Physiotherapy Theory and Practice, 29(2):142–149, 2013

Copyright © Informa Healthcare USA, Inc.

ISSN: 0959-3985 print/1532-5040 online
DOI: 10.3109/09593985.2012.703760

DESCRIPTIVE REPORT

A study to investigate the walking speed of elderly

adults with relation to pedestrian crossings
Eva Bollard, BSc1 and Hamish Fleming, BSc, MSc, PhD2
1
School of Public Health, Physiotherapy and Population Science, University College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland
2
Lecturer, School of Public Health, Physiotherapy and Population Science, University College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland
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ABSTRACT
Elderly pedestrians are particularly at risk on the roads. The objective of this study was to investigate the walking
speed of elderly adults and determine if it allows the safe clearance of pedestrian crossings. The increasing
elderly population and high fatality rates of this age group on Irish roads necessitate this investigation. Fifty-
two community-dwelling adults over the age of 65 years completed a 10-meter walk test. Acceleration and
steady-state walking speed were accounted for. Twenty traffic-light-controlled pedestrian crossings were ana-
lyzed within a 1 kilometer radius of 4 day care centers in Kilkenny, Ireland. Values were recorded for the distance
of the crossings and time of the light signals. The mean acceleration of the 52 participants was 0.20 ± 0.15 ms−2
(mean ± SD) and the mean steady-state walking speed was 0.82 ± 0.27 ms−1. In total, 30% of the pedestrian
For personal use only.

crossings investigated would not have permitted this sample of participants enough time to safely cross the
road given the time of the green and amber light signals. Over 96% of participants would have been unable to
cross a road of average distance on the amber signal alone. A substantial number of elderly adults walked slower
than the speed required to safely cross the road.

INTRODUCTION performance. Tiedemann, Sherrington, and Lord

Pedestrian fatalities are high among elderly adults. In
2007, 81 pedestrians were killed and 884 were
injured on Irish roads (Road Safety Authority,
2008). This figure, relating to pedestrians alone,
accounted for 24% of all fatalities on Ireland's roads.
Reports by the Road Safety Authority (2009a,
2009b), also found that the fatal casualty rate of
pedestrians is highest among both males and females
over the age of 75 years (based on data dating from
2004 to 2006).
Many physiological changes are associated with the
progression of age. Previous research has found an
association between aging and a decline in density of
skeletal muscle (Goodpaster et al, 2001), a decline in
strength of skeletal muscle and muscle cross-
sectional area (Frontera et al, 2000), and a reduction
in knee and ankle joint power (DeVita and Hortobagyi,
2000). All of these factors have an impact on walking
Accepted for publication 11 June 2012
Address correspondence to Eva Bollard, University College Dublin,
Dublin, Ireland. E-mail: evabollard@gmail.com
(2005) concluded that walking speed is significantly
effected by balance, reaction time, and vision. Aging
is also associated with a reduced step length and
increased step width (Callisaya et al, 2008), and a
reduced gait speed (Bohannon, 1997; Callisaya et al,
2008; Winter, Palta, Frank, and Walt, 1990).
One study investigating the aging effects on the
attention demands of walking identified a high visual
reaction time in older individuals (Sparrow, Brad-
shaw, Lamoureux, and Tirosh, 2002). This is an
important consideration for the older pedestrian who
must simultaneously cross the road and pay attention
to the surrounding environment. It must be noted that
different factors influence the walking speed of ped-
estrians. Pedestrians demonstrate a slower walking
speed when talking to others and carrying baggage
(Finnis and Walton, 2008), when facing heavy oppos-
ing pedestrian flows (Lam, Lee, and Cheung, 2002),
when walking in a group and when walking in poor
weather conditions (Knoblauch, Pietrucha, and Nitz-
burg, 1996). Older pedestrians have reported having
difficulties with uneven paths, poorly lit roads, and
slippery surfaces (Fildes, Lee, Kenny, and Foddy,

142
 Physiotherapy Theory and Practice 143

1994). The majority of road accidents involving older
pedestrians in Ireland occur in daylight (Martin,
Hand, Trace, and O'Neill, 2010).
Robinett and Vondran (1988) highlighted that
ambulation distances and velocities vary depending
on the size of the community or environment. They
found that the distances and velocities required for
independent ambulation in the community are often
greater than objectives set at most rehabilitation
settings.

TABLE 1 Summary of previous research relating to elderly pedestrians.

Location for Average age

Study study Sample size Age (years) (years) Speed of walking Main results

Walker et al Los Angeles, Group 1: 100 60 and over Unknown Group 1: Participants in group 2
(1987) USA Group 2: 50 69.8 m/ demonstrated an ability to
minute increase their walking
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(1.16 ms−1) speed on the sidewalk as

Group 2: opposed to the crosswalk,
74.6 m/ when asked to walk as fast
minute as possible
(1.24 ms−1)
Hoxie and Los Angeles, 1,229 65 and over (n = 77.3 average of 0.86 ± 96% of the 100 participants
Rubenstein USA (observed) 592) those 0.17 ms−1 recorded, walked slower
(1994) questioned (n = 100) than the recommended
(n = 139) speed of 1.2 ms−1
74% of participants
questioned (n = 139)
reported feeling in danger
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as they crossed the road

Langlois et al New Haven, USA 1,249 72 and over 79.2 Unknown 99.49% of participants (who
(1997) (interviewed) completed the walking
test, n = 989), had a
walking speed less than
the recommended
walking speed of 1.2 of
ms−1
81% of participants
interviewed (n = 1,249),
reported insufficient time
to cross the street
Knoblauch, Richmond, 7,123 Group 1: 65 and Unknown 1.25 ms−1 (n = Results report that walking
Pietrucha, and Washington, (observed) over 3,665) speed is influenced by
Nitzburg Baltimore and Group 2: 65 and Group 1 factors such as street
(1997) Buffalo, USA under width, weather conditions
and pedestrian signals
Amosun, Cape Town, 47 65 and over 78.8 ± 7.0 1.36 ± 34.0% of participants
Burgess, South Africa 0.31 ms−1 walked slower than the
Groenveldt, recommended walking
and Hodgson speed of 1.2 ms−1
(2007) 51.1% of participants
reported that traffic lights
did not permit sufficient
time to cross
Andrews et al North Carolina, 139 (observed) 32 individuals ≥ Unknown 1.32 ms−1 The mean gait speed for the
(2010) USA 65 years, 96 older participants through
individuals < crosswalks in this study
65 was 1.29 ms−1
All of the individuals
observed were able to
cross the street within the
allotted time and with
adequate speed

Physiotherapy Theory and Practice

 144 Bollard and Fleming
This study focused on traffic-light-controlled ped-
estrian crossings within a 1 kilometer radius of 4 day
care centers for the elderly in Kilkenny, Ireland. In
2003, the Department of Transport, the Department
of the Environment, Heritage and Local Government,
and the Dublin Transportation Office published the
“Traffic Management Guidelines” (Department of
Transport, 2003). These are non-statutory guidelines
that present recommendations relating to traffic plan-
ning, traffic management, speed restraint measures,
and public transport and facilities for vulnerable
road users. These guidelines recommend that “the
green pedestrian aspect time is fixed at 6 seconds”.
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They also recommend that “the amber pedestrian
aspect varies with the width of the road, allowing a
second for each 1.2 meters of road width that ped-
estrian's cross”. This demands a minimum walking
speed of 1.2 ms−1 for a pedestrian to complete cross-
ing a road safely, if they enter the crossing as the green
light changes to amber. This speed is in agreement
with the recommended minimum walking speed on
roads in the USA (United States Federal Highway
Administration, 2003) and the UK (Department for
Transport, 2005).
For personal use only.
Numerous research studies have examined the
walking speed of elderly pedestrians (Amosun,
Burgess, Groenveldt, and Hodgson, 2007; Andrews
et al, 2010; Hoxie and Rubenstein, 1994; Knoblauch,
Pietrucha, and Nitzburg, 1996; Langlois et al, 1997;
Walker et al, 1987). A brief review of the main findings
of these studies is contained in Table 1. In reviewing
the literature, it is evident that a progression of age is
associated with a slower walking speed (Bohannon,
1997; Callisaya et al, 2008; Shumway-Cook et al,
2007; Winter, Palta, Frank, and Walt, 1990). Bohan-
non and Andrews (2011) clearly highlighted the
effect of age on gait speed through the results of
their meta-analysis. They reported a mean gait speed
of 94.3 cm/second for women and 96.8 cm/second
for men aged 80–99 years. All of the above mentioned
studies which examine the walking speed of elderly
pedestrians have analyzed the overall gait speed.
However, these studies have neglected to consider
the acceleration phase or the subsequent steady-state
speed. Knowledge of these values may contribute to
the design of pedestrian crossings and thus ameliorate
the safety of these vulnerable road users. This present
study examined the acceleration and steady-state
speed of elderly pedestrians.
The research presented by Langlois et al (1997)
assumed that the pedestrian crossings would meet the
recommended guidelines and impose a minimum
speed of 1.2 ms−1 on pedestrians when crossing the
road. This present study however, does not make that
assumption. It aimed to analyze a sample of pedestrian
crossings, to compare the values measured at these
crossings to the recommended guidelines, and to
determine if they allow the safe clearance of elderly
pedestrians.
In Ireland, life expectancy is 76.8 years for men and
81.6 years for women (Central Statistics Office, 2009).
These figures demonstrate an increase in life expect-
ancy for both men and women when compared with
figures from the period 2002–2006. Therefore, pre-
viously published studies would have been assessing
a younger population of elderly pedestrians (Hoxie
and Rubenstein, 1994). A consequence of this
increased life expectancy is an increase in the elderly
population. Since 1961, Ireland has seen an increase
in the number of adults aged 65 years and older
(Central Statistics Office, 2008). This increase
enhances the importance of this study at this present
time.
Analysis of pedestrian crossings has attracted a sig-
nificant amount of attention and research. However,
the results of these studies are of limited relevance to
pedestrians in this country considering the location
of these studies. This present study, to the author's
knowledge, is the first of its kind in this location.
The increasing elderly population and the high
fatality and injury rates of this age group on Irish
roads necessitate this investigation. It is hoped that
the results will contribute to the work already pub-
lished. The primary aim of this study was therefore
to investigate the walking speed of elderly Irish
adults and to establish if it allows the safe clearance
of pedestrian crossings.
METHODS
Study population
A quantitative cross-sectional design was used. Ethical
approval was obtained prior to the commencement of
the study from the University College Dublin (UCD)
Human Ethics Committee – Life Science (Reference:
LS-09-98-Bollard–Fleming).
First permission was attained to recruit subjects
from 4 day care centers in Kilkenny, Ireland. The sub-
jects were community-dwelling healthy adults aged
65 years and over. Fifty-five subjects volunteered for
participation in the study. A medical health question-
naire, adapted from one developed by Amosun,
Burgess, Groenveldt, and Hodgson (2007) was used
to assess the suitability of subjects for inclusion in
the study. Any subjects under 65 years of age or with
medically unstable neurological conditions were
excluded from participation. Three subjects were
Copyright © Informa Healthcare USA, Inc.

excluded on the basis of age; therefore 52 subjects
were recruited and tested in total. Age, the use of
walking aids and the prevalence of disease was
documented. Subjects were given written and oral
information about the purpose, procedure, risks, and
benefits of participation in the study. Once subjects
fully understood the extent of their role in the
research, they were asked to sign a UCD approved
consent form declaring their understanding and con-
senting to participation.
Outcome measures
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Two primary questions were formulated in order to
achieve the aim of this study. The first question
addressed the walking speed of older adults. The
second question addressed the speed necessary to
safely clear a sample of pedestrian crossings.
The outcome measure used to address the first
question was the 10-meter walk test. Gait speed
measurements in healthy elderly adults have been
proven to have high intra-rater reliability (Bohannon,
1997) and high test–retest reliability (Steffen,
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Hacker, and Mollinger, 2002). Two investigators
were involved in data collection. The 10-meter walk
test was performed on a level surface with markings
at 1 meter intervals. This test was completed outdoors
in 2 day care centers and indoors in the remaining
center due to poor weather. A digital split-timer stop
watch was used to time the subjects as they walked
the stretch of 10 meters. A standard protocol for
measurement was adopted. Subjects were instructed
to walk at a “normal and comfortable” speed (Bohan-
non, 1997). Those who normally used a walking aid
were encouraged to use this during the test. Subjects
walked alone to prevent any bias, unless the research-
ers considered it unsafe (Steffen, Hacker, and Mollin-
ger, 2002). Subjects were instructed to commence
walking from a standing position, when an audible
cue was heard. This pre-recorded cue was similar to
the beeping signal at a pedestrian crossing. The stop-
watch was started when the audible cue was given. The
stop watch was split at 2.5 meters, as according to Lin-
demann et al (2008) older people take at least
2.5 meters to achieve steady-state walking. The stop-
watch was stopped when the participant crossed the
10 meter mark. A 2 meter lead-off was allocated to
allow subjects to decelerate. There were no distrac-
tions during the test in order to reduce any risk to par-
ticipants. This outcome measure did not incorporate a
step down at the beginning of the test because, of the
20 pedestrian crossings analyzed in the study, none of
them required pedestrians to step down to the cross-
ing. They all had gradual ramps.
Physiotherapy Theory and Practice
Physiotherapy Theory and Practice 145
In response to the second question, the authors
investigated the speed necessary to safely clear a
sample of pedestrian crossings. A total of 20 ped-
estrian crossings were identified within a 1 kilometer
radius of the day care centers in Kilkenny. The dis-
tance of each crossing was measured from curb to
curb using a trundle wheel (Amosun, Burgess,
Groenveldt, and Hodgson, 2007). The distance was
recorded in meters. A digital split-timer stop watch
was used to time the interval of the green and amber
light signals of each crossing.
Data analysis
The data were analyzed using the Statistical Package
for the Social Sciences version 15 for Windows and
Microsoft Excel Software. Descriptive analysis was
used to describe the participants of the study and the
characteristics of the pedestrian crossings (mean, stan-
dard deviation, minimum, and maximum).
RESULTS
A total of 52 adult were deemed suitable for
participation in this study. The characteristics of the
participants are presented in Table 2.
The mean acceleration of the 52 participants in the
initial 2.5 meters of the test was 0.20 ± 0.15 ms−2
(range: 0.01 – 0.67 ms−2). The mean steady-state
walking speed of the participants was 0.82 ±
0.27 ms−1 (range: 0.28 – 1.41 ms−1). Forty nine par-
ticipants (94.2%) had a steady-state walking speed of
less than 1.2 ms−1, the recommended minimum
walking speed at pedestrian crossings (Department
of Transport, 2003). These results are based on the
participants “normal and comfortable” walking
speed. Only three participants (5.7%: two males and
one female) walked faster than this recommended
minimum speed.
TABLE 2 Characteristics of the participants.
Average age (mean ± SD) 79.5 (±7.7) years
Gender, n (%)
Male 19 (36.5)
Female 33 (63.5)
Walking aid, n (%)
No 28 (54)
Walking stick 19 (36)
2 walking sticks 2 (4)
Rollator Zimmer frame 3 (6)
Note: Age, gender, and use of walking aids (n = 52).
 146 Bollard and Fleming
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FIGURE 1. Width of the pedestrian crossings.

TABLE 3 Timing of the pedestrian crossing light signals. these values, the required walking speed to safely
clear the crossings was calculated at 0.62 ±
Mean SD Minimum Maximum 0.21 ms−1 (range: 0.16 – 1.02 ms−1).
Assuming these participants were to start walking at
Green light signal (s) 8.19 2.08 3.98 11.83
the initial appearance of the green light signal on each
Amber light signal (s) 7.27 1.45 4.98 9.7
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Total time (s) 15.46 2.85 10.79 20.17

of these 20 pedestrian crossings, considering the dis-
tance of the crossing and the total time allotted, 6 of
Note: Time (s) of the green and amber light signals at pedestrian the 20 pedestrian crossings (30%) would not have per-
crossings (n = 20). mitted this sample of participants enough time to
safely walk to the other side of the road. If these
TABLE 4 Characteristics of the participants unable to complete participants had inadvertently started crossing at the
the crossing during the amber signal only. appearance of the amber light signal (entering the
crossing without a need for initial acceleration)
Total, n (%) 50 (96.15) considering the average distance of the pedestrian
crossings (9.29 meter) and allowing a time of
Average age (mean ± SD) 78.4 (±7.8) years 7.27 seconds (mean time of the amber light signal),
Gender, n (%)
Male 17 (34)
50 of the 52 participants (96.2%) would not have
Female 33 (66) had enough time to safely reach the other side of the
Walking aid, n (%) road. The characteristics of these 96.2% of partici-
No 27 (54) pants are described in Table 4.
Walking stick 18 (36)
2 walking sticks 2 (4)
Rollator Zimmer frame 3 (6) DISCUSSION
Health status, n (%)
History of stroke 10 (20)
This study aimed to investigate the walking speed of
History of heart disease 14 (28)
History of joint replacement 9 (18)
elderly adults and to determine if it allows the safe
Diabetes 7 (14) clearance of pedestrian crossings within a 1 kilometer
Hypertension 26 (52) radius of 4 day care centers in Kilkenny, Ireland.
Osteoporosis 14 (28) This present study found that 94.2% of participants
Cataract surgery 3 (6) had a steady-state walking speed less than the rec-
ommended minimum speed of 1.2 ms−1. These
results are of particular importance considering that
A total of 20 traffic-light-controlled pedestrian this is the recommended minimum walking speed on
crossings were analyzed in this study. The distance roads in Ireland, the USA, and the UK. The mean
of the crossings was measured in meters (Figure 1). steady-state walking speed of this group of participants
Table 3 illustrates the timing of the green and amber was 0.79 ± 0.25 ms−1 (range: 0.28 – 1.16 ms−1).
pedestrian light signals at the 20 crossings. From These results are in keeping with the findings of

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previous studies which are detailed in Table 1. In
2001, the US Department of Transportation
published ‘Guidelines and Recommendations to
Accommodate Older Drivers and Pedestrians”.
These recommend a walking speed of 0.85 ms−1 at
pedestrian crossings to accommodate older ped-
estrians (Staplin, Lococo, Byington, and Harkey,
2001). Despite this however; the minimum recom-
mended walking speed remains at 1.2 ms−1.
This study established that 30% of the pedestrian
crossings investigated would not have permitted this
sample of participants enough time for safe clearance
of the road given the time of the green signal, from a
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standing start, to the appearance of the red signal.
This was ascertained by comparing the mean time
taken by the participants to accelerate and walk the
remaining distance of each pedestrian crossing, to the
total time of the amber and green light signals. It
emerged that 6 of the total 20 pedestrian crossings did
not allow the participants sufficient time to safely clear
the road, considering the distance of the road, and the
average comfortable walking speed of the participants.
This is assuming that the participant starts walking at
the initial appearance of the green light signal. It takes
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into consideration their acceleration in the first
2.5 meter and their steady-state walking speed in the re-
maining distance individualized to each pedestrian
crossing. The mean total time of the amber and green
light signals of these six pedestrian crossings was
13.31 seconds and the mean distance of these crossings
was 11.52 meters. In light of this evidence, it seems that
a significant number of pedestrian crossings do not
allow sufficient time for elderly pedestrians to complete
crossing the roads at their normal and comfortable
walking speed in the vicinity of Kilkenny.
This study also reports that 96.2% of participants
would have been unable to cross a road of average
distance on the amber light signal alone. This was
established by comparing the mean time of the
amber light signals of the 20 pedestrian crossings
(7.27 seconds), to the time taken by each participant
(in the 10-meter walk test) to walk the average distance
of the pedestrian crossings (9.29 meters) at their
steady-state walking speed. This is assuming that the
participant crosses the road coinciding with the
appearance of the amber light signal, without a need
to accelerate but maintaining their normal and com-
fortable steady-state walking speed. It concluded that
50 of the total 52 participants took longer than
7.27 seconds to walk this distance. Only two partici-
pants would have had sufficient time to transverse
the crosswalk in this scenario. These participants
were two males; aged 80 and 87 years who took
6.60 and 7.09 seconds, respectively, to walk the
9.29 meters at their steady-state walking speed.
Physiotherapy Theory and Practice
Physiotherapy Theory and Practice 147
Possible reasons for this reduced gait speed in
elderly adults have been addressed. It is acknowledged
that pedestrians are not advised to commence walking
on the appearance of the amber light, but inevitably
some must inadvertently do so. However these
results illustrate the immense difficulty pedestrians
may have crossing the road if they do not commence
walking at the initial appearance of the green light
signal on roads in the vicinity of Kilkenny.
This work has found a serious road safety issue in
that the results show no standardization or uniformity
in relation to the time-aspect of the pedestrian cross-
ings. None of the 20 traffic-light-controlled pedestrian
crossings examined were in keeping with the rec-
ommendations of the “Traffic Management Guide-
lines” (Department of Transport, 2003). This is
similar to findings in Cape Town, South Africa
(Amosun, Burgess, Groenveldt, and Hodgson,
2007). For this reason, the results of this study cannot
be generalized to all Irish or European roads but they
are limited to those in the vicinity of Kilkenny,
Ireland; however, the lack of uniformity in this sample
of crossings, in itself, perhaps indicates a lack of stan-
dardization of timing of crossings may be a wider road
safety issue that requires further research. The exclu-
sion criterion for the study was kept to a minimum,
without risking the safety of the participants. It was
hoped that this would enable the walking speed
results to be generalized and to be representative of
the elderly population at large, however, the lack of uni-
formity both precludes this and indicates there is a
serious road safety issue to be addressed.
The findings of this study help to disclose the safety of
elderly, day care center attendees on pedestrian cross-
ings. The prevention of this problem demands a multi-
disciplinary approach, with physiotherapy as one such
discipline. These findings are relevant clinically and
should have a bearing on the physiotherapy profession
with regards to the rehabilitation of elderly commu-
nity-dwelling adults. Robinett and Vondran (1988)
highlighted that ambulation distances and velocities
vary depending on the size of the community or environ-
ment. They found that the distances and velocities re-
quired for independent ambulation in the community
are often greater than objectives set at most rehabilitation
settings. This must be taken into consideration by clini-
cians. The effectiveness of exercise programs at improv-
ing gait speed in the elderly is evident from various
studies (Chandler, Duncan, Kochersberger, and Stu-
denski, 1998; Lopopolo et al, 2006).
There are several limitations within this study that
must be acknowledged. The sample size and the
geographic area of study were quite small. This study
analyzed a smaller number of participants compared
to previous publications. Future studies should
 148 Bollard and Fleming
further investigate this concept using more locations
and larger sample sizes with the aim of providing
more precise data. This study required participants to
walk on a level surface, with no obstacles or distrac-
tions. Different factors influence the walking speed of
pedestrians. These aforementioned factors were not
taken into account in this study. Amosun, Burgess,
Groenveldt, and Hodgson (2007) reported a similar
limitation in their study. Further studies should con-
sider these facts while ensuring the safety of partici-
pants. The participants of this study were analyzed
while walking at a normal and comfortable walking
speed. Therefore, it is not known if the participants
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would be able to clear the pedestrian crossings, given
the timeframe, at a maximum safe walking speed.
This is another limitation that warrants attention.
The authors also recognize the importance of eval-
uating additional outcome measures. An assessment
of balance, muscle performance, and strength would
contribute to the findings of this study. The results
of this study cannot be generalized to all elderly com-
munity-dwelling adults as it focused on day care
center attendees and this population may not be a
fair representation of non-attendees. This present
For personal use only.
study however goes beyond previous studies in this
field, in that it took into account the period of accel-
eration and the subsequent steady-state walking
speed of participants. The variable acceleration
phase can therefore be analyzed separately and con-
tributes valuable information that may help in the
design of pedestrian crossings.
CONCLUSION
This investigation suggests that the recommended
minimum gait speed for pedestrian crossings does
not give sufficient time for many elderly adults to
safely complete crossing the road. It found that a sub-
stantial number of elderly adults are unable to cross
the road given the current time permitted. The
results of this study raise questions about the safety
of elderly pedestrians on our roads.
Declaration of interest: The authors report no
conflicts of interest. The authors alone are responsible
for the content and writing of the paper.
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