Chapter 24

Conveying

The purpose of any conveying system is to transport material from one

place to another. Air can be used as a conveying medium whenever the
material is suitable. Most granular, crushed, or pulverized materials can be
conveyed in pneumatic systems. However, some of the finest materials are
difficult to convey this way because they tend to become sticky or abrasive.
At the other extreme, very large cardboard cartons have been conveyed
successfully over long distances by means of air.
In any conveying system, energy is needed to accelerate and lift the
material and to overcome any losses caused by friction. In pneumatic sys-
tems, the friction losses include those due to the sliding of the material along
the duct and elbow walls and those due to the forces within the air itself. The
required energy can be supplied by a fan, a blower, or a compressor (or by
some other type of mechanical device), or, in special cases, the potential
energy of the material itself can be utilized.
Zenz and Othmer1 have presented detailed information on the possible
fluid-solids phases based on various combinations of upward or downward air
flow with upward, downward, or zero net-solids flow as well as cocurrent air-
solids horizontal flow. Most conveying applications for fans involve only
dilute-phase, cocurrent, upward or horizontal, air-solids flow. This chapter is
written accordingly except for a short closing section on the so-called fluid-
ized systems, which may involve dense phases in either cocurrent or counter-
current air-solids flow.
The choice between a pneumatic system and a mechanical system should
be based on a combined economical and functional analysis. Although a
mechanical system involving buckets, belts, etc. will generally require less
operating horsepower, its usually higher costs of equipment, space, and
maintenance often tip the balance toward an air system. Similarly, although
an air system without the proper safeguards may plug occasionally, there are
functional advantages, such as inherent self-cleaning and dust-control char-
acteristics, as well as attractive possibilities for drying, cooling, or otherwise
processing en route.
1
E A. Zenz and D. F. Othmer, "Pneumatic and Hydraulic Conveying," Chapter 10, Fluidiza-
tion and Fluid-Particle Systems, Reinhold Publishing Corporation, New York, 1960.

‹#1999 Howden Buffalo, Inc.

24-2 FAN ENGINEERING

Design Principles
Because conveying is more an art than a science, the designer must
exercise keen judgment in evaluating any functional advantages that one
system may have over another. There are no hard-and-fast rules governing
owning and operating costs that would facilitate an economic analysis.
Therefore, good design may involve making several trial solutions and
completely evaluating the functional and economic factors of each.
Of course, the designer should be fully aware of the amount and the nature
of the material to be conveyed. The overall path that the material must follow
is often specified in great detail, but in the interests of good design, try to
eliminate any unnecessary elbows or bends.
The designer must also determine the relative locations for the fan, the
feeder, and the separator. There are three possibilities: the fan can be located
upstream from the feeder, downstream from the separator, or in between the
feeder and the separator. The pressure at any point in the system will usually
be greater than the atmospheric pressure on the discharge side of the fan and
less than the atmospheric pressure on the suction side of the fan. To evaluate
the alternative possibilities, consider such matters as wear and tear on the fan,
damage to the material being transported, structural requirements to withstand
the pressure forces, and the direction of leakage flow.
When the fan is placed upstream from the feeder, it is spared any wear and
tear due to material flow. The fan itself cannot cause any damage to the
material, but the feeder may have to be carefully selected to avoid crushing or
high-velocity impact. The entire system is usually under pressure. Although
this makes it relatively easy to design a system that can withstand the pressure
forces, special precautions are required to ensure tightness. Since leakage
flow would be outward through any cracks or openings, tightness is necessary
wherever a dust problem might otherwise result.
Various methods can be used to feed the material into the system against
the pressure existing downstream from the fan. The screw feeder, illustrated
in Figure 24.1D, effects a seal by compressing the material into a more solid
mass and then forces it into the pipe. The star or rotary valve, as illustrated in
Figure 24.1E, effects a seal between the hopper above and the conveying pipe
below. As the valve rotates, the material drops into the upper chamber from
the hopper and out of the lower into the conveying pipe. Any such mechani-
cal device needs its own source of power, is subject to wear and tear, and may
damage certain materials.
The pressure downstream from the fan can be reduced to a value below
atmospheric pressure by using a venturi. The material can then be fed into the
system from a hopper connected to the venturi throat, as illustrated in Figure
24.1F. The velocity in the throat must be high enough so that the static
pressure regain equals the downstream pressure losses. But high-velocity
impact damages some materials. And venturi efficiencies are impaired by the
turbulence that the material produces. Such a method is usually unsuitable for
long runs or high loadings.

‹#1999 Howden Buffalo, Inc.

 CHAPTER 24 – CONVEYING 24-3

Figure 24.1 Methods of Feeding Material

A fan placed downstream from the separator is spared most of the wear
and tear due to material flow. Since no separator is perfect, some material
will still pass through to the fan. But, none of the material collected will be
damaged by the fan. The pressure throughout the system will be less than the
atmospheric pressure; consequently, there will be no danger of blowback at
the feeder location. Any leakage flow will be inward. Whenever the run is
long or the loading heavy, the separator will be subjected to considerable
pressure forces. The cost of the separator may be higher if it must be de-
signed for a high vacuum.
Material can be fed into a negative-pressure system in many different
ways. Besides the mechanical devices mentioned above, several simpler
feeders can also be employed. For instance, the simple duct opening illus-
trated in Figure 24.1A is often chosen. And a mechanical guard can be used
to protect against plugging. If the material can be scraped into a pit, a con-
centric-tube feeder, similar to that shown in Figure 24.1B, can be used. The
hopper-fed elbow illustrated in Figure 24.1C allows over-fed material to fall
through to the floor.

‹#1999 Howden Buffalo, Inc.

24-4 FAN ENGINEERING

Figure 24.2 Conveying Systems

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 CHAPTER 24 – CONVEYING 24-5

Placing the fan between the feeder and the separator gives the advantages
of both a negative-pressure feeder location and a positive-pressure separator
location. All the material must pass through the fan, so wear and tear may be
considerable. Also, the material may be damaged by impact on the fan blades
and scroll. However, this method is often used in spite of its disadvantages.
Several types of systems are illustrated by the line drawings in Figure
24.2. The first three are single-pipe systems using the three different fan
locations discussed above. The last two systems involve multiple points of
distribution or multiple sources of material as indicated.
Single-pipe systems may plug occasionally but, because they are essen-
tially self-cleaning systems, can usually be unplugged very easily. Since the
air will take the path of least resistance, any tendency to plug in one line of a
multiple-pipe system will be aggravated by the resulting reduction in flow.
There is some evidence supporting the theory that unbalanced circuits (and,
therefore, plugging) are reduced by using larger pipe sizes and relatively
lower material loadings.

Material Loadings
After the general layout of a system has been established, the pipe must be
sized. Various sizes can be used, but only one will produce the most eco-
nomical system. Consequently, several trial pipe sizes should be selected and
evaluated. There is a minimum transport velocity for each material, so the
amount of air needed will vary directly with the cross-sectional area of the
pipe. Therefore, the ratio of the weight flow of the material to that of the air
will depend on the pipe size. This ratio, also called the material loading, is
one of the most significant design parameters.
Standard industrial exhauster-type fans can be used for material-to-air
ratios of up to 2:1 unless the conveying distances are unusually long. Stan-
dard pressure blowers of the centrifugal-fan type can be used on material
loadings with ratios as high as 5:1 or 6: 1. Beyond this figure, a combination
of two fans in series, a multi-stage blower, or some sort of positive-
displacement blower is usually needed. For materials that tend to drift,
Patterson1 indicates that the tendency is less with lower material-to-air ratios.
Presumably, the relatively greater mass of air is better able to re-entrain any
particles that settle.
Once one or more pipe sizes have been assumed, capacities and material
loadings can then be calculated. With a known velocity and pipe size, the
volumetric rate of airflow can be determined. This, together with the density,
defines the air mass flow rate. The material mass flow rate divided by the air
mass flow rate gives the material loading. With these figures in hand, it is
then possible to calculate the pressure losses due to both air and material.
1
R. L. Patterson, "Pulverized-Coal Transport through Pipes:" Trans. ASME, vol. 81 (1), 1959,
pp. 43-54.

‹#1999 Howden Buffalo, Inc.

24-6 FAN ENGINEERING

Design Velocities
An individual particle can be considered aerodynamically and a "floating "
ù
velocity derived. The formula for a particle of any shape with a volume V p
and a frontal area Ap in a vertical stream of air,

ù
2 gρ pV p
Vf = , (24.1)
CD ρ a A p

can be evaluated for a sphere-like particle

4 gρ p d p
Vf = , (24.2)
3CD ρ a

where the floating velocity V f , the gravitational acceleration g , the particle

diameter d p , and the densities of the material ρ p and of air ρ a are in any
consistent units. The coefficient of drag CD for a particle with sharp edges is
comparatively independent of Reynolds number in the range usually encoun-
tered, and for most shapes from thin flakes to cubes, the value is close to 1.0.
The drag coefficient for round bodies, such as spheres, and long cylinders
varies with Reynolds number, but for the typical conveying application, a
value of 0.5 for spheres and 1.0 for cylinders can usually be justified. There is
substantial experimental agreement with the above formula. However, note
that irregularly shaped bodies, although normally tending to face broadside to
the stream, do periodically turn, and for them, the floating velocity will be a
range of velocities. Also, note that floating velocity, strictly speaking, applies
only to vertical pipes.
Although the relative velocity Vr of material and air is equal to the
floating velocity in a vertical pipe, this equality does not hold in a horizontal
pipe. From the data of Gasterstadt1, it would appear that

1
Vr = V f 018
. + aVa 6 (24.3)

for horizontal runs, where a is 0.012 for air velocities Va in m/s or 0.000065
for Va in fpm.
The material velocity is equal to the air velocity minus the relative veloc-
ity. The material velocity in a vertical pipe is usually somewhat less than that
in a horizontal pipe. There probably is no mathematical expression with
which a desirable material velocity for all materials can be calculated. The
principal criterion is that the material velocity be high enough to eliminate
drifting, or at the very least, to minimize it. Even so, some system designers
1
M. Gasterstadt,"Experimental Investigation of Pneumatic Conveying Process": Zeitschrift
des Vereines Deutscher Ingenieure, vol. 68, no. 24, June 14,1924.

© 1999 Howden Buffalo, Inc.

 CHAPTER 24 – CONVEYING 24-7

Table 24.1 Conveying Velocities

in fpm
Castor beans.............................5000
Cement.....................................7000
Coal, powdered ........................4000
Cork, ground ............................3000
Corn .........................................5600
Cotton ......................................4500
Iron oxide.................................6500
Knots, blocks ...........................5000
Limestone, pulverized..............5000
Oats ..........................................4500
Paper ........................................5000
Rags .........................................4500
Rubber .....................................4500
Salt ...........................................5500
Sand .........................................7000
Sawdust, dry ............................3000
Shavings...................................3500
Wheat.......................................5800
Wool ........................................5000
Vegetable pulp, dry..................4500

will allow drifting because nothing can be done to avoid it completely. Some
materials, like coal, have a critical moisture content above which drifting will
occur. In such cases, the designer must be satisfied to allow some accumula-
tion in the system provided that there is no consequent plugging. This is
sometimes satisfactory, but it is obviously not satisfactory whenever there are
strict contamination or sanitation requirements. Fortunately, few materials in
their as-used condition have this tendency to drift or stick. Other materials
can be satisfactorily conveyed when properly controlled as to moisture
content, etc.
The effect of material bulk on air velocity in a given pipe size can be
ignored for all practical purposes. This is better appreciated when one con-
siders that, even when there are ten pounds of material per pound of air and
when that material may weigh 100 pounds per cubic foot in a solid mass, a
volume of one pound of air would be affected by only one-tenth of a cubic
foot out of 13.3 cubic feet.
Table 24.1 lists some commonly accepted air velocities for conveying
various materials. These data usually include enough margin to avoid plug-
ging. As a rule of thumb, materials with bulk weights ranging from 25 to 75
lb/ft3 can be transported satisfactorily with an air velocity of 5000 fpm.
To develop the chart in Figure 24.3, Madison assumed a relationship
between bulk weight and material velocity.

Pressure Losses
The losses due to the flow of air through various duct elements can be
calculated from the data in the chapter on fluid flow. For straight duct runs,
Figures 2.12 through 2.16 can be used. These charts are laid out for the usual
heating and ventilating pipe. To reduce friction losses as well as the possi-
bilities of drifting or plugging, much smoother pipe with fewer joints is
usually used in conveying systems. Therefore, the necessary correction for
smoothness should be applied to the duct-friction charts. The roughness-
correction chart is on page 2-40. The friction charts are on pages 2-42 and 2-
44.

‹#1999 Howden Buffalo, Inc.

24-8 FAN ENGINEERING

Figure 24.3 Conveying Velocities

One of the many reasons for using a conveying system that utilizes air is
that it can go around corners conveniently whereas other systems do so only
with difficulty. Nevertheless, elbows cause considerable pressure loss, and
their effects should be eliminated whenever possible, or at least minimized.
An easy bend with a radius ratio of five or six is generally used. The devel-
oped length of such an elbow usually amounts to about ten diameters, and this
figure can be used for the pressure-loss calculation. Besides the above
friction losses, there are shock losses caused by the change in direction or
cross section of the ductwork. These include: entrance losses (see page 2-36),
contractions and enlargements (see page 2-60), divided-flow fittings (see page
2-72), and sharp-bend elbows (see page 2-48), as well as feeding devices,
separators, and process equipment.
Besides the pressure needed to produce air flow through the system,
energy must also be provided: to accelerate the material as many times as
necessary, to lift the material for the required distance, and to overcome the
frictional forces that develop as the material slides along the bottom of
horizontal ducts or the outside of elbows. This energy is transmitted to the air
by the fan and, in turn, to the material as required. Bearing in mind that the
sum of the potential and kinetic energies in a unit weight of fluid is equal to
the total head in ft-lb/lb of that fluid, expressions can be formulated for the
various losses associated with the transport of the material.

‹#1999 Howden Buffalo, Inc.

 CHAPTER 24 – CONVEYING 24-9

The energy in ft-lb, available from one lb of air, is numerically equal to

the total head in ft of air. Since the equivalent of one inch of water is 69.2 ft
of air, the energy in a unit weight of air is 69.2 times its total pressure pT in
in. wg. The rate at which energy can be obtained from the air is equal to the
weight rate of airflow wû a multiplied by 69.2 times the loss in total pressure
pL . The rate at which energy must be used depends on the work done on the
material. Dividing the rate at which work is done on the material by 69.2
times the weight rate of air flow gives the total pressure that must be lost by
the air.
The rate at which work is done in lifting a weight rate of material wû m in lb
per unit of time through a vertical distance l in ft is wû m l in ft-lb per unit of
time. So, the total pressure p Ll in in. wg that the air must lose is

wû m l Rl
pLl = = (24.4)
69.2 wû a 69.2

where the ratio of material to air is designated by R . This expression does

not include an allowance for friction.
Similarly, the rate at which work is done in accelerating the material to a
given velocity Vm is wû mVm 2 g . The corresponding total pressure loss p La is
2

wû mVm 2 g
2
p La = (24.5)
69.2 wû a

2
1 6
The expression Vm 2 g 69.2 can be equated to the velocity pressure pV of
the air but only if the material velocity Vm is equal to the air velocity corre-
sponding to pV . This pressure is lost by the air each time the material must
be accelerated from rest to the velocity corresponding to pV . Besides the
original acceleration, there is always a reacceleration after each elbow,
particularly after a lift. Estimating material velocities throughout the system
requires very good judgment during the design stage.
The work done in overcoming friction is equal to the frictional force Ff
times the distance d over which it acts. The frictional force, of course, is
equal to the normal force Fn multiplied by a coefficient of friction f . This
coefficient in turn depends upon whether the material is in motion or at rest.
Coefficients of static friction based on measured angles of slide are listed in
Table 24.2. Assuming, as did Fischer1, that the coefficient of sliding friction
does not differ materially from the coefficient of static friction, we can
calculate the frictional force provided that we know the normal force.
1
J. Fischer, "Practical Pneumatic Conveyor Design," Chemical Engineering, June 2, 1958, pp.
114-118.

‹#1999 Howden Buffalo, Inc.

24-10 FAN ENGINEERING

Table 24.2 Coefficients of Friction for Various Materials Sliding on Steel

Material f U Material f U
Alfalfa, ground .6 15 Kalsomine, powder .9 32
Alumina, fine, granulated .7 55 Limestone, pulverized .9 85
Anthracite coal, broken of Linseed meal .6 27
any size .4 55 Linseed, rolled .7 25
Bagasse, wet 1.0 4 Malt, dry .4 32
Beans (See coffee, cocoa, Malt, spent dry .5 10
navy, soy.) Malt sugar, ground .6 35
Bituminous coal, pulverized .8 30 Malt sugar, unground .6 30
Borax, dehydrated, powdered. .8 75 Mica, ground .7 13
Bran .7 21 Milk, powdered 1.0 40
Brewers grits .4 33 Navy beans .4 54
Buckwheat .5 34 Oats .4 26
Casein, granular .6 40 Oats, rolled .5 18
Cinders .7 42 Pablum .6 9
Clover seed .5 48 Plaster of Paris, powdered .8 50
Coal (See anthracite, Portland cement .8 95
bituminous.) Pumice, pulverized 1.0 40
Cocoa beans .5 37 Resin, synthetic (from plant),
Cocoa nibs .5 32 crushed .6 40
Cocoanut meal .8 32 Resin and wood flour,
Cocoanut, shredded .5 25 powdered .8 19
Coffee beans, green .5 42 Rice .4 50
Coffee, steel cut .4 28 Rubber, scrap, ground .7 23
Coke, pulverized .7 25 Salt, granulated .6 81
Corn, field (on cob) .4 45 Sand, coarse-sized .6 95
Corn, shelled .4 45 Sand, core .8 65
Corn flakes .4 12 Sand, mine-run .7 105
Corn germ .5 25 Sand, very fine .6 100
Corn-germ flakes .7 25 Sand, voids full of water 1.0 120
Corn grits .4 40 Seed (See clover, cotton, flax,
Cornmeal .7 40 grass, timothy)
Cornmeal-muffin mixture 1.0 28 Soap chips .6 10
Cotton seed .6 25 Soy beans, crushed .7 34
Cotton-seed meal .7 33 Soy beans, flour .8 27
Cryolite, 1/2" to 200 mesh, Say beans, meal .5 40
crushed .6 52 Soy beans, split .5 44
Dolomite, pulverized .9 46 Soy beans, whole .4 47
Farina .6 44 Starch, lump and pelleted .5 30
Feldspar, pulverized .8 55 Starch, powdered 1.0 35
Flax seed, ground .7 28 Starch, tablet, granular crystals .4 40
Flour .6 37 Sulphur, pulverized 1.0 50
Flour, prepared biscuit .8 26 Timothy seed .5 36
Flyash, powdered .9 45 Tobacco stems, chopped,
Fuller's Earth, raw .7 42 coarse .4 16
Glass, batch, average mix 1.0 100 Wheat .4 48
Grass, blue, seed 6 11 Wheat germ .6 32
Gravel .6 120 Wheat germ, ground .7 32
Gypsum 1.0 142 Wood chips, dry .4 23
Hominy .4 45 Wood sawdust, dry .7 20
Iron-oxide pigment .8 25 Wood sawdust, ground 1.0 20
f dimensionless U lbm/ft3average bulk density

Adapted from the data of Stephans-Adamson Manufacturing Company: "Weights of Various

Substances," General Catalogue No. 66.

© 1999 Howden Buffalo, Inc.

 CHAPTER 24 – CONVEYING 24-11

This normal force will vary depending on whether the force due to gravity
or the centrifugal force must be considered. Even if air separates each particle
from the next, in horizontal runs the total weight must still be borne by the
duct. Similarly, in elbows a normal force will develop equivalent to the
centrifugal force of the material rounding the bend.
The rate at which work is done in moving material along a horizontal run
of length h is f wû mh , and the corresponding total pressure loss p Lh is

f wû mh f Rh
pLh = = (24.6)
69.2 wû a 69.2

Note that this loss is independent of velocity except through f .

The distance around any 90° bend is π r 2 . The centrifugal force per unit
of time is wû mVm gr . So, the pressure p L90° needed to move the material
2

around one 90° bend is

p L 90° =
3 f wû V
m m
2
gr 8 ≈π f Rp . (24.7)
69.2 wû a
V

Note that the elbow radius r cancels out. Once again, the expression
2
1 6
Vm 2 g 69.2 can be equated to the velocity pressure pV of the air only if the
material velocity Vm equals the air velocity. Here they are not equal, but the
error can be considered a safety margin. The preceding equations are written
for U.S. customary units. For pL and pV in kPa, wû in kp/s, V in m/s, g in
m/s2, and l and h in m, the 69.2 must be changed to 84.98.
The pressure that must be given by the air to the material can be calculated
only approximately from Equations 24.4 through 24.7. Equation 24.4 gives
the exact requirement for lifting but ignores any friction that may occur in the
vertical run. Equation 24.5 gives the exact requirement for accelerating from
rest to a particular velocity, but the value of the final velocity cannot be
predicted accurately. Equations 24.6 and 24.7 would give the exact
requirements for sliding friction if the coefficients could be evaluated
precisely, but usually they cannot. And Equations 24.6 and 24.7 ignore air
friction effects. Nevertheless, when these equations are applied judiciously,
useful results can be obtained.
All four losses vary directly with the material-to-air ratio. The vertical-
run loss is proportional to the lift, and the horizontal-run loss is proportional
to the length of the run. Elbow losses are proportional to the angle of bend
but independent of the radius of bend according to the above analysis. The
suggested radius ratio of five or six is based principally upon reducing erosion
and minimizing the shock losses suffered directly by the air. Acceleration and
elbow losses are both related to the air velocity.

© 1999 Howden Buffalo, Inc.

24-12 FAN ENGINEERING

Fan Performance
In conveying systems, as in any other type of system, the operating
characteristics can be determined by drawing the fan-performance curves and
the system-resistance curves on the same graph. The point of operation is the
point where the two capacity-pressure curves intersect.
Figure 24.4 is drawn for a typical fan-system combination. When only air
passes through the system, this figure shows the system resistance for a wide
range of air capacities. When both air and material pass through the system,
the system resistance is shown for only a narrow range of air capacities. Any
extension of this curve toward zero air capacity would be misleading since the
velocity would soon drop below the minimum necessary for transport.
The operating point when material is fed at the normal rate will be at A. If
the material is fed at a lower rate, the operating point will gradually move to
the right along the fan curve until it reaches B, at which point no material is
fed into the system. Similarly, the operating point would move to the left of
A if the feed rate were increased. The amount that the feed rate can be
increased over the design is limited by the resultant decrease in velocity and
by the attendant possibility of plugging. Point C is not an operating point;
rather, the difference in pressure between A and C is that which must be
developed to lift, accelerate, and slide the material along the ducts and el-
bows. The pressures at B and C are simply those that must be developed in
order to move the corresponding amount of air through the system without
any material.
When material is fed at the normal rate but none passes through the fan
the operating power will be at D. If the material is fed at a lower rate, the
operating point will gradually move to the right along the fan curve until it
reaches E, at which point no material is fed into the system. Less power is
needed when material is conveyed than when only air is passed through the
system. The point F represents the power requirement when the conveyed
material passes through the fan.
As shown by Figure 24.4, whenever the material passes through the fan,
an increase in power requirements should be expected compared to that at the
same capacity and speed with only air passing through the fan. Although the
material/air mixture does not behave like a homogeneous fluid, the
air/material power can be predicted (but only approximately) by multiplying
the air power by the ratio of effective density to air density. The effective
density is the total weight of the air and material divided by the volume of the
mixture. The actual increase in power probably will be less than predicted,
particularly if the material has been accelerated before entering the fan. A
large portion of the material probably will separate from the air stream and be
accelerated directly by the blades. Much of this energy will be lost when the
material slides around the scroll, but there may be a residual velocity at the
fan outlet. So, the pressure needed for acceleration at that point can be
reduced. Although conclusive evidence is lacking, it is usually assumed that
the pressure curve for a fan is not altered by the presence of material in the
air. Density effects tend to increase pressure, but turbulence and friction
.

‹#1999 Howden Buffalo, Inc.

 CHAPTER 24 – CONVEYING 24-13

Figure 24.4 Fan and Conveying-System Curves

‹#1999 Howden Buffalo, Inc.

24-14 FAN ENGINEERING

decrease it. In Figure 24.4, different power curves are illustrated, but the
same pressure curve is shown whether material passes through the fan or not.
The industrial-exhauster type of fan is generally used in conveying
systems whenever such a fan is capable of developing enough pressure. On
rather short systems, the pressure needed for material-to-air ratios of up to
about 2:1 can usually be developed by a standard industrial exhauster.
Various impeller designs are generally available, although the standard
material wheel is suitable for most applications. Extra-heavy construction
may provide better service whenever large amounts of material are expected
to pass through the fan. "Open" or "cone" wheels are usually required when-
ever stringy materials must be conveyed through the fan. Granular materials
do not present this problem.
Pressure blowers can be used in systems with material-to-air ratios of up
to 5:1 or 6:1. Above this value, either two fans in a series or a multi-stage
blower may be needed. These types are usually unsuitable for applications
where large amounts of material must pass through the fan itself.

System Design
Many important aspects of conveying-system design have been discussed
in the preceding paragraphs. Example 24.1 illustrates the application of
various formulae and principles of design.
In the example, the conveying air was discharged to the atmosphere, as is
usual. In such cases, it is imperative that adequate air be provided. Often, the
air can be obtained directly from outdoors. If for any reason indoor air must
be used, provisions should be made for a make-up air supply to the building.
Occasionally, a recycling arrangement will be economical, either because the
material is too valuable to throw away or because it would cost too much to
reduce the amount of discharge to an acceptable air-pollution value.
Every system should be designed to withstand the pressure that would
result if the system plugged up with material. At such times the fan operates
at or near shutoff, and the peak pressure may be much higher than the normal
operating pressure.
Sometimes, drifting and plugging can be controlled by using kicker blocks
or some other type of turbulator. To limit the erosive effects of the material,
elbows are often specially treated. They may be lined or made of extra-heavy
material. Pipes are usually made with fewer and smoother joints than venti-
lating ducts.
Some conveying systems are designed to also heat, dry, or otherwise
process the material as it is being transported.

‹#1999 Howden Buffalo, Inc.

 CHAPTER 24 – CONVEYING 24-15

"Fluidized" Systems
In a fluidized system, the airflow primarily activates or fluidizes the
solids. The energy needed to effect transport can be provided in various
ways.
In one type of system, a fan is used only to provide the energy for activa-
tion, and the force of gravity is utilized to transport the fluidized solids. In
such an aerated gravity conveyor, the equipment consists of a duct-like
enclosure around some kind of porous membrane. The fluidized material
flows down the inclined membrane effecting horizontal movement as well as
vertical drop. Air is supplied upward through the membrane from a chamber.
The amount of air needed depends on the amount and nature of the material,
which in turn, depends on the dimensions of the system. The fan pressure
required also depends on the amount and nature of the material.
In another type of system, enough air is supplied for fluidization, and a
pump (usually one acting on the screw principle) is used to supply the energy
for transport.
In still another type of system, a fully compacted dense phase is obtained
by restricting the motion of the particles with an orifice, a valve, or an ex-
panded section of unfluidized solids at the exit. The energy for solids trans-
port is provided as pressure head at the entrance.

‹#1999 Howden Buffalo, Inc.

24-16 FAN ENGINEERING

Example 24.1 Conveying System

Requirements

Conveying rate: 20000 lb/hr

Layout: Feeder, 50 ft hor, 90° el, 50 ft up, 90° el, 50 ft hor, separator
Fan location: Best position as determined by evaluation.

Properties of Material

Bulk weight: 50 lb/ft3 (25% voids) ( ρ m = 50/.75)

Average frontal area: Ap = 0.032 in.2
ù
Average particle volume: V = 0.004 in.3
Average coefficient of drag: Cd = 1.0
Average coefficient of friction on steel: F = 0.4

Velocities and Loadings

Air velocity: VA = 5000 fpm (assumed) ( pV = 1.56 in. wg)

2 × 32.2 50 .004
Floating velocity:V f = 60 = 1460 fpm
10
. .75×.075 .032 × 12
Relative velocity:Vr = 1460 0181 6
. + 0.000065 × 5000 = 740 fpm
Material velocity:Vm = 5000 − 1460 = 3540 fpm (vertical)
( pV = 0.78 in. wg)
Vm = 5000 − 740 = 4260 fpm (horizontal)
( pV = 113
. in. wg)
Vm = 3400 fpm lvg 3800 fpm avg (1st el)
( pV = 0.72 in. wg and 0.90 in. wg)
Vm = 2800 fpm lvg 3100 fpm avg (2nd el)
( pV = 0.49 in. wg and 0.60 in. wg)
Note: For 90° el, leaving velocity is assumed to be 0.8 × entering velocity.

Material rate: wû m = 20000 60 = 333 lb/min

Air rate: wû a = 5000×.075×.785 = 294 lb/ min (12-in. pipe)
wû a = 5000×.075×.349 = 131lb/min (8-in. pipe)
wû a = 5000×.075×.087 = 33 lb/min (4-in.pipe)
Material loading: R = 333 294 = 113 . (12-in. pipe)
R = 333 131 = 2.54 (8-in. pipe)
R = 333 33 = 1010
. (4-in. pipe)

© 1999 Howden Buffalo, Inc.

 CHAPTER 24 – CONVEYING 24-17

Losses Due to Material Flow

Using Equation 24.4,

Lift losses: p Ll = 113

. × 50 69.2 = 0.82 in. wg (12-in. pipe)
p Ll = 2.54 × 50 69.2 = 184
. in. wg (8-in. pipe)
p Ll = 1010
. × 50 69.2 = 7.30 in. wg (4-in. pipe)

Using Equation 24.5,

Changes in velocity pressure corresponding to acceleration:

∆pV = 113
. − 0.00 = 113. in. wg (0 to 4260 fpm)
∆pV = 178
. − 0.72 = 0.06 in. wg (3400 to 3540 fpm)
∆pV = 113
. − 0.49 = 0.64 in. wg (2800 to 4260 fpm)
∆pV total = 1.83 in. wg
∆pV total + margin = 2.00 in. wg

Acceleration losses:

pLa = 1.13 × 2.00 = 2.26 in.wg (12-in.pipe)

p La = 2.54 × 2.00 = 5.08 in. wg (8-in. pipe)
p La = 1010
. × 2.00 = 20.20 in. wg (4-in. pipe)

Using Equation 24.6,

Horizontal losses:

p Lh = 113
. ×.4 × 100 69.2 = 0.65 in. wg (12-in. pipe)
p Lh = 2.54 ×.4 × 100 69.2 = 147
. in. wg (8-in. pipe)
p Lh = 1010
. ×.4 × 100 69.2 = 584. in. wg (4-in. pipe)

Using Equation 24.7,

Elbow losses: pV = 0.90 in. wg (avg lst el)

pV = 0.60 in. wg (avg 2nd el)
pV = 150 . in. wg (2 els)
. ×.4π 150
p L2 − 90° = 113 . = 2.13 in. wg (12-in.pipe)
p L2 − 90° = 2.54×.4π 150
. = 4.78 in. wg (8-in.pipe)
. ×.4π 150
p L2 − 90° = 1010 . = 19.00 in. wg (4-in.pipe)

© 1999 Howden Buffalo, Inc.

24-18 FAN ENGINEERING

Losses Due to Air Flow

Duct losses: Very smooth pipe using Fig. 2.12, Fig. 2.13 and Equation 2.77
1 çæ
150 × 12 äã
p Ld =
. × 57
133
156
.
å
12 â
+ 20 = 3.50 in. wg (12-in. pipe)

1 çæ
150 × 12 äã
p Ld =
. × 51
135
156
.
å 8 â
+ 20 = 5.55 in. wg (8-in. pipe)

1 çæ
150 × 12 äã
p Ld =
. × 43
140
156
. 4
å 4 â
+ 20 = 12.20 in. wg (4-in. pipe)

Other losses: p Le = 0.00 in. wg - bell-mouthed entry

p Lx = 100
. in wg. - exit loss (assumed)
p Ls = 2.00 in. wg - separator (assumed)
p Lt = 3.00 in. wg - total

Fan Requirements

Capacity: Qû = 294 ÷ 0.075 = 3930 cfm std air (12-in. pipe)

Qû = 131 ÷ 0.075 = 1750 cfm std air (8-in. pipe)
Qû = 33 ÷ 0.075 = 435 cfm std air (4-in. pipe)

Pressure:
pFT = 0.82 + 2.23 + 0.65 + 2.13 + 350
. + 3.00 = 12.36 in. wg (12-in. pipe)
pFT = 184
. + 5.08 + 147
. + 4.78 + 555. + 3.00 = 2172
. in. wg (8-in. pipe)
pFT = 7.30 + 20.2 + 584
. + 19.0 + 12.2 + 3.00 = 67.54 in. wg (4-in. pipe)

Horsepower: Assuming 70% η T for comparison (air only)

P = 3930 × 12.36 ÷ 6354 × 0.70 = 10.9 hp (12-in. pipe)
P = 1750 × 2172
. ÷ 6354 × 0.70 = 8.5 hp (8-in. pipe)
P = 435 × 67.54 ÷ 6354 × 0.70 = 6.6 hp (4-in. pipe)

Selection: Industrial-exhauster type (12-in. pipe)

Pressure blower type (8-in. pipe)
Pressure blower type (or positive-pressure blower) (4-in. pipe)

Evaluation

Refer to the section on principles of design. Note that operating horsepowers

decrease with duct size, as do piping costs, but that fan costs increase in spite
of the lower capacity requirements. Also note that the higher-speed, more
refined types of fans or blowers needed for high material loadings are less
suitable for installations where all or part of the material must pass through
the fan itself.

‹#1999 Howden Buffalo, Inc.