What can Ocean Island Basalts

(OIB’s) and Mid Ocean Ridge

Basalts (MORB’s) tell us about the
Geochemistry of the Samoan
Islands?
Daniel Sandoval | Igneous and Metamorphic Petrology | May 5, 2023
Abstract:
This proposal intends to look at the overall geochemistry of the Samoan Islands. The
Samoan Islands were created similarly like the Hawaiian Islands in the form of hotspot
volcanism. The islands contain a complex geological history with some volcanic rocks
such as basalts dating back to the Eocene which was approximately forty million years
ago. In terms of volcanic activity in the Samoan Islands, it has been primarily
concentrated in the past eight million years in which the islands have experienced
multiple volcanic eruptions and uplift events. In this project various scatterplots will be
displayed to show the different chemical concentrations in the samples taken. By doing
so, it can help identify patterns or trends in the data, as well as any outliers or anomalies.
Moreover, basic statistical analysis on the data will be performed to help get a better
sense of variability within the data. Location data will be included to create a map of the
sample locations which can help identify spatial patterns or trends seen throughout the
data. Comparative analysis will be provided between plutonic rocks and volcanic rocks in
terms of their chemical compositions. This will assist in determining if there were any
significant differences in the chemical composition of the samples. Finally, predictive
modeling techniques such as regression analysis will be used to predict the chemical
composition of future samples based on the chemical composition of the samples. In the
future, funding would be needed to do geochronologic studies of the Samoan Islands with
the goal of providing valuable insights into the geological history of the area, raising
awareness with regards to the understanding of volcanic processes and the evolution of
oceanic islands.

Geologic Background of Samoan Islands:

The Samoan Islands are an archipelago of volcanic island arc chains that are
composed of sixteen islands. In terms of geologic history, the islands are young since the
composition of the oldest rocks located on these islands date as far back as the Pliocene,
which was around 2.6 to 5.3 million years ago, and the youngest rocks are around 11,700
years old which dates to the Holocene. The terrain of the Samoan Islands contains high
rugged volcanic mountains and underwater reef banks. In addition, the islands located
here get larger as you head to the west which is important when understanding the overall
tectonic history of the Samoan Islands, (Pendleton). The oldest island is Savai’i which is
a shield volcano that was formed through repeated eruptions of basaltic lava. The islands
of Tutuila and Upolu are much smaller and younger when compared to Savai’i. These
islands were formed by explosive eruptions of andesitic lava which in turn created steep-
sided cones and craters.

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TECTONICS IN THE SAMOAN ISLANDS:
The Samoan Islands were formed because of hotspot volcanism during the
Pliocene into the Quaternary. When the Pacific plate passed over the Samoan hotpot in
the northwestern direction, volcanoes and islands emerged. Most islands are submerged
subsurface, but the islands progressively get younger closer to the hotspot. The shield
volcanoes are primarily basaltic in composition which is caused by mafic magma which
contains slow moving magma flow and nonexplosive lava. (USGS). It is important to
note that the Samoan Islands are located within the “Ring of Fire,” which is a zone that is
notorious for intense volcanic and seismic activity throughout the Pacific Ocean.
Tectonically, the Samoan Islands are located at the intersection of the Pacific Plate and
the Australian Plate. Given that the Pacific Plate is being subducted beneath the
Australian Plate, the subduction zone created a deep ocean trench named the “Samoan
Trench,” which is located East of the islands. The collision of the plates resulted in
uplifting of the islands which contributes to the steep cliffs and rugged terrain.

Figure 1: This image shows the geographic location of

the Samoan Islands.
Source: United States Geological Survey (USGS)

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METHODS

The methods implemented in this proposal uses a subset of geochemistry data from the
Samoan Islands. The geochemistry data provided gives information about the chemical
composition of the volcanic and plutonic rocks located on the Samoan Islands which can
be used to infer the conditions and processes that led to the formation of the igneous
rocks located on the various islands. The subset of data paves the way to reveal
information about the source of the magma, whether the rocks are tholeiitic or calc-
alkaline, and the processes of magma mixing and the differentiation that may have
occurred during the island formation(s).Future funding would allow a geochronology
analysis to be conducted which can incorporate radiometric dating techniques which can
measure the decay of radioactive isotopes in the rocks to determine their age. By having
geochemistry and geochronology analysis it can provide valuable insights into the
formation and evolution of the basaltic rocks on the Samoan Islands. Moreover, both
geochemical and geochronological analyses help build a more detailed picture of the
volcanic history of the Samoan Islands to better understand their creations.

SAVAI’I
The island of Savai’i is the largest and oldest island of the Samoan islands. In terms of
geology, it is dominated by shield volcanoes that were built up over millions of years
because of volcanic activity. The continuous volcanism on Savai’i is believed to be “the
result of deformation of the margin due to lithospheric dilation,” (Keating, 1992). Savai’i
follows a Northwest trend on strike with Upolu. The shield volcanoes on Savai’i were the
result of basaltic lava eruptions over time. In Figure 2, Savai’i is covered by basaltic
volcanic rocks. There are extensive areas to the northeast and north coast which are
triggered by the Aopa Volcanics which suggests that “volcanism is commonly emanated
from the main Northwest trending backbone of the island,” (McDougall, 2010). The
rocks located on Savai’i are high in iron oxides, magnesium oxides, and calcium content.
In Chart 1 the basalt samples display various clusters (shown in light blue) and appear to
show how the basalt samples contain prominent levels of magnesium oxide when
compared to Zircon (Zr) which is an incompatible element. The two outliers (shown in
red) on the scatterplot are plutonic rocks. Since the basalts on Savai’i were formed
through the partial melting of the mantle beneath the island, Mid Ocean Ridge Basalts
(MORBS) formed and Ocean Island Basalts which originated from deeper depths of the
mantle caused less depletion in incompatible elements like Zr.

PAGE 3
 Comparison of MgO (wt % total) vs Zr
(ppm) Composition
900
800
700
600
Zr (ppm)

500
400
300
200
100
0 Figure 2: This image shows the geology of the island of
0 5 10 15 20 Savai'i. The stars in this image show the various eruptions
MgO(wt % total) which follow the Northwestern trend of the island.
(Source: McDougall, 2010)
Chart 1: This chart shows MgO (wt % total) and Zr in parts per
million (ppm). A cluster of basalt samples can be seen (in
light blue) being heavily correlated in terms of their chemical
composition of iron oxides. The two red colored plots are
plutonic rocks (outliers).

UPOLU
The island of Upolu is one of the islands that make up the Samoan Islands. Upolu is
composed of basalt, but there are andesites, rhyolites, and dacites throughout the island as
well. The rocks on Upolu have been subjected to various phases of volcanic activity over
the course of millions of years. The basalts contain various elements such as silica (SiO2),
aluminum (Al), iron (Fe), magnesium (Mg), calcium (Ca), sodium (Na), and potassium
(K) which are all necessary components for minerals like quartz, feldspars, and micas.
Interestingly, Upolu has been influenced by the island’s position on the Pacific Plate
which is moving in a westward direction. In turn, this has led to the creation of the
Samoan hotspot which is responsible for the formation of the island. The outer parts of
Upolu contain much larger structures created from deep ocean seafloor such as the
Fagaroa Volcano which is the oldest structure in Upolu and is a succession of basaltic
lava flows which outcrop near the North shore; East of Apia; and Southwest of Lefaga
Bay. In Chart 2, based on the statistical data provided Upolu is characterized by the
moderately high levels of alkalis and low levels of silica which is representative of ocean
island basalts which are created in hotspots and are thought to be indicative of mantle
material that has been melted and altered by an interaction with subducted oceanic crust.
When the samples of Upolu were plotted on an AFM ternary to differentiate whether the
basalts were tholeiitic or calc-alkaline, they plotted near the calc-alkaline trend (as shown

PAGE 4
 in Figure 3) which indicates that the basalts formed in subduction zones when oceanic
crust from the Pacific Plate was being subducted under the Australian Plate.

Comparison of SiO2 (wt%) vs

Na2O + K2O
(Total Alkali) Composition
7

5
Na2O + K2O

0 Figure 3: This image shows a “AFM” ternary which

0 20 40
SiO2 (wt%)
Chart 2: This chart shows the low amounts of SiO2
(WT%) vs the high amounts of Total Alkalis (Na2O
+ K2O) which is indicative of Ocean Island Basalts.
60 plotted the different samples that were taken on the island
of Upolu. The samples (represented by green squares) plot
near the Calc-Alkaline trend suggesting that rocks on
Upolu formed in subduction zones where the magma was
derived from the melting of subducted oceanic crust.

MANU’A ISLANDS
The Manu’a Islands is a collective group of three volcanic islands which are Ta’u,
Olosega, and Ofu. These islands have been a part of the Samoan hotspot for the past 70 –
80 million years. The volcanic rocks primarily found on these islands are tholeiitic basalts
which indicates that they have elevated levels of iron (Fe) and magnesium (Mg), but low
levels of alkali elements (Na2O + K2O). The Manu’a Island basalts have been extensively
studied for their trace element and isotropic signatures which can provide comprehension
about their mantle source and magma genesis. In Chart 3 there is a linear downtrend in
terms of the incompatible Rare Earth Elements (REE). The chart is a nice representation
of how Rare Earth Elements progressively get more incompatible as you head right both
on the chart and on the Lanthanide Series on the Periodic Table. Moreover, this chart
suggests that the mantle source of basalts underwent low degrees of melting which is
consistent with the formation of basalts in a hotspot environment. Figure 4 shows the

PAGE 5
 topography of the Manu’a Islands which is dominated primarily by rugged mountainous
terrain with steep slopes and valleys. In terms of the bathymetry of the Manu’a Islands,
steep slopes and deep ocean trenches can be seen. Overall, the topography and bathymetry
of the Manu’a Islands reflect their origins and their location which coincides with dynamic
tectonic environments.

Chondrite Data Using Rare Earth Element

Data (REE)
1000
Chondrite Normalized Abundance

100

10

1
La Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu
Rare Earth Element

Chart 3: This chart shows the Chondrite data from ten different samples
located on the Samoan Islands. A linear downtrend can be seen in the chart
which correlates heavily with how Rare Earth Elements (primarily located
in the Lanthanide Series) on the Periodic Table become more incompatible
as you go to the right.

PAGE 6
 Figure 4: Topography and Bathymetry of the Manu‘a Islands. The topography of the
Manu’a Islands shows a rugged mountainous terrain with steep slopes and valleys. The
bathymetry demonstrates steep slopes and deep ocean trenches. Both aspects reflect the
origin of the Manu’a Islands which coincide with dynamic tectonic environments.
Source: United States Geological Survey (USGS)

TA’U
The island of Ta’u is one of the five volcanic islands located on the Samoan Islands. Ta’u
is home to Mount Lata which stands at 3,170 feet and is the Samoan Islands tallest peak.,
Ta’u is a part of the Samoan Volcanic Chain which is a series of volcanic islands formed
by hotspots in the Earth’s mantle. The age of the volcanic rocks on the island of Ta’u is
estimated to be around 1.5 to 1.7 million years old. The volcanic activity created the
island of Ta’u is thought to have been the result of the Pacific Plate moving over a
stationary hotspot in the Earth’s mantle which led to the melting of the rock and the
eruption of lava onto the seafloor. Ta’u experienced an extensive period of “marine and
stream erosion which led to the formation of a broad submarine shelf by deposition and
wave erosion,” (Stearns, 1944). The rocks found on Ta’u are volcanic basalts that are
tholeiitic in nature which means they have low total alkali content and high iron and
magnesium composition like the basalts found on its neighboring islands like Tutuila and
Ofu. Interestingly, the basalts located on Ta’u have prominent levels of certain trace
elements like Niobium (Nb), Yttrium (Y), and Zircon (Zr) which is typically with
subduction related magmatism. Chart 4 shows the comparison in the levels of SiO2
content versus the magnesium content. The cluster shown on the graph suggests that the
basalts located on Ta’u are primarily composed of around 5 – 15% MgO which coincides
with their tholeiitic composition.

PAGE 7
 Comparison of SiO2 (wt%) vs MgO (wt%) Compostion
30
25
MgO (wt %)
20
15
10
5
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
SiO2 (wt %)

Chart 4: This chart shows the SiO2 (wt %) versus the MgO (wt %). It forms a cluster that is situated
with an overall composition of 5 – 15% MgO and around 45 – 48% SiO2 which coincides with the
tholeiitic nature of the basalts on Ta’u. The two outliers (shown in red) are plutonic rocks and are not
accounted for in terms of the classifying the statistical data.
TUTUILA
Tutuila is one of the Samoan Islands that is in the Southern Pacific Ocean. The
rocks found on Tutuila are primarily volcanic basalts that were formed because of the
subduction of the Pacific Plate beneath the Australian Plate. Moreover, Tutuila has
experienced frequent periods of volcanic activity and tectonic activity which resulted in
uplift and subsidence on the island. The basalts located on Tutuila are tholeiitic in nature
and contain low alkali content and high iron and magnesium composition. Interestingly,
studies of Tutuila have focused on the hydrothermal systems associated with volcanic
rocks. Given that Tutuila has numerous hot springs it is associated with the hydrothermal
alteration of the basalt rocks. The analysis of the hydrothermal fluids has provided
essential information about the chemistry of the hydrothermal fluids and the processes of
fluid to rock interactions. In Chart 5 the basalts display varying levels of K2O and SiO2.
The basalt clusters range from 0.5% to 2.5% in K2O and 45% to 55% in SiO2.

Comparison of SiO2 (wt%) vs K2O

(wt%) Composition
3
2.5
K2O(wt%)

2
1.5
1
0.5
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
SiO2 (wt%)

Chart 5: This chart shows that the basalts contain 45% to 55% SiO2 content and 0.5% to
2.5% K2O. The two outliers (shown in red) are plutonic rocks. In turn, this chart
reinforces the notion that the Basalts located on Tutuila are tholeiitic in composition.

PAGE 8
FACILITIES, EQUIPMENT, COLLABORATORS, AND OTHER RESOURCES:
Overall, in order to achieve the intended goal, laboratory facilities located in the Samoan
Islands is necessary in order to prepare samples for analysis. Facilities that would need to
be used are clean rooms, fume hoods, and specialized analytical equipment. On that note,
geochronological studies rely on a range of analytical techniques such as radiometric
dating, stable isotope analysis, and chemical analysis. Therefore, analytical equipment
necessary for this project includes mass spectrometers, X-ray fluorescence spectrometers,
and laser ablation systems to get precise calculations. In terms of collaborators, experts in
geology, geochemistry, and physics would be necessary for this project. The geologist
would be tasked with collecting suitable samples, the geochemist would assist with
analyzing the chemical composition of the samples, and the physicist would help with the
radiometric dating aspect.

PAGE 9
 References Cited

Keating, Barbara H. “The Geology of the Samoan Islands.” SpringerLink, Springer New

York, 1 Jan. 1992, https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-1-4612-2896-

7_9.

McDougall, Ian. “Age of Volcanism and Its Migration in the Samoa Islands.” Geological

Magazine, vol. 147, no. 5, 2010, pp. 705–717., doi:10.1017/S0016756810000038.

Pendleton A. Elizabeth, E. Robert Thieler. U.S. Geological Survey Coastal Vulnerability

Assessment of American Samoa to Sea-Level Rise, United States Geological

Survey, https://pubs.usgs.gov/of/2005/1055/html/fig1.html.

Stearns T. Harold; Geology of the Samoan Islands. GSA Bulletin 1944; 55 (11): 1279 –

1332. doi: https://doi.org/10.1130/GSAB-55-1279

Topography and Bathymetry of the Manu'a Islands, American Samoa, U.S. Geological

Survey, 1 Sept. 2022, https://www.usgs.gov/media/images/topography-and-

bathymetry-manua-islands-american-samoa.

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