02 Lecture Presentation ADA Version

Environment: The Science Behind
the Stories
Seventh Edition
Chapter 2
Earth’s Physical Systems:

Matter, Energy, and Geology
PowerPoint® Lecture Presentations

prepared by James Dauray, College of
Lake County
Copyright © 2021 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

Lecture Objectives
2.1 Explain and apply the fundamentals of matter and energy.
2.2 Differentiate between the different forms of energy.
2.3 Explain the first and second laws of thermodynamics.
2.4 Distinguish photosynthesis, cell respiration, and
chemosynthesis.
2.5 Explain how plate tectonics and the rock cycle shape the
landscape.
2.6 Identify major types of geologic hazards and how to
minimize their impact.

Central Case Study: What Is the Legacy
of the Fukishima Daiichi Nuclear Tragedy? (1 of 4)
• In 2011, a massive 9.0 magnitude earthquake along the
coast of Japan generated a surge of seawater called a
tsunami.
• The water overtopped a 5.7-meter seawall protecting the
Fukushima Daiichi nuclear power plant, flooding its
emergency generators.


• Emergency backup generators powering the reactor’s
water pumps were flooded.
• Cooling water boiled off.
• A nuclear meltdown occurred and hydrogen gas was
generated.
– The hydrogen gas spread and exploded, damaging
more buildings.
• The reactor cores were flooded with seawater to prevent
further spread of nuclear fallout.


Matter, Chemistry, and the Environment
• Understanding the Fukushima Daiichi accident requires
knowledge of the basic properties of matter, energy, and
chemistry.
– Matter is defined as any material that has mass and
occupies space.
– Chemistry studies the interaction of matter.

Matter Is Conserved
• The law of conservation of matter states that matter can
be transformed from one type of substance to another, but
not created or destroyed.
– Matter in ecosystems constantly cycles.
– Undesirable matter, like nuclear waste and pollution,
can’t be destroyed.

Atoms and Elements Are Chemical
Building Blocks (1 of 11)
• Nuclear reactors use an element called uranium to power
their reactors.
• Elements are substances with specific properties that
cannot be broken down into substances with other
properties.
– These are organized according to their properties and
behavior by the periodic table of elements.

• The most abundant elements in the Earth are oxygen, hydrogen,
silicon, nitrogen, and carbon.
Table 2.1 Earth’s Most Abundant Chemical Elements, by Mass
Earth’s Crust Oceans

Percentage Percentage
Oxygen (O) 49.5% Oxygen (O) 88.3%

Silicon (Si) 25.7% Hydrogen (H) 11.0%
Aluminium (Al) 7.4% Chlorine (Cl) 1.9%
Iron (Fe) 4.7% Sodium (Na) 1.1%
Calcium (Ca) 3.6% Magnesium (Mg) 0.1%
Sodium (Na) 2.8% Sulfur (S) 0.1%
Potassium (K) 2.6% Calcium (Ca) <0.1%
Magnesium (Mg) 2.1% Potassium (K) <0.1%
Other 1.6% Bromine (Br) <0.1%

Table 2.1 [Continued]
Air Organisms
Percentage Percentage
Nitrogen (N) 78.1% Oxygen (O) 65.0%

Oxygen (O) 21.0% Carbon (C) 18.5%
Argon (Ar) 0.9% Hydrogen (H) 9.5%
Other <0.1% Nitrogen (N) 3.3%
Blank Calcium (Ca) 1.5%
Blank
Blank Phosphorus (P) 1.0%

Blank
Blank Potassium (K) 0.4%

Blank
Blank Sulfur (S) 0.3%

Blank
Blank Other 0.5%

Blank

• Atoms are the smallest units that still have all of the
element’s chemical properties.
• Atoms of each of the elements are made up of three
particles:
– Protons, which are positively-charged and determine
the element’s atomic number
– Neutrons, which have no charge
– Electrons, which are negatively-charged

• Protons and neutrons are found within the dense center of the atom called its nucleus.
– The element’s mass number is determined by its number of protons and neutrons.
• Electrons orbit the nucleus.

• Atoms of the same element
always have the same number
of protons.
• The number of electrons can

change, creating ions.
• Within an element, the number

of neutrons may also vary,
creating atoms with different
masses called isotopes.
– Isotopes have special
notations indicating their
atomic mass.

• Some isotopes are radioactive, meaning they “decay” and
change their identity by emitting subatomic particles and
high-energy radiation.
– Isotopes with this property are called radioisotopes.
• Radioisotopes do the most damage when they enter the
bodies of living organisms through eating or breathing.
– After Fukushima, scientists began regularly testing food
and water for radioisotopes.

• Radioisotopes decay into smaller and smaller radioisotopes,
until they eventually become stable.
• An isotope’s half-life indicates the amount of time it will take
for half of its atoms to decay.
– Cesium, a radioisotope found in the ocean after nuclear
accidents and weapons testing, has a half-life of about 30
years.

• Atoms may also gain or lose electrons, becoming charged
ions.
• The charge of an ion indicates how its electrons have been
affected.
– For example, Ca2+ has lost two electrons.
• The radiation energy emitted by radioisotopes is called
ionizing radiation because it generates ions when it hits
molecules, affecting their stability.

Atoms Bond to Form Molecules
and Compounds
• Molecules are combinations of two or more atoms
chemically bonded together, such as O2.
– If the molecule is made of two or more different
elements, it is classified as a compound, such as
water (H2O) and carbon dioxide (CO2).
• Atoms form bonds due to the attraction they have for each
other’s electrons.

• Covalent bonds form when electrons are shared between atoms.
• In some covalent compounds,
such as water, one part of the
molecule attracts electrons
more strongly, creating
oppositely-charged poles.
– The charged ends of
water molecules attract
each other, forming a
weak interaction called
hydrogen bonds.

• If the strength of attraction within a molecule is sufficiently
unequal, an electron will be transferred from one atom to
another.
– This creates oppositely charged ions, which attract each
other, forming an ionic bond.
• Atoms and molecules can also come together in mixtures,
where they don’t react with each other.
– Evenly distributed mixtures are called solutions.

Matter Is Composed of Organic
and Inorganic Compounds
• Organic compounds are made of carbon atoms joined together with covalent bonds.
• One important class of organic compounds is the hydrocarbons, which only contain
hydrogen and carbon.
– Fossil fuels and petroleum products like plastic are mostly made of hydrocarbons.

Macromolecules Are the Building
Blocks of Life (1 of 3)
• Organic compounds also include polymers, long chains
of repeated molecules.
– Polymers and lipids are referred to as
macromolecules, because they are so large.
• Proteins are polymers made of amino acids.
– They are found in skin, hair, muscles; as part of the
immune system; and as enzymes that catalyze
chemical reactions.

• Nucleic acids, including deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid
(RNA), carry the hereditary information for organisms.
– Contain the blueprints for producing all of the proteins in living organisms
• Nucleic acids are polymers
made of molecules called
nucleotides.
– Regions of DNA that
encode for specific
proteins are called genes.

• Carbohydrates include simple and complex sugars,
such as:
– Glucose, or blood sugar
– Cellulose, a complex carbohydrate found in leaves,
bark, stems, and roots
– Chitin, which is found in insect exoskeletons
• Lipids include a diverse group of molecules that do not
dissolve in water:
– Fats and oils, which store energy
– Waxes, which are structural
– Steroids, which are part of hormones
Hydrogen Ions Determine Acidity (1 of 2)
• In any aqueous solution, a small number of water
molecules split apart into hydrogen ions (H+) and
hydroxide ions (OH−).
• Pure water contains equal concentrations of these
two ions and is considered neutral.
– Acidic solutions have higher concentrations of
hydrogen ions.
– Basic or alkaline solutions have higher
concentrations of hydroxide ions.

Hydrogen Ions Determine Acidity (2 of 2)
• The pH scale quantifies the
acidity or alkalinity of a
solution.
– Pure water has a H+
concentration of 10 −7
and a pH of 7.
– Acids have a pH of below 7.
– Bases have a pH above 7.
• The pH scale is logarithmic,
meaning each step in the scale
represents a 10-fold change in
H+ concentration.

Review Questions 1 (1 of 2)
What term would not apply to water, H2O?
a. Molecule
b. Compounds
c. Element
d. Inorganic

What term would not apply to water, H2O?
Correct Answer:
c. Element

What part of the atom is negatively charged, is found
outside the nucleus, and is attracted by other atoms
during chemical bonding?
a. Protons
b. Neutrons
c. Electrons
d. Atomic number

What part of the atom is negatively charged, is found
outside the nucleus, and is attracted by other atoms
during chemical bonding?
Correct Answer:
c. Electrons

Iodine-131 is a radioisotope with a half-life of about 8 days.
What happens after 8 days?
a. Its atomic mass decreases by half.

b. Half of its atoms decay to a stable isotope.
c. It stops releasing ionizing radiation.
d. Half of its electrons are lost to other atoms.

Iodine-131 is a radioisotope with a half-life of about 8 days.
What happens after 8 days?
Correct Answer:
b. Half of its atoms decay to a stable isotope.

According to the pH scale, which of these solutions would be
classified as the strongest acid?
a. Lye, pH 13
b. Pure water, pH 7
c. Tomato juice, pH 5
d. Vinegar, pH 3

According to the pH scale, which of these solutions would be
classified as the strongest acid?
Correct Answer:
d. Vinegar, pH 3

Energy: An Introduction
• Energy is the capacity to change the position,
composition, or temperature of matter.
– When energy causes an object to move, it is a force
that can accomplish work.

Energy Comes in Different Forms (1 of 2)
• Potential energy is the energy of position or composition.
– For example, river water held behind a dam contains
potential energy.
• Kinetic energy is the energy of motion.
– River water rushing through a dam and downstream
contains kinetic energy.
• Energy is able to be converted back and forth between
these two forms.

Energy Comes in Different Forms (2 of 2)
• Energy conversions take place whenever chemical bonds are broken or formed.
– Converting molecules with high-energy bonds (such as glucose) to molecules
with low-energy bonds (such as carbon dioxide) releases kinetic energy.

Energy Is Always Conserved,
but It Changes in Quality (1 of 2)
• Energy can change from one form to another, but it
cannot be created or destroyed.
– This is the first law of thermodynamics.
• Energy tends to change from a more-ordered to a less-
ordered state as it changes form.
– This is the second law of thermodynamics.

Energy Is Always Conserved,
but It Changes in Quality (2 of 2)
• For example, a log of firewood is a highly organized and structurally complex product
that contains a lot of useful potential energy.
• When the firewood is burned, carbon dioxide, water, and kinetic energy are released.
– The ash has less structure and useful energy.

Light Energy from the Sun Powers
Our Planet (1 of 2)
• The sun releases energy across a wide range of the
electromagnetic spectrum, but much of it is filtered out
by the atmosphere.
– We can only detect the range of wavelengths known
as visible light.

Light Energy from the Sun Powers
Our Planet (2 of 2)
• Organisms called autotrophs use the sun’s radiation
directly to produce their own food.
– They use a process called photosynthesis to
transform molecules with low-energy bonds (water and
carbon dioxide) into sugar molecules with high-energy
bonds.

Photosynthesis Converts Solar Energy
to Chemical Energy (1 of 3)
• Photosynthesis occurs within
cell organelles called
chloroplasts.
• A pigment called chlorophyll
uses solar energy to initiate a
series of reactions called light
reactions.

• Light reactions split water
molecules into hydrogen ions
(H+), oxygen molecules (O2),
and small high-energy
molecules of ATP and NADPH.
• The Calvin cycle reactions link
together carbon atoms to form
sugars.

• The overall process of photosynthesis can be summarized
in this reaction:
6CO2 + 6H2O + sun’s energy → C6H12O6 + 6O2
• The number before each molecular formula indicates how

many of those molecules are involved.
– There is an equal number of each atom on each side of
the reaction.
• Plants take in water through their roots, absorb carbon
dioxide from the air through their leaves, and harness the
power of sunlight to generate sugar and oxygen.

Cellular Respiration Powers Living
Things
• The overall reaction for cellular respiration is the exact
opposite of photosynthesis:
C6H12O6 + 6O2 → 6CO2 + 6H2O

• The energy released is only about two-thirds of the input
from photosynthesis.
• Cell respiration occurs in all living things, both autotrophs
and heterotrophs, organisms that gain energy by feeding
on other organisms.

Geothermal Energy Also Powers
Earth’s Systems (1 of 2)
• There are other sources of energy for the planet,
including geothermal heat from deep within the planet.
• Radioisotopes decay and release heat, which gradually
moves toward the surface and melts rock into magma.
– Magma can erupt from volcanoes, power plate
tectonics, and heat groundwater.

Geothermal Energy Also Powers
Earth’s Systems (2 of 2)
• Jets of water heated by geothermal energy can enter the
cold ocean bottom through hydrothermal vents.
– Organisms living near these vents can use the
chemical potential energy in hydrogen sulfide (H2S) to
produce sugar, a process called chemosynthesis.
• The chemosynthesis equation is:
6CO2 + 6H2O + 3H2S → C6H12O6 + 3H2SO4

Which of these would be classified as kinetic energy?
a. The energy in the bonds of a hydrogen sulfide molecule

b. The energy present in an apple
c. The energy in a fully charged battery
d. The energy of wind flowing past a windmill

Which of these would be classified as kinetic energy?
Correct Answer:
d. The energy of wind flowing past a windmill

An inventor claims to have the ability to transform potential
energy to kinetic energy without any decrease in the
energy’s quality. What law does this violate?
a. The first law of thermodynamics

b. The second law of thermodynamics
c. The law of conservation of matter
d. None of the above; 100% efficiency can be achieved

An inventor claims to have the ability to transform potential
energy to kinetic energy without any decrease in the
energy’s quality. What law does this violate?
Correct Answer:
b. The second law of thermodynamics

According to the photosynthesis reaction, autotrophs use
fill in the blank as a source of energy and fill in the blank as a
source of mass.
a. glucose; oxygen
b. sunlight; carbon dioxide and water
c. geothermal heat; hydrogen sulfide
d. radioisotopes; magma

According to the photosynthesis reaction, autotrophs use
fill in the blank as a source of energy and fill in the blank as a
source of mass.
Correct Answer:
b. sunlight; carbon dioxide and water

Geology: The Physical Basis
for Environmental Science
• Geology is the study of Earth’s physical features,
processes, and history.
– These processes shape the landscape, lay the
foundation of environmental systems, and provide
resources like metals and fossil fuels.

Earth Consists of Layers (1 of 2)
• At the Earth’s center is a
dense core made of solid iron
at the center surrounded by
molten iron.
• The core is surrounded by a
thick layer of less dense,
elastic rock called the mantle.

Earth Consists of Layers (2 of 2)
• The asthenosphere is an
area of the upper mantle with
especially soft rock.
• The lithosphere contains the
uppermost mantle and the
crust.
– The crust is a thin, brittle,
low-density layer of rock
that covers the entire
surface.

Plate Tectonics Shapes Earth’s
Geography
• Heat from the Earth drives
loops of convection currents
that cycle material upward
and downward.
– This creates about 2–15
c m of movement of
enti eter
large plates of
lithosphere every year,
called plate tectonics.

There Are Three Types of Plate
Boundaries (1 of 2)
• At divergent plate boundaries, plates move apart as
magma rises to the surface and cools.
• At transform plate boundaries, plates slip and grind
alongside each other. This causes earthquakes.

There Are Three Types of Plate
Boundaries (2 of 2)
• Two possible actions may occur at convergent plate
boundaries:
– Oceanic crust, which is more dense than continental
crust, will dive downward in a process called
subduction.
– Two continental plates will crush, bend, and buckle,
creating mountain ranges.
▪ This is called continental collision.

Tectonics Produces Earth’s Landforms
• Plate tectonics builds mountains, shapes the oceans,
islands, and continents, and gives rise to earthquakes and
volcanoes.
• The topography created by plate tectonics influences
climate and the distribution of biomes.

The Rock Cycle Produces a Diversity
of Rock Types (1 of 5)
• A rock is any solid aggregation of minerals.
• A mineral is any naturally occurring solid element or
inorganic compound with a crystal structure, distinct
chemical composition, and physical properties.
• Over time, rocks and their minerals are heated, melted,
cooled, broken down, and reassembled in a process
called the rock cycle.

• Magma is made of liquid rock
that has melted at high
temperatures. When magma
erupts and reaches the
surface, it is called lava.
• Rock that forms when lava or

magma cool is called igneous
rock.

• When magma cools slowly and solidifies beneath the Earth’s surface, it forms
intrusive igneous rock.
– Slow cooling allows minerals to crystallize, creating a multicolored grainy
appearance like in granite.
• Magma that cools quickly forms extrusive igneous rock.

– Creates a smoother rock, like basalt

• As rock weathers from wind and water, particles called
sediment come to rest downwind or downstream.
• Sediment layers accumulate over time and are compacted
as they are buried.
– Minerals may seep
through them and cement
particles together. This
forms sedimentary rock,
like sandstone.

• Geologic forces may bend, uplift, compress, or stretch rock.
• If the rock’s physical properties are changed by this heat and

pressure, it is called metamorphic rock.
– Gneiss is formed by the metamorphosis of granite.

Geologic Processes Occur Across
“Deep Time” (1 of 2)
• Geologists have divided the Earth’s 4.5 billion year history
into 3 eras and 11 periods. Periods are subdivided into
epochs.
• Periods are determined based on the study of strata, or
layers, of sedimentary rock.
– The current period is called the Quaternary period, and
began 1.8 million years ago.
– The current epoch is called the Holocene.

Geologic Processes Occur Across
“Deep Time” (2 of 2)
• Some scientists have called
for the naming of a new
epoch, called the
Anthropocene.
– In the last 200 years,
soil erosion,
atmospheric carbon
dioxide, and the human
population have all
grown exponentially.

What layer of the Earth includes continental and oceanic
crust?
a. The outer core

b. The lower mantle
c. The asthenosphere
d. The lithosphere

What layer of the Earth includes continental and oceanic
crust?
Correct Answer:
d. The lithosphere

The San Andreas fault is located in Southern California,
between the Pacific Plate and the North American plate.
As the landmasses move horizontally against each other,
they cause earthquakes. What type of plate boundary is
this?
a. Divergent
b. Transform
c. A subduction zone of a convergent boundary
d. A continental collision at a convergent boundary

The San Andreas fault is located in Southern California,
between the Pacific Plate and the North American plate.
As the landmasses move horizontally against each other,
they cause earthquakes. What type of plate boundary is
this?
Correct Answer:
b. Transform

Marble is formed when limestone is subjected to heat and
pressure over a long period of time. What type of rock is
marble?
a. Metamorphic
b. Extrusive igneous
c. Intrusive igneous
d. Sedimentary

Marble is formed when limestone is subjected to heat and
pressure over a long period of time. What type of rock is
marble?
Correct Answer:
a. Metamorphic

Geologic and Natural Hazards
• Some tectonic movement can pose hazards to human life, causing earthquakes or
volcanoes.
– 9 out of 10 of these disasters occur along the circum-Pacific belt, also called
the “ring of fire.”

Earthquakes Result from Movement
at Plate Boundaries and Faults (1 of 4)
• An earthquake is a sudden release of energy at a tectonic
plate boundary.
– Earthquakes may also occur in the interior of tectonic
plates due to stretching and pulling from forces within
the Earth.
• Engineers have developed ways to protect buildings from
shaking, such as having points that can move and sway
with ground motion.
– These are more expensive, and often not available in
poorer nations. This is why the 2010 earthquake in Haiti
claimed an estimated 230,000 lives.

Table 2.2 Examples of Large Earthquakes
Year Location Fatalities Magnitude1
1556 Shaanxi Province, China 830,000 ~8
1755 Lisbon, Portugal 70,0002 8.7
1906 San Francisco, California 3000 7.8
1923 Kwanto, Japan 143,000 7.9
1964 Anchorage, Alaska 1282 9.2
1976 Tangshan, China 255,000+ 7.5
1985 Michoacan, Mexico 9500 8.0
1989 Loma Prieta, California 63 6.9
1994 Northridge, California 60 6.7
1995 Kobe, Japan 5502 6.9

Table 2.2 [Continued]
Year Location Fatalities Magnitude1
2004 Northern Sumatra 228,0002 9.1
2005 Kashmir, Pakistan 86,000 7.6
2008 Sichuan Province, China 50,000+ 7.9
2010 Port-au-Prince, Haiti 236,000 7.0
2010 Maule, Chile 500 8.8
2011 Northern Japan 18,0002 9.0
2015 Kathmandu, Nepal 8900 7.8
1Measured by moment magnitude; each full unit is roughly 32 times as

powerful as the preceding full unit.
2Includes deaths from the resulting tsunami.

• In the United States, these technologies are part of the required building
codes in areas with the greatest risk.

Volcanoes Arise from Rifts, Subduction
Zones, or Hotspots (1 of 3)
• A volcano is formed where molten rock, ash, or hot gas
erupts through the Earth’s surface.
– Often found in subduction zones of convergent plate
boundaries
– Japan is the most volcanically active nation, with 100
active volcanoes or about 10% of the world’s total.
• Lava may also be emitted at hotspots, localized areas
where plugs of molten rock from the mantle erupt through
the crust.

• Repeated eruptions at hotspots may create a linear series of volcanoes.
– The formation of the Hawaiian islands.

• The type of eruption released by volcanoes can be very
different.
– At Mount Kilauea, lava has been slowly flowing
downhill since 1983.
– Mount Saint Helens unleased a huge amount of cinder
and ash in a 1980 eruption.
– The Roman city of Pompeii was buried in a pyroclastic
flow of gas, ash, and rock that erupted from Mount
Vesuvius in A.D. 79.
• There was a 0.4–0.7°C decrease in global temperatures
elsius
following the eruption of Mount Tambora in 1815.

Landslides Are a Form of Mass Wasting
• Landslides occur when large amounts of rock or soil
collapse and flow downhill.
• The downward gravitational movement that causes this is
called mass wasting.
– Most commonly affects unstable hillsides

Tsunamis Can Follow Earthquakes,
Volcanoes, or Landslides (1 of 2)
• Earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, and large coastal landslides can all
displace huge volumes of ocean water instantly, triggering a tsunami.
– The 2011 tsunami that hit northeastern Japan was triggered by an
earthquake.

Tsunamis Can Follow Earthquakes,
Volcanoes, or Landslides (2 of 2)
• Since a 2004 tsunami that killed roughly 228,000 people in
countries around the Indian Ocean, nations have taken
steps to improve advance warning technologies.
– Restoration of coastal ecosystems, such as mangrove
forests, can also help to protect coastlines.

We Can Worsen or Lessen the Impacts
of Natural Hazards
• Earthquakes, tsunamis, and volcanoes are referred to as
“natural hazards,” but our decisions can worsen their
impacts.
– Living in areas prone to hazards, such as floodplains
– Damming or diking rivers
– Clearcutting forests on slopes, inducing mass wasting
– Human-induced climate change
• Altering these decisions, as well as implementing better
engineering technology, can help to minimize our risk.

Cities along the “ring of fire” are more at risk from which
types of natural hazards?
a. Earthquakes
b. Volcanic eruptions
c. Tsunamis
d. All of the above

Cities along the “ring of fire” are more at risk from which
types of natural hazards?
Correct Answer:
d. All of the above

Which natural hazard is the direct result of mass wasting?
a. Earthquakes
b. Landslides
c. Volcanic eruptions
d. Tsunamis

Which natural hazard is the direct result of mass wasting?
Correct Answers:
b. Landslides
c. Volcanic eruptions

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Environment: The Science Behind

Earth’s Physical Systems:

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Earth’s Crust Oceans

Oxygen (O) 49.5% Oxygen (O) 88.3%

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Nitrogen (N) 78.1% Oxygen (O) 65.0%

Blank Phosphorus (P) 1.0%

Blank Potassium (K) 0.4%

Blank Sulfur (S) 0.3%

Blank Other 0.5%

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• Electrons orbit the nucleus.

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• The number of electrons can

• Within an element, the number

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a. Its atomic mass decreases by half.

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• The number before each molecular formula indicates how

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C6H12O6 + 6O2 → 6CO2 + 6H2O

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6CO2 + 6H2O + 3H2S → C6H12O6 + 3H2SO4

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