PHYSICS: COURSE MATERIAL 1
Calculations
MEASURING UNITS
Significant Figures
Different measurement devices have different
levels of uncertainty due to their limitation of their
measurement capabilities. In science, we
compensate with the different accuracies by noting
significant figures (sig. fig. or s.f.) of the
measurement values and their calculations.
Significant figures in the measurement reading
consist of all known/certain digit plus one
uncertain/estimated digit (Ilao et. al., 2016).
Rules in Evaluating Significant Figures.
1.All nonzero digits are ALWAYS significant.
Examples: 274 - 3 sig. fig.
25.632 - 5 sig. fig.
2. All zeros between significant digits (captive)
are ALWAYS significant.
Example: 1.008 has 4 significant figures
3. Leading zeroes before all the nonzero digits
DO NOT count as significant figures.
Example: 0.0025 mL has 2 s.f.
4. All FINAL/TRAILING zeros to the right of the
decimal ARE significant.
Example: 105.0020 has 7 s.f. 100 has 1 s.f.
5.All zeros that act as place holders are NOT
significant. Example: 320 (place holder: ones
place) 0.025 (place holder: ones, tenths place)
Rules in Finding Significant Figures in
What is the sum of 20.5, 200.5, 9.756 and
9.00009?
If our final answer should be 239.5, what rule/s
regarding significant figures can we infer from
the calculation?
1. Rule for Addition and Subtraction
Calculations: Round the calculated answer so
that it contains the same number of decimal
places as the measurement with the least
number of decimal places (LNDP)
What is the area of the rectangle with 14 units width
and 25.056 length?
Solution: 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 = 𝑙 × 𝑤
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 = 14 𝑢 × 25.056 𝑢
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 = 350.784 𝑠𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠 ≈ 350 𝑠𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠 (2
sig fig)
What rule can we infer from the calculation?
2. Rule for Multiplication and Division
Calculations: Round the calculated answer so
that it contains the same number of significant
figure as the measurement with the least number
of significant figures (LNSF).
Note: In considering significant figures always
round up numbers after calculations, not in
between calculations.
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 How many significant figures are there in the
When rounding off numbers: following values or final answers for
• If the digit following the last significant digit is 0 calculations?
to 4, drop the non-significant digit/s on the right
and leave the remaining digit unchanged. 1. 7.5000 m
• If the digit following the last significant digit is 5 2. 0.0040 km
to 9, round up the last significant digit and drop 3. 10.0340 g + 0.003874g
the non-significant digit/s on the right. 4. 23.567 moles ÷ 1.26 L
Convert the following from numbers/decimal to
Scientific Notation scientific notation and vice-versa.

In science, some values can be too large to be 1. 2,400,000 u g

written out. For example, one mole of carbon 2. 0.00256 kg
atom is equal to 602 000 000 000 000 000 000
000 carbon atoms. Such long values need to be 3. 7 x 10-5 km
shortened with the use of exponential/scientific
4. 6.2 x 104 mm
notation.
Guidelines:
1. Move decimal point until there is a single digit to
its left. Include all significant digits based on the
number so significant values
Two ways of writing scientific notation

2. Add “ x 10n” where n will represent how many
time you move the decimal places until you reach a
number with single digit on the left. Take note that
the value of n will be positive if you move the
decimal point to the left, while value of n will be
negative if you move the decimal to the right.
(see figure 5 for comparison)
3. In converting back from scientific notation to
decimal notation/number, you need to reverse back
the movement of decimal places (see figure 6).
Measurement
-Is the assignment of a numerical value to an
object’s physical property such as Length, Volume,
Density and etc. - In measurement, we also need to
assign units to the numerical quantity to convey the
relative magnitude of the property.
What is unit of measure?
- Unit of measure is a standardized amount of
various physical quantities.
- SI System (System international) is international
system of measure.
Physical Quantities
All measurable quantities are called physical
quantities, and there are two types of physical
quantities which are:

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Fundamental Physical Quantities are quantities
which are independent on other physical quantity.
Derived Physical Quantities Derived units are
those which depend on the fundamental units or
which can be expressed in terms of the
fundamental units.
The S.I unit for derived quantities are combinations
of two or more fundamental quantities
Notice that the formula for speed consists of
fundamental
quantities like Distance and Time which proved that
speed is a derived quantity base on definition.
System of Measurement
Used in the process of associating numbers with
physical quantities and phenomena.
Metric System - The metric system uses the
fundamental quantities Length, Mass and Volume,
here are some examples of prefixes to understand
it.
In the metric system, each basic type of
measurement (length, mass, volume) has one
basic unit of measure (meter, gram, liter).
Conversions are quickly made by multiplying or
dividing by factors of 10. It is as simple as moving
the decimal point to the right (for smaller prefixes)
or to the left (for larger prefixes).
For instance, if we convert 2.5 kilometer to meter it
will be 2,500 meters
Notice that the meter is three places to the right of
the prefix kilo so we just move the decimal place
three times to get 2,500 meters.
Another example is if we convert 15 centigrams to
decagram the answer would be 0.015 decagrams
Since we are converting centigram to decagram,
notice that the prefix deca is on the left side of
centi, so we moved the decimal places three times
to get 0.015 decagrams.
English System
In English system, they are using different base
units than the metric system, here are some
examples of the most commonly used:
While the Metric System simply moves the decimal
point to convert between its measurements'
prefixes, the English System requires a conversion
ratio (or unit factor) to move between
measurements.
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In Metric system we are just moving the decimal
places or multiplying and dividing by a factor of 10.
While, in English system we are using conversion
ratios.
Examples: Convert 48 inches into feet.
Remember, 1 foot = 12 inches so,
the answer is 4 feet
2. Convert 16 tons to pounds
Again, 1 ton = 2000 pounds, you can
refer in the table earlier. The answer
is 32,000 pounds or 32,000 lbs.
3. Convert 2 miles to inches.
Before we convert, remember that the conversion
in the table we have is miles to feet or miles to
yards only but we need to convert it to inches so,
Notice that after we converted miles to feet, we
need to convert it again from feet to inches. The
answer is 126, 720 inches.
English to Metric conversion and vice versa.
1.A car is traveling at a rate of 25 meters per
second. How fast is it traveling in inches per
minute? Given: 25 m/s
Unknown: ? inch/min
We know that 1m = 100cm, we converted meter to
cm first because we don’t have a conversion from
meter to inches directly. Then we converted it again
into inches and note that we need to convert also
the time to minute and in 1min there are 60
seconds. The answer is 59,055.12 in/min
PHYSICS: COURSE MATERIAL 2
VECTORS
Introduction to Vectors
From the previous course materials, you learn how
to measure unknown physical quantity by comparing
it to a known and standard quantity. These physical
quantities can be classified as either fundamental
quantity or derived quantity. Aside from that
classification, all physical quantities can also be
classified as scalar or vector quantity.
A scalar quantity has only magnitude.
Example of a scalar quantity are distance, speed,
mass, temperature, and volume. When a scalar
quantity is combined with a direction, it becomes
a vector quantity. So, we say that vector quantity
has both magnitude and direction. Examples are
displacement, velocity, and weight.
Speed is an example of a scalar quantity since it
only shows the magnitude or how fast an object is
moving. Let us say that an object is moving 25 kph.
However, if we include a direction to it, it becomes a
vector quantity. Say, the object is moving 25 kph to
the north. Then, we have now a velocity.
Another example is distance and displacement.
We say that the object moves from the initial point to
the terminal point by 15 meters. That is an example
of distance. But, when we say that the object moves
15 meters southeast from the initial point to the
terminal point, it now has a vector quantity which is
displacement.
Speed and distance are scalar quantities that
gives only the magnitude, while velocity and
displacement are vector quantities (or vectors)
that gives the magnitude and direction.
In physics, we don’t use up, down, left, and right as
directions because they are relative points. Instead,
we use directions determine by compass, like north,
south, east, and west. We can also use specific
degree measure using a compass combining it with
the four cardinal points of directions.
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 Graphical Representation of Vector Quantities
Vector quantities can also be called vectors. A
capital letter with an arrow on top will be used to
represent a vector. For example, if we write, it
reads as “vector 𝐴”. Graphically, a vector will be
represented by an arrow. The length of the arrow,
from the tip of the arrow to the tail, represents the
magnitude. Then, the direction where the arrow
points represent the direction of the vector.
Represent the following vectors.
a.) A = 5 km, north
b.) B = 3.5 km, 45 south of east
c.) C = 4,350 m, 55 north of west
Solutions:
For items a, b, and c, we will use the scale given by
1 𝑘𝑚 ∶ 1 𝑐𝑚
a.) Using the scale above, the arrow that will
represent vector A should be 5 cm. Start with a
cartesian plane, where the axes represented the
cardinal directions. From the origin, we will draw an
arrow with a length if 5 cm pointing to the north.
Thus, we have

Steps on Representing Vectors Graphically

1.) Choose a convenient scale to transform the

actual vector to a vector to fit in the drawing.
2.) Calculate the length of the vector using the
scale in Step 1.
3.) Draw a cartesian axes where the axes represent
the cardinal directions; north, south, east, and west.
4.) From the origin, draw the arrow with the b.) The vector B is an arrow of length 3.5 cm based
calculated length in Step 2. Also, consider the on the scale mentioned earlier. The vector has a
direction of the vector and draw the arrow pointing direction of 45 south of east. To represent that, we
at the given direction. Make sure that the arrow has will measure an angle of measure 45 where the
darker lines than the coordinate axes. initial side is on east and going to south. So, we
5.) Label the vector and indicate the angle given in have
the direction.

c.)

The given length of the vector is in meters.

We need to convert it first to kilometers to use the
scale we have.

Note that in measuring the angle of direction of the

vector, we always start with either east or west as
the initial side, going to either north or south,
forming an acute angle. So we say that the angle is
north/south of east/west. Refer to items b and c for
examples.

Examples:
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So, using our scale, the representation of vector C
is 4.35 cm. Next is to measure a 55° from the west
going to the north. We have,
8.) Measure the length of vector 𝑅⃗ and
calculate the actual measurement using the
scale in Step 1.
9.) With the help of a protractor, measure the
acute angle formed from the horizontal line of
the resultant vector, and identify its direction
using the cardinal directions.

Examples:
Find the resultant of the following vectors by using
the polygon method.
A =10 km, 25 south of east
B = 4.5 km, north
C = 7 km, 70 north of west

Vector Addition Solution

Two or more vectors can be added or subtracted.
The result of this operation is called a resultant
vector. This process is used to determine the result
of applying several vector quantities in one
situation. For example, if we apply two or more
force to a steady object, where will the object be
displaced.
There are two methods in finding the resultant
vector: graphical method and analytical method.

Graphical Method
One method in solving a resultant vector is using
the graphical method or also called polygon
method. This method draws the vectors connected
to each other. Then, the resultant vector is drawn to
close it to form a polygon structure. b.)
A = 5 N, 15 south of west
Steps in Polygon method B = 8.5 N, 45 north of west
1.) Choose a convenient scale for the graphical C = 7 N, 40 north of east
representation of the vectors. D = 9.3 N, east
2.) Draw a cartesian axes that represents the
cardinal directions. Solution:
3.) Draw the first vector starting from the origin.
4.) At the tip of the first vector, draw another
cartesian axes that will represent the cardinal
N stands for Newton. It is the unit used for force. It
directions for the second vector.
will be discussed in the next course materials.
5.) The second vector will be drawn starting from
the tip of the first.
6.) Then, connect all the rest of the vectors head-
to-tail.
7.) Once all vectors are connected, draw the
resultant vector 𝑅⃗ such as the tail of the first
vector will be the tail of the resultant vector, and
the head of the last vector will be the head of
the
resultant vector.

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By measuring the length of the resultant vector, and
the angle formed the horizontal line going up, we 2.) Add all the x components and y components.
The sums Σ 𝑥 and Σ 𝑦 will be the 𝑥 component and
have the ff 𝑦 component of the resultant vector, respectively.

Analytical Method 3.) Using Pythagorean theorem, solve for the

magnitude of the resultant vector.
In analytical method, we are solving the resultant
vectors
using mathematical concepts. In here, we will use
the
component method. In this method, we will use 4.) To find the angle of the resultant vector, we use
trigonometry to solve for the 𝑥 and 𝑦 components of
the given vectors.

Steps in Component Method

n
1.) Solve the 𝑥 and 𝑦 component of a given vector
using 5.) The direction of the angle depends on the signs of the
trigonometry. component of the resultant vector.

Examples:
Find the resultant of the following vectors by using
the
component method.
a.)
A =10 km, 25 south of east
B = 4.5 km, north
To determine the sign of each component, make C = 7 km, 70 north of west
sure consider the direction of the resultant vector. Note that we already solve the following problems
using the polygon method. We will show that we

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will get the same answer of we use the analytical method. Nevertheless, if the difference is relatively
method. small, then both answers are similar.

Solutions: b.)
a.) We can use a table to organize the solution to A = 5 N, 15 south of west
our problem B = 8.5 N, 45 north of west
C = 7 N, 40 north of east
D = 9.3 N, east Using a table, we have

The 𝑥 component and 𝑦 component of the vector A

is positive and negative respectively because its
direction is pointing to the 3rd quadrant. Its direction
is pointing to the south of east.
Similarly, the components of C are negative and
positive respectively because it points to the north of
west, which is the 2nd quadrant.
Why is the 𝑥 component of vector B is 0 and the 𝑦
component is positive? Where is it pointing in the
cartesian plane?

Solve for the magnitude. Lastly, solve for the angle and direction of the
resultant vector.
Since both components are
positive, the resultant vector is
given by
Lastly, solve for the angle and direction of the
resultant vector.

Since both components are

positive, the resultant vector is
given by
The magnitude and angle solved from graphical
and analytical may have a difference in values due
to some errors. These errors should be relatively
small since it is due to round off errors, or even
errors in measuring the vectors using graphical
Vector Subtraction
In subtracting a vector, we simply get the negative
of the vector and proceed in adding it to the other
vector.
The negative of a vector in a graphical
representation is the vector opposite to it. For
example, define vector 𝐴 as

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 B

When subtracting a vector in analytical method, get

the components of the given vectors, then get the
negative of the components of the subtrahend
vector. Lastly, proceed to addition of the
components as what is done in the component
method.

PHYSICS: COURSE MATERIAL 3

a.) polygon method
Kinematics is the study of motion, without any
b.) component method
reference to the forces that cause the motion. It
basically means studying how things are moving, not
why they're moving. It includes concepts such as
distance or displacement, speed or velocity, and
acceleration, and it looks at how those values vary
over time.
Scalar and Vector Quantities
Scalar Quantity – is a quantity that is fully
described by a magnitude/size only.
Vector Quantity – is a quantity that is both
described by magnitude/size and direction.

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Distance and Displacement Distance
Distance is the total movement of an object without
any regard to direction. We can define distance as
to how much ground an object has covered despite
its starting or ending point.
Displacement is defined as the change in position
of an object. It is a vector quantity and has a
direction and magnitude. The arrow is pointing to the left because Mary
travels to the west 30m then south which is pointing
Distance is a scalar quantity and it’s the total path
downwards 100m. “∆s”or “delta s” is for
traveled by an object. Displacement is a vector
displacement which is the red line.
quantity and it’s the shortest distance between final
position and initial position of an object For distance we just need to get the total which is
130m. For displacement, notice that it looks like a
triangle now and we are missing the value of delta
s. which means we can use the Pythagorean

theorem.
So, the net displacement would be 104.30m.

Examples: Calculate the total distance and Speed and Velocity

displacement if an object travels 15 miles east
Speed is a scalar quantity that refers to "how fast
and 5 miles west
an object is moving."
Velocity is a vector quantity that refers to "the rate
at which an object changes its position."

To get the distance, you simply add or get the total.

For displacement, notice that 5 miles is negative. It
is because the direction is going to the left.
Distance is always positive and Displacement can
be positive or negative. Examples: A car travels a distance of 400 miles
Mary wants to buy candy bars, she travels 30m in 5 hours. What is the average speed of the
west and then 100m south to buy candy bars at car?
a convenience store. How far did Mary traveled
and what is her net displacement?

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Given: 400 miles, 5hours.

The reason 5m is negative is it’s pointing to west

and 40 m is pointing to south and velocity is
displacement over time. So, for our average
The answer is 80 mph or 80 miles per hour
velocity it’s -0.05 m/s.
A truck is traveling with an average speed of
Negative sign or positive sign in velocity indicates
50m/s, how many kilometers will it travel in 4
it’s direction.
hours?
Given: 5 hours – time 50 m/s – average speed
distance = ?

For average speed, remember it’s distance over

time. So our average speed would be 0.25m/s
Acceleration
Acceleration, rate at which velocity changes with
time, in terms of both speed and direction. A point
or an object moving in a straight line is accelerated
if it speeds up or slows down. To get the average

acceleration:

The answer is 720 km distance travelled in 4 hours

A dog runs 30m to the east to eat a bone. Then
Example: A truck accelerates from 20 m/s to 45
it walks 5m to the west. Finally, it walks for
m/s in 5 seconds. Calculate the average
another 35m to the west to eat another bone.
acceleration of the truck.
The total time taken by the dog was 300
seconds. What was the dog’s average velocity
and average speed over this time?
Given: 30 m to the
east
5 m to the west
40 m to the west We just substitute all of the values in the formula,
300 seconds so the acceleration is 𝟓𝒎/ .

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A car accelerates from initial speed of 10 m/s at
a constant acceleration rate of 1.5 𝑚/𝑠 2 . What
is the final speed of the car after 20 seconds?
Given

Then we will derive the formula to get the Final

Velocity

Notice that it mentions “an object was dropped”

meaning, the object started at 0 velocity. And since
the object is going down, we can use acceleration
due to gravity which is −9.8 m/𝑠 2

We moved the initial velocity so we can get the final
velocity. Final Velocity is 40 m/s.
Free-fall motion
A free-falling object is an object that is falling under
the sole influence of gravity. Any object that is
being acted upon only by the force of gravity is said
to be in a state of free fall. These are the formulas
that may be useful in free-fall motion.
Remember that
negative or positive
signs indicate it’s
direction.
The negative sign means it is falling on negative
direction or falling down like in negative y-axis.
Height of the building is 78.4m.
A rock is thrown downward at an initial speed
of 10 m/s from the top of a cliff. What is the final
speed and velocity of the rock 5 seconds later?

EXAMPLE: So, let’s say for example that an object

was dropped from the top of the building. The time
to hit the bottom is 4 seconds, what is the height of
the building?

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And what is the displacement of the rock?
PHYSICS: COURSE MATERIAL 4
Newton’s Law of Motion
In kinematics, motion can be described using
words, graphs, diagrams, numbers, etc., without
identifying what causes the motion.
Isaac Newton explained why objects move or do
not move as they do by using his laws of motion in
the branch of mechanics called dynamics. These
laws came to be known as Newton’s laws of
motion and are included in Newton’s book
Principia.
Newton’s Laws of Motion
• First Law of Motion: Law of Inertia
• Second Law of Motion: Law of Acceleration
• Third Law of Motion: Law of Interaction
Newton’s First Law of Motion: LAW OF INERTIA
An object at rest stays at rest and an object in
motion stays in motion with the same speed and in
the same direction unless acted upon by an
unbalanced force.
The law of inertia explains that all objects resist
change to their state of motion and that this
resistance, called inertia, is an intrinsic property of
matter. Inertia explains why passengers in a vehicle
tend to move backward when the vehicle suddenly
moves forward and why they move forward when it
suddenly stops. Because of inertia, headrests are
placed in cars to prevent whiplash injuries during
accidents.
Mass (m) - The measure of inertia is mass. The
more the massive an object is, the greater is its
inertia, in the lesser the mass of an object, the
lesser is its inertia. Its unit of measurement is in
kilogram (kg).
Weight (w) - It is the force applied by the object
due to its mass and the pull of the gravity (g = −9.8
m/s^2). Its unit of measurement is in newton
N.w = mg
(weight is equal to the product of mass X gravity)
Force - When an object is at rest, the forces acting
on it are balanced, making the object’s velocity
equal to zero. The kicking of a ball at rest and the
batting of baseball are examples of influences that
change the velocity of an object. On the other hand,
a falling object that is caught and a ball bouncing
off a wall are also affected by influences that
change either the magnitude or the direction of the
object’s velocity. These influences are referred to
as forces.
F = ma (force is equal to mass X acceleration)
A force is either a push or a pull. When a force is
directly applied to a body, the force is a contact
force.
Examples of Contact Forces:
• Tension (T) – force that the string exerts on an
object to which it is attached.
• Normal Force (n) – it is a force perpendicular to
the surface of contact.
• Frictional Force (f) – resistance to the motion
because of the interactions between the body and
the surface.
A force that can act through empty space, are
called non-contact forces. Examples are
gravitational force and electromagnetic force.
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Force is a vector quantity, and it is expressed in
newtons (N). One newton is equal to 1 kg ∙ m/s^
An object in which all forces acting on it are
balanced is in equilibrium, a condition necessary to
make an object stay at rest or move at a constant
speed in one direction. When a body in in
equilibrium, the vector sum of the forces acting on it
is equal to zero. The components of the resultant
force are also equal to zero. It means that a zero
resultant force is equivalent to no force at all. This
is the first condition of equilibrium.
Newton’s Second Law of Motion: LAW OF
ACCELERATION
The acceleration of an object is directly
proportional to the magnitude of the net force, in
the same direction as the net force, and inversely
proportional to the mass of the object.
Let us say that acceleration is denoted by a, and
the mass is denoted by m. Also, we know that
forces may come from different sources, in different
directions around the object, so we say that it can
be written as ∑ F.
Following the second law of motion, we have the
following relations.

Summary: Units of Force and Mass

Law of Inertia focuses on balanced force. That it The SI unit of force is the newton. When 1 newton
says that an object will stay at rest if there is a of force is applied to an object that has a mass of 1
balanced force, or an object will continue to move kg, it will produce an acceleration of 1 m/s^2 in the
at a constant motion if there is a balanced force. object. Using the Newton’s second law, the
In terms of summation of forces, a balanced force definition of newton is given as
means that the value of the resultant force around
the object is what? The summation of all forces
around the object is zero.
If the first law focuses on balanced force, the
second law of motion focuses on unbalanced force.
What happens to an object with an unbalanced
A negative value of the force means a retarding
force around it?
force or a breaking force, which means that the
The object at rest will move, and the object at next force applied is opposite of the object’s
motion may stop or move in a different velocity and direction.
direction.
Units of Mass, Acceleration, and Force
If there is a motion, then there is an acceleration.
What are the different factors that may affect
acceleration of an object?

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Newton’s Third Law of Motion: LAW OF ACTION As we all know, a rifle recoils when fired. This recoil
& REACTION is the result of action-reaction force pairs. A
gunpowder explosion creates hot gases that
For every action there is an equal and opposite
expand outward allowing the rifle to push forward
reaction.
on the bullet. Because of the third law of motion,
If an object A exerts a force on object B, then object the rifle pushes the bullet forward while the bullet
B must exert a force of equal magnitude and pushes the rifle backward that causes a recoil.
opposite direction back on object A. Which of the two has a higher acceleration, the
bullet or the rifle? The bullet since it has a smaller
This law represents a certain symmetry in nature: mass than the rifle.
forces always occur in pairs, and one body cannot
exert a force on another without experiencing a If an object A exerts a force on object B, then object
force itself. We sometimes refer to this law loosely B must exert a force of equal magnitude and
as action-reaction, where the force exerted is the opposite direction back on object A.
action and the force experienced therefore is the Mathematically, we say that
reaction.
If you look in the image, a
person pushing the wall
exerts an action force to wall
(which is the red arrow) but,
at the same time the wall
imparts a reaction force
opposite to it bringing it to a
stop. These forces are equal
in length and opposite in
directions. Stationary
objects such as walls and
floors can exert force by
push or pull.
A variety of action-reaction force pairs are evident in
nature. Consider a fish swimming through the water.
A fish uses its fins to push water backwards. So, if
the fish push the water backwards, how come it
swims forward? Since the action is that the fish push
the water backward, the reaction is the water pushes
the fish in the opposite direction. The higher the
force the fish exerts in pushing the water, a same
and equal force is push by the water to the fish.
While driving down the road, a firefly strikes the
windshield of a bus and makes an obvious mess in
front of the bus. This is a case of Newton's third law
of motion. The firefly hit the bus and the bus hits the
firefly. Which of the two forces is greater: the force
on the firefly or the force on the bus? Each force is
the same size. For every action, there is an equal
and opposite reaction. The fact that the firefly
splatters only means that with its smaller mass, it is
less able to withstand the larger acceleration
resulting from the interaction.
THE BOOK LOUNGE PH | 15