 8–14, calcium Filter media are prepared by
stearate and tribasic lead sulfate 0.S-2, plasticizer dispersing inorganic micro-fibers
4–12, talc 50–70 having negative zeta potential in
the binder
64. Thermosetting polyamine-epichloro-hydrin resin. Glass fiber, polyester fiber (SO: 50)
A precipitating agent is added to precipitate the laminates with improved bendability
binder and coat the fibers
65. Bisphenol-A epoxy resins containing 30% Aramid fiber nonwoven laminates
epoxidised polybutadiene and 20% Br for printed circuit board
66. Epoxy resin modified with phenol or cresol Adhesives for interlinings with
novolak improved softness, shear strength,
flexibility, peel strength
67. Epoxy modified silicone emulsion, polyether Insulating nonwoven fabric
modified silicone oil
68. Epoxy resin Filtering material (laminated
with bulky nonwoven fabric from
polyester fibers and nylon fibers)
69. Emulsion copolymer of epichlorohydrin, Useful for bonding acrylic nonwoven
bisphenol-A modified with amino polyamide and fabrics to polystyrene (Laminates
glass beads having good bonding strength)
70. Polyesters or epoxy resins modified with cis-3- Luminescent nonwoven textile
methyl 4-cyclohexane, cis 1,2-di-carboxylic add or
its anhydride are grafted with styrene
71. Acrylic or vinyl binder Products (e.g. carpets, wall
coverings) for improving orientation
and safety in dark rooms, are
prepared by adding a luminescent
material having a long after glow,
such as Cu-activated Zns, to
binder or dyeing the fibers with a
luminescent dye because of poor
wet adhesion
72. UV curable binder, i.e. binders, are emulsion These binders are used in pp
polymers (do not contain solvent, monomer, nonwoven fabric. UV light or UV
HCHO or other toxic materials) irradiation induced reaction between
binder and pp by cross-linking
73. Polyurethane Leather substitutes or leather-like
materials
1.6.2.3 Evaluation of properties and testing of binders

Evaluation of binder adhesives is essential, (i) to assist in selecting an adhesive
for a particular use, (ii) to monitor the quality of an incoming product, and (iii)
to confirm the effectiveness of the bonding process.
The most commonly used tests for properties of adhesive materials
measure viscosity, shelf life, pot life, tack, cure rate, per cent solids and applied
weight per unit area. Besides, to evaluate the performance characteristics of
the binders, the following tests may also be carried out:
• Adhesion (peel, shear, tensile cleavage)

• Impact resistance
• Resistance to environmental effects (heat, condensing humidity, salt
spray, temperature cycles)
• Flexibility
• Strength retention
1.6.3 Additives
Many materials apart from the constituent fibers are used in the manufacture,
bonding and finishing of nonwoven webs. Some additive materials form an
integral part of the nonwoven and added to the fiber or filament structure during
web laying. Examples of such additives are thermally active powders and
absorbents. But many of the additives are applied in one form or another to the
preformed web usually after bonding and are treated as an auxiliary process.
1.7 Product properties and applications of

nonwovens
The properties and application of nonwoven products based on different web
formation technique and web-binding methods are given in Tables 1.7 and
1.8, respectively.
Table 1.7 Properties and application of nonwoven based on web formation methods
Web forming Web bonding Properties Applications

Drylaid nonwoven
Carded parallel laid Latex Saturation, Print • High MD strength • Headrest covers
• Low CD strength • Interlinings
• Wet strength • Cable insulation
retention • Fabric softeners
• Reasonable softness • Filtration
(binder selection) • ‘Pop-up’ wipes
• Low cost
Carded crosslaid Latex Saturation, Print Better MD / CD tensile • Wipes
ration than parallel laid • CD liners
• Dusters
• Table covers / Table
napkins
Carded Mechanically Latex Saturation, Print • Flexural strength • Dry and wet wipes
randomized Hydroentangled • MD / CD approaching • Filtration
isotropic • Medical fabrics
• Good wet strength
• Low lint
• Binder free
• Absorbent substrate Contd...
Contd...

Carded and airformed Latex Spray, Foam; • Low density • Thermal insulation
highloft Thermal Through-air stabilized web • Automotive liners
• Layered structures • Filtration
Wet-laid nonwoven
Wet laid • Cellulose (hydrogen • High web uniformity • Surfacing veils and
- Rotary former bonding) • Isotropic webs tissues
- Inclined wire • Wet end addition of possible • Filtration liquid and
latex • Moderate to high MD air
• Thermal bonding / CD strength • Very high
through the addition • Wide web weight temperature
of fusible fibers range 8 g/m² to 1000 insulation
• Inorganic binder g/m² and higher • Low temperature
systems • 100% inorganic webs cryogenics
• Wall coverings
• Coating substrates
• Window curtains
• Shoe components
• Flocking substrates
• Battery separators
• Electrolytic layers
• Roofing – glass /
polyester
• Teabags
• Surgical wrap
Short Fiber Airlaid • Hydrogen bonded • Lower strength but • Food contact
(point pressure) no added binders absorbent products
• Hydroentangled / • Web produced • Feminine Hygiene
thermal with bicomponent products
fibers initially • Acquisition layers
hydroentangled and
• Wipes
then thermally set
• Top end of market
product – reduced
(zero) linting
• Improved strength
Spunbond nonwoven
Spunbond Thermal • Improved strength • Medical gowns
Polypropylene – breathability • Shoe covers
lightweight • Resistance to fluid • Sterilizable packs
penetration
• Baby diaper
Lint free coverstock
• Sterilizable (some • Feminine hygiene
systems)
• Adult incontinence
• Can be made
• Composites –
impervious to
protective clothing
bacteria
Contd...
Contd...

Spunbond • Thermal • Chemical / Physical • Building wrap
Polypropylene – heavy • Needlepunch stability • Geotextile – drainage
weight • High strength / cost • Stabilization
ratio • Erosion control
• Automotive trim
• Carpet backing
Spunbond Polyester – • Thermal / Thermal • High temperature • Roofing substrates
heavy weight set stability • Geotextiles (some
• Needlepunch • Porosity / strength soil types)
Spunbond Bicomponent • Thermal • High strength / low • Coverstock

web weight very soft
with low temperature
bonding
Meltblown nonwoven
Meltblown • Thermal • Microfiber structures • Oil absorption
Polypropylene • Electric charging 10–20 microns • Barrier (composite)
1–5 micron layers
L
ess than 1 micron • Filtration HEPA and
• Microfiber structure ULPA artificial leather
• High opacity • Thermal insulation
(clothing)
• Acquisition layers
sanitary napkin and
panty shields
Meltblown Elastomeric Stretch bonded Elastic structures • Side panels in
Training pants
• Feminine hygiene
products
Meltblown Poly vinyl Thermal Water dispersible Flushable products
alcohol
Table 1.8 Properties and application of nonwoven based on web bonding methods
Bonding Binder type Application Positive Negative Applications

technology method aspects aspects
Mechanical Bonding
Mechanical – • Uses web • Use of • Strong bonded • Not very • Geotextiles
needlepunch matrix fiber purpose fabrics without suitable for • Roofing
• Sometimes built needle additional low web • Automotive
combined with looms such binders weights • Carpet
latex and/or as DILO, particularly backings
thermal FEHRER, suitable for
ASSELIN heavy weight
etc. and high
denier fabrics
Mechanical – • Uses web • Use of • High • Low • Furniture/
stitchbonding matrix fiber purpose built productivity output rate furnishings
• Most machines compared to compared • Automotive
stitchbonded such as knitted fabrics to other • Shoes
fabrics are MALIMO, nonwoven • insulation
made with ARACHNE, processes
added threads MALIWATT
etc. Contd...
Contd...

Mechanical •U
ses web • Use of • Binder free • High cost • Medical fabrics
– hydro- matrix fiber purpose build materials (slowly • Wipes
entanglement •C
an be machines • Very good reducing) of
• Coating
combined with with high strength/ process and
substrates
thermal and/or energy water stiffness equipment
jets such • Furnishing
latex bonding relationship • Significant
as REITER fabrics
• Lint free webs ‘learning’
PERFOJET, curve • Protective
FLEISSNER • High clothing
etc absorbency
Chemical Bonding
Chemical - • Acrylics • Impregnation • Web saturated • Loss of • Roofing
latex •S
tyrene/ • Spray with binder porosity and polyester and
butadiene – maximum absorbency glass
• Foam
strength • Stiffness • Flooring
•E
thyl vinyl • Print bond
acetate • Useful for high • High drying • Batts
• Precipitation loft webs
•N
itriles energy • Highloft
(wetlaid only)
• Economical requirement nonwovens
•E
lastomers
Surface only • Good • Short fiber
•P
VC
effect housekeep- airlaid
• Much lower ing essential
• Battery
energy to avoid
separators
required contamina-
tion • Medical
• Penetrates
• Modern • Wall coverings
web without
blocking strength • Ceiling tiles
• Bonded area • Loose • Flooring
controlled by fibers in substrates
print pattern non-bonded • Wipes
areas
• Absorbency • Medical
maintained • Can be
difficult to • Gaskets
• Incorporation • Book covers
control
of colours and
other chemical • Loose • Ceramics
treatments surface fibers • Battery
• Deposits separators
binder in web
formation
stage
• Good strength
per unit of
binder
Chemical - •H
ydrated • Wet • High • Stiffness • High
inorganic aluminium deposition temperature • Low (but temperature
hydroxide binders adequate) insulation
•H
ydrated strength
silicic acid
Chemical - •U
ses the • High intensity • No added • Bonding only • Feminine
hydrogen ability of heated binder at densified hygiene
cellulose to calender points • Food contact
form hydrogen absorbents
bonds when
water is
present
Contd...
Contd...

Chemical - •U
ses solvation • Gas/liquid • No added • Partly • Building wrap
solvent of surface treatment binder solvated nylon spunlaids
layer of matrix usually surface
fiber at raised
temperature
Thermal Bonding
Thermal – •P
olyethylene • Matrix • Chemical • Bonded • Point bonded
fusible fibers •P
olypropylene • Used with nature of area can be spunlaid and
polyester ‘binder’ same destroyed meltblown
•C
opolyesters
calender, as main under tensile webs
through-air component stress (point • Point bonded
or ultrasonic fiber bonding) carded web of
application of • Physical polypropylene
heat properties • Coverstock
maximised for • Leg cuff
a given bond materials
area • Wipes
• Protective
clothing
• Cloth-like
backsheets
Thermal – •P
olyethylene • Sprinkle bar • Open bonded • Some powder • Clothing
fusible powder •C
opolymers addition onto structure binders insulation
pre-formed (highloft) difficult to • Filtration
•C
opolyesters
fiber web • Re-loftable retain in web • packaging
• Fused by fabrics
application
of heat in flat
oven
Thermal – •P
P/PE • Fiber added • Range of • Surface fiber • Pre-formed
bicomponents •P
ET/CoPET at web bicomponent linting absorbent
forming stage fibers now • Relatively products
•P
P/PA
available low strength by short
•P
VALC/PE etc • Good bond fabrics fiber airlaid
strength produced technology
• Bond cellulose • Thermoforma-
fibers ble webs
effectively
• Absorbency
largely
retained
Thermal – high •G
lass • Melted by • Useful for • Brittle bonds • Ceramics
temperature heat bonding • Requires • Silica
fusible fibers • Fibers added inorganic fiber additional • Alumina
at web webs ‘green • High
forming stage strength’ temperature
binder insulation
References
1. ASTM (1989). Annual Book of Standards. ASTM Standards.
2. Batra SK, Hersh SP, Barker RL, Buchanan DR, Gupta BS, George TW, Mohamed
MH (1989). A New System for Classifying Nonwovens. Eds Turbak AE, Vigo TL,
Nonwovens – An Advanced Tutorial. TAPPI Press.
3. Batra SK, Pourdeyhimi BP (2012). Introduction to Nonwoven Technology. DEStech

Publications, Lancaster.
4. Baumgarten PK (1971). Electrostatic spinning of acrylic microfibers. J of Colloid and
Interface Sci 36:71–79.
5. Bognitzki M., Czado W., Frese T., Schaper A., Hellwig M., Steinhart M. (2001).
Nanostructured fibers via electrospinning. Adv Mater 13:70–72.
6. Challenges & Opportunities for Nonwovens Global & Regional Market Trends, ITMF
Annual Conference ITMF Annual Conference, 6th November, 2012. www.edana.org.
Accessed on November 2, 2014.
7. Dan Li, Younan Xia (2004). Electrospinning of nanofibers: Reinventing the wheel?
Adv Mater 16(14): 1151–1170.
8. Doshi J, Reneker DH (1995). Electrospinning process and applications of electrospun
fibers. J Electrostatics 35(2–3): 151–160.
9. EDANA (1989). Definition of Nonwovens ISO 9092: 1988. http://www.edana.org/
story.cfm?section=edana_nonwovens&story=definition.xml. Accessed on February
12, 2015.
10. Emerging Market Opportunities for Nonwovens Companies. http://www.inda.org.
Accessed on November 12, 2014.
11. Gamayunov NI, Kalabin AL, Svistunov VA (1994). Simulation of diffusion in
bicomponent fibers of the core-cladding type. Theore Found Chem Eng 28(3): 257–
259.
12. Hansen SM, (1993). Nonwoven Engineering Principals. Ed Turbak AF, In Nonwovens:
Theory, Process, Performance and Testing. TAPPI Press.
13. Hoon Joo Lee, Nancy Cassill (2006). Analysis of World Nonwovens Market. J Text
Appar Techno Manage 5(3): 1–19.
14. Houfek WE (1993). Nonwoven Terminology. Ed Turbak AF, Nonwovens: Theory,
Process, Performance and Testing. TAPPI Press.
15. INDA (2004). Worldwide Outlook for the Nonwovens Industry: 2004–2009. Cary,
NC, USA.
16. INDA (2006). The Absorbent Hygiene Industry in North America 2006–2011, Cary,
NC, USA.
17. INDA (2007). Worldwide Outlook for the Nonwovens Industry: 2007–2012, Cary,
NC, USA.
18. Irwin Hutten (2007). Handbook of Nonwoven Filter Media. Elsevier Science &
Technology Books, UK.
19. Krema R (1971). Manual of Nonwovens, Textile Trade Press.
20. Man-Made Fiber and Textile Dictionary (1988). Hoechst Celanese Corp.
21. Morris HC, Mlynar M (1995). Chemical binders and adhesives for nonwoven fabrics.
INDA-TEC St. Petersburg USA.
22. Mukherjee AK, Mohanty RK, Sriram N, Barar P (1992). Adhesive binders for
nonwoven fabrics, International conference on Nonwovens, Textile Institute, North

India Section, Porritts and Spencer, India.
23. Nonwoven fabrics market overview of India. https://nonowovenindustryupdate.
wordpress.com. Accessed on November 14, 2014.
24. Nonwovens Mission 2020. http://www.edana.org. Accessed on November 12, 2014.
25. Nonwovens to 2016-Demand and sales forecasts, market share, market size, market
leaders. www.freedoniagroup.com. Accessed on November 14, 2014.
26. Nonwovens: Tutorial, http://www.thenonwoveninstitute.com. Accessed on March 5,
2015.
27. Russell SJ (2007). Handbook of nonwovens. CRC Press, Cambridge.
28. Schoffmann E, Schwend F (1991). Meeting trend developments in wet forming.
TAPPI Nonwovens Conference, Marco Island, USA.
29. Seshadri Ramkumar (2012). Nonwovens: Product Applications Trends – World and
India. Techtextil India Symposium.
30. Thandavamoorthy Subbiah, Bhat GS, Tock RW, Parameswaran S, Ramkumar SS
(2005). Electrospinning of nanofibers. J Applied Polym Sci 96: 557–569.
31. The Dictionary of Paper (1980). American Paper Institute. Inc.
32. Wakeman RJ (1985). Filtration Dictionary and Glossary. The Filtration Society, UK.
33. Walton JH (1996). Low formaldehyde, high performance nonwoven binders for
airlaid pulp applications. INDA-TEC 96 Crystal City, USA.
34. Wilhelm Albrecht, Hilmar Fuchs, Walter Kittelmann (2003). Nonwoven fabrics: Raw
Materials, Manufacture, Applications, Characteristics, Testing Processes. WILEY-
VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim.
35. Young GC (1996). Waterborne epoxy resin systems for the use as binders in
nonwovens and textiles. TAPPI Proc Charlotte, USA.
36. Zheng-Ming Huang, Zhang YZ, Kotaki M, Ramakrishna S (2003). A review on
polymer nanofibers by electrospinning. Comp Sci Tech 63: 2223–2253.
References
1 1. Introduction to nonwovens
1. ASTM (1989). Annual Book of Standards. ASTM Standards.
2. Batra SK, Hersh SP, Barker RL, Buchanan DR, Gupta BS,
George TW, Mohamed MH (1989). A New System for Classifying
Nonwovens. Eds Turbak AE, Vigo TL, Nonwovens – An Advanced
Tutorial. TAPPI Press.
Contd...
3. Batra SK, Pourdeyhimi BP (2012). Introduction to

Nonwoven Technology. DEStech Publications, Lancaster.
4. Baumgarten PK (1971). Electrostatic spinning of acrylic

microfibers. J of Colloid and Interface Sci 36:71–79.
5. Bognitzki M., Czado W., Frese T., Schaper A., Hellwig

M., Steinhart M. (2001). Nanostructured fibers via
electrospinning. Adv Mater 13:70–72.
6. Challenges & Opportunities for Nonwovens Global &

Regional Market Trends, ITMF Annual Conference ITMF Annual
Conference, 6 th November, 2012. www.edana.org. Accessed
on November 2, 2014.
7. Dan Li, Younan Xia (2004). Electrospinning of

nanofibers: Reinventing the wheel? Adv Mater 16(14):
1151–1170.
8. Doshi J, Reneker DH (1995). Electrospinning process and

applications of electrospun fibers. J Electrostatics
35(2–3): 151–160.
9. EDANA (1989). Definition of Nonwovens ISO 9092: 1988.

http://www.edana.org/
story.cfm?section=edana_nonwovens&story=definition.xml.
Accessed on February 12, 2015.
10. Emerging Market Opportunities for Nonwovens Companies.

http://www.inda.org. Accessed on November 12, 2014.
11. Gamayunov NI, Kalabin AL, Svistunov VA (1994).

Simulation of diffusion in bicomponent fibers of the
core-cladding type. Theore Found Chem Eng 28(3): 257– 259.
12. Hansen SM, (1993). Nonwoven Engineering Principals. Ed

Turbak AF, In Nonwovens: Theory, Process, Performance and
Testing. TAPPI Press.
13. Hoon Joo Lee, Nancy Cassill (2006). Analysis of World

Nonwovens Market. J Text Appar Techno Manage 5(3): 1–19.
14. Houfek WE (1993). Nonwoven Terminology. Ed Turbak AF,

Nonwovens: Theory, Process, Performance and Testing. TAPPI
Press.
15. INDA (2004). Worldwide Outlook for the Nonwovens

Industry: 2004–2009. Cary, NC, USA.
16. INDA (2006). The Absorbent Hygiene Industry in North

America 2006–2011, Cary, NC, USA.
17. INDA (2007). Worldwide Outlook for the Nonwovens

Industry: 2007–2012, Cary, NC, USA.
18. Irwin Hutten (2007). Handbook of Nonwoven Filter Media.

Elsevier Science & Technology Books, UK.
19. Krema R (1971). Manual of Nonwovens, Textile Trade

Press.
20. Man-Made Fiber and Textile Dictionary (1988). Hoechst

Celanese Corp.
21. Morris HC, Mlynar M (1995). Chemical binders and

adhesives for nonwoven fabrics. INDA-TEC St. Petersburg
USA.
22. Mukherjee AK, Mohanty RK, Sriram N, Barar P (1992).

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Nonwovens: Process, structure,

properties and applications

WOODHEAD PUBLISHING INDIA PVT LTD

First published 2016, Woodhead Publishing India Pvt. Ltd.

Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered

Woodhead Publishing India Pvt. Ltd. ISBN: 978-93-85059-12-4

Typeset by Mind Box Solutions, New Delhi

3. Nonwoven bonding techniques 95

4. Finishing of nonwovens 156

5. Testing of nonwovens 181

6. Applications of nonwovens 211

7. Composite nonwovens 249

8. Natural fiber nonwovens 285

8.3 Flax fiber nonwovens 289

Industries play a vital role in economy of nations as these industries

of 6.1%. According to The Future of Global Nonwovens to 2018, spunlaid

Chapter 6 discusses about the application areas of nonwoven products

This book ‘Nonwovens: Process, Structure, Properties and Applications’

Abstract: This chapter provides the overall view of nonwoven industry. It

Fabrics can be made from fibers as well as from yarns. In conventional

The major advantages in nonwoven fabrics are the higher production

1.1 Definition of nonwoven

Table 1.1 Definitions of nonwovens [Source: Hutten 2007]

S. no. Source Definition

S. no. Source Definition

1.2 Classification of nonwovens

Classification based on production

Based on web formation Based on web bonding Based on web finishing

Dry-laid nonwovens Wet-laid nonwovens 1. Coated

Figure 1.2 Classification of nonwovens based on production techniques

Classification based on structure

Classification with respect to Classification with respect to

Bonded by Bonded by Bonded by Segment Agglomerate Point

Figure 1.3 Classification of nonwovens based on structure

1.3 History of nonwovens

advancements bolstered by the present wide production of synthetic fibers, by

• 1994 Joint Venture with Japanese partner Japan Vilene Company to

1.4 Market growth of nonwoven industry

factor contributing to its rapid development and commercial acceptance

1997 2002 2011 2016 Growth Rate Growth Rate

Table 1.3 Worldwide nonwovens production in quantity (millions of tonnes)

2006 2011 2016 Growth Rate Growth

Figure 1.4 Worldwide production of nonwovens by quantity [Source: INDA, 2012]

NAFTA Greater Europe Asia ROW

Figure 1.5 Worldwide productions of nonwovens by region [Source: INDA, 2012]

By considering the nonwoven market with respect to web forming and

Figure 1.6 Nonwoven productions by web-forming processes [Source: INDA, 2012]

1000 Needle punched

Figure 1.7 Nonwoven production by web-bonding processes [Source: INDA, 2012]

processes. The market consumption of nonwovens in different application

Figure 1.8 Worldwide Nonwoven Consumption in Leading Application areas

1.5 Features of nonwoven fabrics

by incorporating appropriate properties. These properties are frequently used

Table 1.4 Properties of nonwoven fabrics

• Abrasion resistant • Lint free • Elastic

1.6 Raw materials for nonwovens

flexibility, a certain minimum strength, elasticity and sufficient temperature

Spunbond Bicomponent • Thermal • High strength / low • Coverstock