SFSACADEMY

CBSE AFFILIATION NO– (830745)

DEPARTMENTOFSOCIALSCIENCE

NOTESOFLESSON

GRADE:9

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Geography

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 CHAPTER – 1
INDIA – SIZE AND LOCATION

1. India - Size and Extent

a. India is 7th largest country in the world. It has an area of 3.28 million square km.
It accounts for 2.4% of the world’s total area.
b. India has a land frontier of 15,200 km.
c. India has a coastline of 7,516.6 km including the Andaman and Nicobar Islands
and the Lakshadweep Islands.
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 d. Its latitudinal extent is 8⁰ 4’ N to 37⁰ 6’ N and longitudinal extent is 68⁰7’ E and
97⁰ 25’E.

2. Importance of Standard Meridian

Or
Explain why 82⁰ 30’E an odd value has been chosen as the standard meridian of
India.

 The longitudinal extent of India is 68⁰7’ E and 97⁰ 25’E.

 The degree of longitude of Standard Meridian of India is 82⁰ 30’E, which passes
through Mirzapur i.e., the centre of India. This enables us to overcome the time
difference of 2 hours of time between Gujarat to Arunachal Pradesh. It is
considered as Indian standard time[IST].
 To avoid time gap of two hours between east and west part of India which may
create confusion in working, it is essential to have a Standard Meridian.

3. “Duration of day and night is hardly felt at Kanyakumari but not so in

Kashmir.” Justify

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 The difference between the duration of day and night hardly felt at Kanyakumari
but not so in Kashmir are respectively due to their latitudinal locations.
 Kanyakumari is located closer to the equator i.e. 8⁰ away[towards North] from
the Equator.
 It receives maximum sunlight and experiences a minimum gap between day and
night. On the other hand, Kashmir lies further away from the Equator and
experiences a significant gap between the duration of day and night.
4. “The sun rises two hours earlier in Arunachal Pradesh as compared to Gujarat in
the west but the watches show the same time.” Discuss
Or
There is two hour time difference in local time between Arunachal Pradesh and
Gujarat.

 From the longitudinal extent of India it is observed that the longitudinal expanse
is about 30⁰ from west to east. This means that there would be a time-lag of two
hours approximately from Gujarat to Arunachal Pradesh.
 To avoid such differences in local time, Indian standard time has been fixed to
give the whole country a uniform time.

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 The local time of the Standard Meridian of 82⁰ 30’E is observed as the Standard
Time by the whole country.
Because of this reason we find that the sun rises two hours earlier in Arunachal
Pradesh as compared to Gujarat in the west but the watches show the same time.
5. India as a subcontinent

 A subcontinent is a distinctive geographical unit which stands out distinctively

from rest of the region because of its large size, varied climates, varied relief etc.
 Countries that make up the Indian subcontinent are – India at the centre,
Pakistan in the west, Nepal and China [Tibet] in the north, Bhutan and Bangladesh
in the east.
 India is different from other countries of Asia with regard to the geographical
location, climatic condition, natural vegetation and culture..
6. The central location of India at the head of the Indian Ocean is considered of
great significance.
Or

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 “Our country has cultural linkage with entire Asian countries through the ages”-
Explain the statement
The central location of India at the head of the Indian Ocean is considered of great
significance because:
a) The Indian landmass has a central location between East and West Asia.India is a
southward extension of the Asian continent.
b) It has given India a strategic advantage due to the Trans Indian ocean routes
which connect the countries of Europe in the West and the countries of East Asia.
c) This helps India to establish close contact with West Asia, Africa and Europe from
the Western coast and with the Southeast and East Asia from the Eastern coast.
d) The vast coastline and the natural harbours have benefitted India in carrying out
trade and commerce with its neighbouring and distant countries since ancient
times.
e) It has given India a distinct climate than the rest of the Asian Continent.
f) No other country has such a long coastline on the Indian Ocean as India. It is
India’s eminent position in the Indian Ocean which has given the name of an Ocean
after it.

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 7. India’s relation with the world.

 India’s contacts with the World have continued through the ages but her
relationships through the land routes are much older than her maritime/sea
contacts.
 The various passes across the mountains in the north have provided passages to
the ancient travellers, while the oceans restricted such interaction for a long time.
 These routes have contributed in the exchange of ideas and commodities since
ancient times.
 The ideas of the Upanishads and the Ramayana, the stories of Panchtantra, the
Indian numerals and the decimal system thus could reach many parts of the
world.
 The spices, muslin and other merchandise were taken from India to different
countries.

 On the other hand, the influence of Greek sculpture, and the architectural styles
of dome and minarets from West Asia can be seen in different parts of our
country.
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8. Define:
a. Strait – It is a narrow stretch of water which separates two land masses
e.g. the Palk strait.
b. Bay – It is a body of water connected to an ocean or lake formed by an
indentation of the shoreline larger than a cove/inlet but smaller than a
gulf.

HOME WORK QUESTIONS

1. The sun rises two hours earlier in Arunachal Pradesh as compared to Gujarat in
the west but the watches show the same time. How does this happen?
2. The central location of India at the head of the Indian Ocean is considered of
great significance. Why?
3. Describe briefly the geographic location of India in Asia. What is the significance
of India’s geographic location?

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4. Why is the difference in the duration of day and night very little in
Kanniyakumari while it is not so in the northern part of the country? Give
specific reasons for your answer
5. Identify the following and locate the same on the political outline map of India.
[any 6]

(i) The island groups of India lying in the Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal.
(ii) The countries constituting Indian subcontinent.
(iii) The states through which the Tropic of Cancer passes.
(iv) The northernmost latitude in degrees.
(v) The southernmost latitude of the Indian mainland in degrees.
(vi) The eastern and the western most longitude in degrees.
(vii) The place situated on the three seas.
(viii) The strait separating Sri Lanka from India.
(ix) The Union Territories of India.

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 CHAPTER – 2
PHYSICAL FEATURES OF INDIA

1. The Theory of Plate Tectonics:

A plausible theory presented by earth scientists to explain the formation of

continents and ocean basins and the various landforms is the ‘Theory of Plate

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Tectonics’. According to the theory, the crust of the earth has been formed out of
seven major and some minor tectonic plates.

According to the earth scientists, millions of years ago, the world comprised of a
supercontinent ‘Pangaea’ surrounded by the primeval ocean ‘Panthalasa’. The
present continents and intervening oceans were formed due to splitting of the crust
into plates due to convection currents and drifting of these plates.

2. The volcanoes and earthquake zones in the world:

Most volcanoes and earthquake zones in the world are located at plate margins.
According to the ‘Theory of Plate Tectonics’ presented by earth scientists, the crust
of the earth has been formed out of seven major and some minor plates.

The movement of these plates due to convection currents results in the building up
of stresses within the plates and continental rocks above. This leads to folding,
faulting and volcanic activity along the zones of maximum stress, i.e., mostly along
the margins of the plates. Earthquake and volcanic activity are maximum here. The

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circum-Pacific region – popularly termed as the Pacific Ring of Fire on account of its
volcanoes and frequent earthquakes – lies along the margin of tectonic plates.

3. Formation of Himalayas:

Geologists claim that a sea was located where the Himalayas now stand. Internal
and external changes of Earth’s crust occurred. It is said that one of the crustal
plates, called the Indo- Australian plate, separated from the super-continent
named Gondwanaland. It drifted slowly towards the north to collide with the
Eurasian plate five million years ago. The northern edge of the Indo-Australian
plate was pushed beneath the Eurasian plate. The Indian Peninsula drifted
towards the north and finally collided with the much larger Eurasian Plate. As a
result of this collision, the sedimentary rocks which were accumulated in the
geosynclines (known as Tethys) got folded and formed the mountain systems of
the West Asia and Himalaya.

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 4. Central Highlands:

The northern division of the Peninsular Plateau lying to the north of the Narmada
River covering a major area of the Malwa Plateau lying in Madhya Pradesh is known
as the Central Highlands. There are rolling plains separated by flat-topped hills. The
plateau is largely broken in form of ravines near the Chambal Valley in its east. The
Vindhayas and its eastern extensions divide the Central Highlands from the Deccan
Plateau in the southern side. In its west lies the rocky desert of Rajasthan, in the
north-west it is bounded by the Aravalis, in the north lays the Gangetic Plain and in
the east it is surrounded by part of UP and south Bihar. Most part of the Central
Highlands consists of the Malwa Plateau and the Chhotanagpur Plateau. The
eastward extensions are known as the BundelkhandandBaghelkhand.

5. Short note on the Purvanchal Himalayas:

The eastern hills and mountains of the Himalayas running along the eastern
boundary of India are known as Purvanchal. They are located in the northeastern
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states of India. The river Brahmaputra marks the easternmost boundary of the
Himalayas. Beyond the Dibang gorge, the Himalayas bend sharply to the south and
spread along India’s eastern border. They are known as Purvanchal. They run
mostly as parallel ranges with valleys in between. They are mostly composed of
strong sandstone, a sedimentary rock. The Purvanchal are less spectacular than the
Himalayas and are of medium height. The hills and ranges are covered with dense
forests.
Some important hills of the Purvanchal are:
(i) The Patkai Bum and Naga hills
(ii) The Mizo hills and Manipur hills
(iii) The Garo, Khasi and Jaintia hills along Meghalaya-Bangladesh border.
(iv) TheDafla hills in the north.

6. Famous passes of Himalayas.

The passes are a natural pathway in between high mountains. The Himalayan
Mountains are so formidable that it is not possible to cross them. There are some
passes in the Himalayas which provide route-way across them. Some of the
important passes are:
 Shipki La located in Satluj valley in Himachal Pradesh along Tibet border.
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  LipuLekh passes near Tibet border in Uttarakhand providing route to Mt.Kailash
and Mansarowar in Tibet.
 In the east, there is Nathu La pass in Sikkim and China border proving passage
from India to Lhasa and Bomdi la pas La Arunachal-China border.

7. Give an account of the Northern Plains of India.

The Great Northern Plain extends from the Punjab Plain in the west to the
Brahmaputra valley in the east. The Northern Plain has been formed by the
interplay of the three major river systems namely - the Indus, the Ganga and the
Brahmaputra along with their tributaries. The deposition of alluvium in a vast basin
lying at the foothills to the south of the Himalayas over millions of years formed this
fertile plain. It spreads over an area of 7 lakh square km. The plain

is about 2400 km long and 240 - 320 km broad. The rich soil cover combined with
the abundant water supply and favourable climate made this agriculturally a very
productive part of India. Because of this factor the density of population is also the
highest in this region among all the physiographic divisions of India. The Northern
Plain is broadly divided into three sections:
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a) The Punjab Plain - It is the western part of the Northern Plain formed by the
Indus and its tributaries. This section is dominated by the Doabs.
b) The Ganga Plain - It is the largest part of the Northern Plain and extends between
Ghaggar and Teesta rivers.
c) The Brahmaputra Plain - It forms the eastern part of the Northern Plain by the
river Brahmaputra and its tributaries. It is narrower than the Ganga Plain and is a
flood prone area.

In the south-east side of the Northern Plain lays the Ganga-Brahmaputra delta
which is the largest delta of the world.

8. The Indian Desert :

It is an important physiographic division of India. Some of its features are as

follows:
a) It covers almost the whole of Rajasthan state.
b) It lies towards the western margins of the Aravali Hills.

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c) Its vast expanse is covered with sand dunes which their shape day in and day
out.
d) This region receives very little rainfall which is below 150 mm so; there are very
few streams in this area.
e) It has arid climate with very little vegetation.
f) During the rainy season small streams are sometimes seen for a short-while
which disappears again in sand after the rains are over.
g) Luni is the only large river in this area.
h) Crescent shape dunes which are called Barchans are a prominent feature of
the Indian desert.
i) Camel is the most important animal of this desert.

9. Differentiate:

a.
The Northern Plains The Peninsular Plateau

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1. Geologically, the Northern
Plains were formed in recent
geological period.
2. Northern Plains are the most
recent landform.
3. They are being formed and
reshaped by the river systems.
4. It is a fertile, level land.
5. The Northern Plains are
formed of alluvial deposits
brought down by the rivers.
6. The Northern Plains are
divided into three sections :
(i) The Punjab Plains formed by
1. Geologically, the Peninsular
Plateau is part of the
Gondwanaland, the southern
part of ancient super-continent
Pangaea.
2. The Peninsular plateau is part
of oldest landmass.
3. It is one of the most stable
land blocks.
4. It is a plateau or tableland
with gently rising rounded hills
and wide shallow valleys.
5. The Peninsular Plateau is
composed of old crystalline
igneous and metamorphic
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Indus and its tributaries. rocks.
(ii) The Ganga Plains in North 6. The Peninsular Plateau is
India. divided mainly into two broad
divisions :
(iii) The Brahmaputra Plain in
Assam. (i) the Central Highlands and (ii)
the Deccan Plateau.
7. The Northern Plains are
covered with rich, fertile alluvial 7. A distinct feature of the
soil, ideal for high agricultural Peninsular Plateau is the black
production. soil area known as Deccan Trap.
This soil is ideal for growth of
8. It is the most densely
cotton.
populated region of India on
account of fertile soil, adequate 8. It has moderate density of
water and favourable climate. population.

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b. Himalayan Region Peninsular Plateau
1. The Himalayas are 1. They are a part of the
c. young fold mountains of oldest structures of the
Bangar
comparatively recent Khadar
Indian subcontinent.
origin. 2. The Central Highlands
2. They are the highest are formed of low hills and
mountains
(a) Formed in ofthe
older
world. (a)
there
Renewed
is no highevery
peakyear.
of
3. Many great rivers like -
alluvium world-wide fame in these
(b) Is newer, younger
the Indus, the Ganges and hills.
(b) Lies
the above flood
Brahmaputra plains
originate deposit of flood
3. Very few rivers like - the
of rivers.
from the Himalayas. Narmada andcalcerous
the Tapti
(c) Contains
4. The Himalayas are originate from these hills.
(c) Presents a terrace like deposits locally known as
formed of the sedimentary 4. The Central Highlands
feature. Kankar.
rocks. are formed of igneous and
5.
(d)They
Less are formed at the
fertile metamorphic
(d) More fertile rocks.
edge of the Indo-Gangetic 5. They are formed at the
Plain. edge of the Deccan
d. 6. Important hill stations Plateau.
like - Shimla, Mussoorie, 6. No well known hill 21
Darjeeling, Nainital are station is found here.
found on the Himalayas.
 Western Ghats
1. The Western Ghats are
situated and mark the
western edges of Deccan
Plateau parallel to the
western coasts of India
along the Arabian Sea.
2. Continuous, can be
crossed through the passes
only.
3. The Western Ghats are
higher than the Eastern
Ghats. Average elevation is
900 - 1600 meters.
4. The height increases
progressively from north to
south. The highest peaks
Eastern Ghats
1. The Eastern Ghats are
situated and mark the
eastern edges of Deccan
Plateau parallel to the
eastern coasts of India along
the Bay of Bengal.
2. Discontinuous, irregular
and dissected by rivers
draining into the Bay of
Bengal.
3. Average elevation is 600
meters.
4. The highest peaks include
the Mahendragiri, the Javadi
Hills.
5. The Eastern Ghats also
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include the AnaiMudi, the
DodaBelta.
5. The Western Ghats
enclose a narrow strip
between its western slopes
and the Arabian Sea which
is known as Western
Coastal Plain. Its maximum
width is 64 km.
6. It experiences orographic
rain mostly in summer due
to the summer monsoons.
The climate is hot and
moist.
7. Here the soil is highly
fertile. Rice, spices, rubber
and fruits like coconuts,
cashew nuts etc. are grown
here.
enclose a strip of land
between its eastern slopes
and the Bay of Bengal which
is known as the Eastern
Coastal Plain. It is wider than
the Western Coastal strip
with its maximum breadth
120 km.
6. It receives rain both in
summer and winter,
especially in winter through
winter monsoons. However,
here the rain is lesser than
the western strip.
7. The soil is not as fertile as
western strip. Rice, ground
nuts, cotton, tobacco,
coconuts etc. are grown
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 here.

10. Define:

a) Duns - The longitudinal valleys lying between Lesser Himalaya and the Shivaliks
are known as duns. Dehradun and Kotli Dun are two examples of duns.
b) Coral polyps – Short-lived microscopic organisms, which lives in colonies. They
flourish in shallow, mud-free and warm waters. They secrete calcium
carbonate. The coral secretion and their skeletons form coral deposits.
Lakshadweep islands group lying close to the Malaber Coast of Kerala is
composed of small coral islands.
c) Atolls – Circular or horse shoe-shaped coral reefs.

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d) Bhabar - Pebble studded formation situated at the base of mountains and
plains in the Himalayan region.
e) Terai - A sloping land at the foothills of the Nepal Himalayas. The Terai receives
heavy rainfall and is densely forested.
f) Tethys – The narrow and elongated oceanic trough lying between the Eurasian
plate and Gondwana land.

1.The Himalayas have been divided on the basis of regions from west to east.
These divisions have been demarcated by river valleys.
 The part of Himalayas lying between Indus and Satluj has been traditionally
known as Punjab Himalaya but it is also known regionally as Kashmir and
Himachal Himalaya from west to east respectively.
 The part of the Himalayas lying between Satluj and Kali rivers is known as
Kumaon Himalayas.
 The Kali and Tista rivers demarcate the Nepal Himalayas
 The part lying between Tista and Dihang rivers is known as Assam Himalayas.
 Beyond the Dihang gorge, the Himalayas bend sharply to the south and spread
along the eastern boundary of India. They are known as the Purvachal or the
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 Eastern hills and mountains. [These hills running through the north-eastern
states are mostly composed of strong sandstones which are sedimentary rocks.
Covered with dense forests, they mostly run as parallel ranges and valleys. The
Purvachal comprises the Patkai hills, the Naga hills, Manipur hills and the Mizo
hills.]

2.The Northern Plain is broadly divided into three sections.

 The Western part of the Northern Plain is referred to as the Punjab Plains.
Formed by the Indus and its tributaries, the larger part of this plain lies in
Pakistan. The Indus and its tributaries–the Jhelum, the Chenab, the Ravi, the Beas
and the Satluj originate in the Himalaya. This section of the plain is dominated by
the doabs.
 The Ganga plain extends between Ghaggar and Teesta rivers. It is spread over the
states of North India, Haryana, Delhi, U.P., Bihar, partly Jharkhand and West
Bengal to its East
 Particularly in Assam lies the Brahmaputra plain.

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3.According to the variations in relief features, the Northern plains can be divided
into four regions.
 The rivers, after descending from the mountains deposit pebbles in a narrow belt
of about 8 to 16 km in width lying parallel to the slopes of the Shiwaliks. It is
known as bhabar.

 All the streams disappear in this bhabar belt. South of this belt, the streams and
rivers re-emerge and create a wet, swampy and marshy region known as Terai.
This was a thickly forested region full of wildlife. The forests have been cleared to
create agricultural land and to settle migrants from Pakistan after partition.
Locate Dudhwa National Park in this region.

 The largest part of the northern plain is formed of older alluvium. They lie above
the flood plains of the rivers and present a terrace like feature. This part is known
as bhangar.

 The soil in this region contains calcareous deposits locally known as kankar.
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 The newer, younger deposits of the flood plains are called khadar. They are
renewed almost every year and so are fertile, thus, ideal for intensive agriculture.

HOME WORK QUESTIONS

1. Distinguish between
 Converging and Diverging Tectonic Plates.
 Bangar and Khadar.
 Western Ghats and the Eastern Ghats.
2. Give an account of the Northern Plains of India.
3. How was the Great Northern Plains of India formed? Give a brief description.
4. What do you understand by 'duns'? How are they different from Doab?
Where are they situated in our country? Give any two examples of duns and
doab.
5. Describe the formation of India from Gondwanaland.

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 6. Which part of the Himalayas is known as Purvanchal? Write a short note on
the Purvanchal Himalayas.
7. On the political outline map of India, mark and label the following:
a. The Eastern Ghats b. The Khasi Hills c.TheThar Desert d. The Deccan Plateau
Or
The important physiographic division of India

CHAPTER – 3
DRAINAGE

1. East flowing and West flowing Rivers:

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The Peninsular Plateau of India is marked by a large number of east-flowing rivers
and a few west-flowing rivers. The Western Ghats form the main water divide in
Peninsular India.

a. East flowing Rivers:

 Most of the major rivers of Peninsular India such as the Mahanadi, the Godavari,
the Krishna and the Kaveri and their tributaries flow eastwards.
 They rise from the Western Ghats, the highlands of the Deccan Plateau; flows
through the Deccan plateau, towards east and drain into the Bay of Bengal.
 The east-flowing rivers have wide basins.
 They have dendritic drainage pattern with many tributaries joining them.
 They form large deltas at their mouths.

b. West flowing Rivers:

 Only two big rivers, the Narmada and the Tapi, with long courses flow westwards
in Peninsular Plateau region.
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 They rise from the Satpura range and Amarkantak hills, flow westwards through
faults and drain into the Arabian Sea.
 The coastal plains between Western Ghats and the Arabian Sea are very narrow.
Hence, the west-flowing coastal rivers are short and swift flowing.
 The west-flowing rivers flow between highlands and have elongated courses.
 They have trellis and rectangular drainage pattern.
 They flow through rift valleys and are fault guided rivers.
 They form estuaries at their mouths. The west-flowing rivers do not form deltas.
 The Sabarmati, Mahi, Bharathpuzha and Periyar are the west-flowing rivers. The
Sabarmati and the Mahioriginate in the Central highlands and flow into the
Arabian Sea.

2. Importance of rivers in a country's economy:

 Rivers are the lifelines of a nation. Rivers have been of fundamental importance
in the settlement and progress of man throughout the human history.
 The rivers form broad, fertile alluvial plains that have been the cradle of human
civilisation.

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 Water from the river is a basic natural resource, essential for various human
activities. They provide water for domestic use. Rivers provide water for irrigation
that helps to develop agriculture in the surrounding area.
 The fertile soil of the riverine plain, abundant supply of water and the flat land
provides opportunities for the development of agriculture. In an agricultural
country like India, rivers play a major role in shaping the country’s economy.
 Rivers supply water for industrial use. Rivers provide for a cheap mode of
transportation, inland navigation.
 Hydro-electricity harnessed from river water supplies power to our industries, to
our homes and to our agricultural fields. Integrated water management of rivers
through River Valley
 Projects by building dams provide hydro-electricity, water for irrigation, inland
navigation, fishing, recreation etc.
Hence, rivers are of prime importance in the flourishing of a country’s economy.

3. Importance of lakes in a country's economy:

 They help to regulate the flow of a river.

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 They prevent flooding at times of heavy rainfall and during the dry season, they
help to maintain an even flow of water.
 They also have a moderating influence on the climate of the surroundings and
maintain the aquatic ecosystem.
 They enhance the natural beauty and recreational activities by encouraging
tourism.
 Lakes are also used for generation of hydroelectricity.
 Lakes like the Sambhar Lake provide edible salt.

4. Causes and remedy of river pollution:

Causes-

 Pollution of rivers by discharge of untreated sewage water and industrial

effluents is a big menance. They are changing the life-giving rivers into toxic
streams. Dumping of garbage into the streams is another cause of river pollution.
 The growing domestic, municipal, industrial and agricultural demand for water
from the rivers due to ever increasing population has led to over-exploitation of
water. Excessive, uncontrolled use of this main source of freshwater has reduced
33
their volume and has affected the quality of water. Increasing urbanization and
industrialization has increased the pollution level of many rivers to such a level
that the self-cleansing capacity of the river cannot cope up with it.

Remedies –

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 Concern over rising pollution in our rivers led to the launching of various river
action plans like the Ganga Action Plan, the Yamuna Action Plan, etc., to clean the
rivers. The National River Conservation Plan (NRCP) covers 152 towns along 27
interstate rivers in 16 states. Pollution abatement works are being taken up in 57
towns under it. A million litres of sewage is targeted to be intercepted, diverted
and treated.
 Citizens should also take up responsibility to prevent river pollution. Garbage
should not be disposed in rivers. Industrial waste should not be dumped into
rivers. Sewage and industrial effluents should be treated before discharging into
rivers.
Suggestions:

(i) Recycling and reuse of waste water is to be done to check waste water.
(ii) Waste water is to be released after proper treatment.
(iii) All outlets of effluents from industrial and domestic sources should be diverted
to elsewhere.

5. Lake and its formation:

35
a. A lake is an area of water surrounded by land on all sides.

(i) There are lakes which are formed as a result of action of glaciers and ice
sheets, while the others have been formed by wind, river action, and human
activities.
(ii) Some lakes are formed as a result of the tectonic activity. For example, Wular
Lake in Jammu and Kashmir.
(iii) The damming of rivers for the generation of hydel power has also led to the
formation of lakes.

b. Importance of Lakes :(i) Helps to regulate the flow of a river. (ii) Prevents
flooding. (iii) It helps to maintain even flow of water during dry season. (iv) It can
be used to develop hydel power. (v) Moderates the climate of surroundings. (vi)
Maintain the aquatic ecosystem. (vii) Helps to develop tourism and provides
recreation facilities. (viii) Can be used in irrigation and other agricultural activities.

c. lakes of great value to human beings:

(i) A lake helps to regulate the flow of a river. During heavy rainfall, it prevents
flooding. During dry reason, it helps to maintain an even flow of water.
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 (ii) Lakes are also used for developing hydel power.
(iii) Lakes help develop tourism and provide recreation.

d. Man-made lakes help a river to regulate its flow in the following manner :
(i) Man-made lakes are generally created by construction of dams.
(ii) The reservoirs thus created help to control the flow of the rivers.
(iii) It helps in regulating the flow of water to be released to downstream regions
as per the requirement.
(iv) In this manner it also helps in the prevention of flooding.

e. Causes of creating Man-Made lakes :

(i) Man-made lakes are created for hydro-electric power supply, recreational
purposes, industrial use, agricultural use or domestic water supply.
(ii) Lakes are formed by stopping the natural flow of river by constructing dams
resulting into collection of water on one side.

37
 The Guru GobindSagar Lake is an example of man-made lake.

6. Lagoon
Lagoon is a stretch of brackish or salt water separated from the sea by a sandbank,
bars, reefs, etc.
The action of wind and waves along coasts builds spits and bars in the inlets of seas
isolating lagoons from the sea. They are commonly found off the deltas of large
rivers like the Ganges, the Mahanadi, etc. The Chilika lake of Orissa, the Pulicat lake
of Tamil Nadu and the Kolleru lake of Andhra Pradesh are lagoons.

Strong on shore winds are also capable of pushing the coastal sand dunes along
beaches landwards. They may enclose marshy lagoons.

(i) Lagoons are found only in coastal areas, usually near the mouths of rivers, while
lakes may be formed in any geographical location, in highlands or in inland basis.
(ii) Lagoons have brackish water while a lake may have fresh water or salty water.
(iii) Lagoons are formed due to wind and wave action in the coasts. Lakes may be of
tectonic origin or may be formed due to river action, glacial action, and wind. They
may also be human-made artificial lakes.
38
 7. Give Reason:

1. “The Peninsular rivers are non-perennial in nature”

 The Peninsular Rivers are non-perennial in nature. They are fed by monsoon rains
and have heavy flow during rainy season followed by reduced flow during dry
season. This phenomenon makes them seasonal rivers.
 Most of the Peninsular Rivers are seasonal because they depend on rainfall for
water. These rivers have shorter and shallower courses; compared to the
Himalayan rivers.
 Most of the major rivers of the peninsula flow eastwards and drain into the Bay
of Bengal. These rivers make deltas at their mouths.
 The Narmada and the Tapi are the only long rivers, which flow westwards and
make estuaries. The drainage basins of the peninsular rivers are smaller in size.

2. “Brahmaputra has fewer silt in China and larger volume in India.”

39
 Brahmaputra has fewer silt in China as it is a cold and dry area. In India the river
carries a large volume of water and considerable silt because it passes through a
region of heavy rainfall.
 The Brahmaputra has a braided channel in its entire length in Assam and forms
many riverine islands these.

3. “Most of the freshwater lakes of India are located in the Himalayan region.”

 The lofty ranges of the Himalayas are snow covered and have many glaciers.
Glacial activity results in the formation of circular hollows lip in the mountains.
They are known as Cirques.
 The melting of the glacial snow in later period forms cirque lakes. As the lakes
have water from snow melt they are freshwater lakes, e.g., Pangonglake in
Ladakh.
 Tectonic activity in the Himalayan region also results in the formation of
depressions. They are filled with melting snow forming lakes of tectonic origin,
e.g., the Wularlake in Jammu and Kashmir, which is the largest freshwater lake in
India.

40
 The Dal Lake of Srinagar, Bhimtal and Nainital of Uttarakhand, Loktak Lake of
Manipur and Barapani Lake of Meghalaya are some other important freshwater
lakes. All are located in the Himalayan region and the Purvanchals.

4. River Godavari often referred to as the 'Dakshin Ganga'.

The Godavari is the largest Peninsular River. It has a length of 1500 km. It has the
largest drainage basin amongst the Peninsular Rivers. Its drainage basin covers parts
of Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa and Andhra Pradesh. On account of its
dominating length and the extent of area it covers, the Godavari is known as the
‘Dakshin Ganga’.

The Godavari rises from the slopes of the Western Ghats in the Nasik district of
Maharashtra. It flows eastwards and drains into the Bay of Bengal. Nearly half of its
drainage basin lies in Maharashtra. The Godavari is joined by large tributaries–the
Wainganga, the Penganga and the Manjra. The Purna, the Wardha and the Pranhita
are its other tributaries.

8. Main sources of pollution in the River Ganga:

41
 When any unwanted waste material is added to water which makes it poisonous
and useless, we call it water pollution.
 Main sources of pollution in the River Ganga:
o Industrial effluents.
o Disposal of sewage of urban centres.
o Sewage, garbage and liquid waste of household’s agricultural lands and
factories are discharged into lakes and rivers.
o Disposal of thermal power plants.
9. Major steps taken by government of India to control the pollution level in
river Ganga:

 Treating of waste before dumping in the river.

 Taking projects to control river water pollution like Ganga Action Plan. The
activities of Ganga Action Plan (GAP) Phase-I, initiated in 1985, were declared
closed on 31st March, 2000. The Steering Committee of the National River

42
 Conservation Authority reviewed the progress of the GAP and necessary
correction on the basis of lesson learnt and experiences gained from GAP Phase-I.
 These have been applied to the major polluted rivers of the country under the
NRCP. The Ganga Action Plan (GAP) Phase-II, has been merged with the NRCP.
The expanded NRCP now covers 152 towns located along 27 inter-state rivers in
16 states.
 Under this action plan, pollution abatement works are being taken up in 57
towns. A total of 215 schemes of pollution abatement have been sanctioned. So
far, 69 schemes have been completed under this action plan. A million litres of
sewage is targeted to be treated.

10. Braided channels.

 The river Brahmaputra has a braided channel in its entire length in Assam.
 The northeastern part of India is a region of high rainfall. Assam receives heavy
rainfall during the monsoons. This increases the volume of water in the
Brahmaputra river.

43
 On account of rapid erosion, the river carries a considerable amount of silt. The
silt is deposited in the riverbed when the load becomes excessive.
 As a result the river splits into several complicated channels called braided
channels. The channels frequently shift position.
 Many big and small river islands are located in between the braided channels.
 The Majuli Island on the Brahmaputra is the world’s largest, riverine island. It has,
however, been broken due to floods.

11. Geosyncline’
A narrow, shallow, elongated basin with a sinking bottom in which a considerable
thickness of sediments was deposited by the river coming from Angara and
Gondwanaland is called a ‘Geosyncline’. Himalayas were formed as a result of the
upliftment and folding of the sediments in the Tethys Sea.

12. Define:

44
a. Drainage - The term drainage describes the river system of an area. Small streams
flowing from different directions come together to form the main river. It has
number of tributaries and distributaries. The river ultimately drains into a large
water body such as a lake or a sea or an ocean.
b. Drainage basin - The area drained by a single river system, comprising a main
river and its tributaries.

c. River basin - The area drained by the main river, its tributaries and distributaries.
The river Ganga has the largest river basin in India. The river Indus has a larger
river basin but most of it lies outside India.

HOME WORK QUESTIONS

45
1. Give five economic benefits of rivers and lakes.
2. Compare the east-flowing and the west-flowing rivers of the Peninsular
Plateau.
3. Why is the Godavari often referred to as the 'Dakshin Ganga'? Write a note on
the river Godavari and its tributaries.
4. How are salt lakes formed? Give examples of salt lakes in India.
5. What is a lagoon? How does it differ from a lake?
6. What is a gorge? In what type of terrain does a gorge form?
7. Where are India’s most of the freshwater lakes located and why?
8. Map Work:
(i) On an outline map of India mark and label the following rivers : Ganga,
Satluj,
Damodar, Krishna, Narmada, Tapi, Mahanadi, and Brahmaputra.
(ii) On an outline map of India mark and label the following lakes :Chilika,
Sambhar,
Wular, Pulicat, Kolleru.

46
47
 CHAPTER – 4
CLIMATE

1. Give Reason: “Mawsynram receives the highest rainfall in the world”

Mawsynram in Meghalaya is located on the southern ranges of the Khasi Hills.
When the rain bearing winds from the Bay of Bengal branch of monsoons strike the
Garo, Khasi and Jaintiahills, they cause very heavy rainfall in the northeastern states
located here. As Mawsynram is located at a position perpendicular to the path of
the rain bearing winds which enters the deep valley of the Khasi hills, it receives
rainfall of about 1141 cm per year. Hence, Mawsynram receives the highest rainfall
in the world. Rainfall occurs here for almost nine months of the year
2. Monsoon acts as a unifying bond in the country

48
The unifying influence of the monsoon on the Indian subcontinent is felt through its
seasonal alternation of the wind systems and the associated weather conditions. It
is also perceptible through uncertainties and uneven distribution of monsoon
rainfall. The Indian landscape, its flora and fauna, agricultural seasons, livelihood of
the people including festivals etc. are governed by the monsoon. Year after year
people anxiously wait for the arrival of monsoon. The river valleys which carry
monsoon water also unite the country as a single river valley unit.

3. Differentiate:

a. Southwest monsoon and northeast monsoon.

The monsoon type of climate is marked by complete reversal of wind system
according to seasons. The summer period is marked by the southwest monsoons
while the winter period is marked by northeast monsoons. The points of difference
between them are as follows :
(a) The southwest monsoons blow in a southwesterly direction to the mainland of
India from June to September. While, the northwest monsoons blow in a
northeasterly direction across India from mid-November to February.

49
(b) The southwest monsoons are seasonal winds influenced by differential heating
of land and water. The southeasterly trade winds are attracted by low pressure
over northern India. They are deflected to southwest after crossing the equator
due to the Coriolis force while the northeast monsoons are the northeasterly
trade winds.

(c) The southwest monsoons are onshore winds as they blow from the Indian
Ocean as Arabian Sea and Bay of Bengal branches to land areas. Hence, they are
moisture laden winds and bring heavy rainfall. While the northeast monsoons are
offshore winds as they blow from land to sea. As a result they are mostly devoid
of moisture.

(d) The southwest monsoons are responsible for the bulk of the rainfall in India
(75% to 90%). They make Mawsynram in Meghalaya the rainiest station in the
world. During the northeast monsoons some rainfall is brought by occassional
western disturbances in north India. The northeast monsoons provide some
rainfall in eastern coastal plain of Tamil Nadu after passing over Bay of Bengal.

50
 (e) The southwest monsoons are warm winds. While the northeast monsoons
are cold winds.

4. The Coriolis force and its effect on the climate of the world

An apparent force caused by the earth’s rotation is called the Coriolis force. The
Coriolis force is responsible for deflecting the direction of the winds towards the
right in the Northern Hemisphere and towards the left in the Southern Hemisphere.
This is also known as ‘Ferrel’s Law’.
Under the effect of Coriolis force the trade winds moving from Sub-Tropical High
Pressure belts to Equatorial Low Pressure belts become Northeast Trade Winds in
the Northern Hemisphere and Southeast Trade Winds in Southern Hemisphere. As a
result, they bring heavy rainfall to the east coast of continents within tropics after
passing over oceans. As they are offshore on the west coast, these regions turn into
hot deserts.
Westerly winds blowing from Sub-Tropical High to Temperate Low Pressure belts
become the South-Westerlies in the Northern Hemisphere and the Northwesterlies
in the Southern Hemisphers due to Coriolis force. They bring much precipitation to
western coast of continents, mainly in Southern Hemisphere.
51
5. Effects of the Monsoon

(a) India has traditionally been an agricultural country with more than 50% of its
population dependent on agriculture.
(b) A large part of the country’s agriculture is mainly dependent upon the monsoon
rains.
(c) There is great variation in the rainfall received by the different parts of the
country, somewhere it leads to floods and its absence in other parts leads to
drought like conditions.
(d) The Indian landscape, its animal and plant life, the entire agricultural calendar
and the life of the people, including their festivities revolve around this
phenomenon (monsoon).
(e) The monsoon winds bind the whole country by providing water to set the
agricultural activities in motion.
It is often irregular in its arrival and its retreat sometimes disturbs the farming
schedule of millions of farmers all over the country.

52
Give reasons

(i) The Tamil Nadu coast receives winter rainfall.

Ans. Winter rains in Tamil Nadu are caused by north-east trade winds (also known
as north-east monsoons). That is the only part of India that gets rains during the
winter months.

(ii) The delta region of the eastern coast is frequently struck by cyclones.
Ans.With the onset of winter season, there is a shift in low pressure conditions from
the northwestern plains to the Bay of Bengal. During the middle of November, this
shift results in the occurrence of cyclones. The deltas of Krishna and Kaveri rivers
(and also Bangladesh) have to bear the fury of these cyclones year after year.

(iii) Parts of Rajasthan, Gujarat and the leeward side of the Western Ghats are
drought-prone.
Ans. Rainfall in India is influenced by location as well as relief features. Areas
situated in the direction of the monsoon winds receive more rainfall. The rainfall
goes on decreasing from east to west. The moisture content of the monsoons goes

53
on decreasing as they move westward. Areas situated in extreme west and devoid
of hilly ranges that intercept the monsoon remain drought prone.

HOME WORK QUESTIONS

1. Why does rainfall decrease from east to the west in Northern India?
2. Monsoon considered a unifying bond. Why?
3. Give reasons:
 Seasonal reversal of wind direction takes place over the Indian subcontinent.
 The bulk of rainfall in India is concentrated over a few months.
4. Discuss the mechanism of monsoons.
5. Give an account of weather conditions and characteristics of the cold season.
6. What are jetstreams? How do they affect the climate?
7. What is the loo? How does it affect the weather of a place?
8. Describe with examples how distance from the sea influences the climate of a
place?
9. Discuss why Mawsynram receives the highest rainfall in the world?

54
55
 CHAPTER – 5
NATURAL VEGETATION AND WILDLIFE
1. Ecosystem
All the plants and animals in an area are interdependent on each other. The
plants and animals; along with their physical environment make the ecosystem.

2. Bio-reserve
A biosphere reserve is an area proposed by its residents, ratified by a national
committee, and designated by UNESCO’s Man and Biosphere (MAB) program,
which demonstrates innovative approaches to living and working in harmony with
nature.

3. Factors are responsible for the distribution of plants and animals in India
56
Relief (Land and soil) and Climate (Temperature, humidity, photoperiod and
precipitation) are the factors which are responsible for the distribution of plants
and animals in India.
4. The Project Tiger and the Project Rhino
The Project Tiger and Project Rhino are two well known wildlife conservation
projects. They have been undertaken to protect the Indian tiger and the one-
horned rhino of India which are endangered species.

Their objectives are as follows:

(i) Protect the endangered species from poaching, hunting and illegal trading.
(ii) Save the natural habitats of these animals so that they can breed naturally and
multiply in numbers.
(iii)Maintain a survey of the number of existing tigers and rhinos.

These well publicised projects have played a great role in protecting the
endangered animals. Under the projects government has undertaken steps to save
and protect the existing animals by banning hunting and poaching.
57
 5. The vegetation found at high altitude in our country
There are five major types of vegetation in India: Tropical Rainforests, Tropical
Deciduous Forests, Tropical Thorn Forests and Scrubs, Montane Forests and
Mangrove Forests.

Montane Forest: The forests in the mountainous areas are called montane forest.
These forests are mainly found along the southern slopes of the Himalayas and at
high altitudes in southern and north-eastern India. Kashmir stag, spotted deer, wild
sheep, jack rabbit, Tibetan antelope, yak, snow leopard, squirrels, Shaggy horn wild
ibex, bear, rare red panda, sheep and goats are the common animals in these
forests.

6. Measures to conserve ecosystem/ to protect wildlife

58
Endangered species are those species of flora and fauna which are in the danger of
extinction. In India, about 1,300 plant species are endangered. Quite a few animal
species, like the one-horned rhino, Indian tiger, Indian wild ass, black buck, red
panda, Asiatic elephants, Indian bustard, are endangered.

The main causes that have lead to threat upon. India’s flora and fauna,
endangering many species are:

(i) Hunting and poaching for illegal trade of animal tusks, horns, bones, skin, etc.
(ii) Reckless cutting of forests to bring land under cultivation and settlement have
destructed the natural habitats of wild creatures and wiped off valuable species of
trees.
(iii) Pollution due to chemical and industrial waste, acid deposits, have brought
down numbers of plants and animals.
(iv) Introduction of alien species that may be hostile to existing species.

Understanding the grave threat, conservation of forests and wildlife has been taken
up. Government, NGOs, wildlife organisations and volunteers have taken up
activities to protect wildlife and plants. They include:
59
(i) Fourteen biosphere reserves to protect biodiversity.
(ii) Project Tiger, Project Rhino, Project Great Indian Bustard and other eco-
development projects to protect endangered species.
(iii) Setting up of 89 National Parks, 492 Wildlife Sanctuaries, Zoological Gardens,
Protected and Reserved Forests, Botanical Gardens to protect the endangered
species along with other types of flora and fauna.
(iv) Wildlife Protection Acts to safeguard wildlife.
(v) Afforestation, social programmes and awareness campaigns can also help to
protect endangered species.

7. Type of dangers faced by the wildlife sanctuaries of India

492 Wildlife Sanctuaries have been set up in India to protect and conserve wildlife.
The government has demarcated them and maintains them. But certain external
factors and loopholes in internal management of these areas creates problems and
affect their purpose. Dangers faced by wildlife sanctuaries of India are as follows:

60
(i) Poaching or illegal killing of animals for trade of their hides, skins, tusk, horns and
bones.
(ii) Hunting of animals for game.
(iii) Killing of animals by villagers in instances of migration of animals to inhabitated
areas during floods. In North Bengal often elephants move out from the forests to
cultivated fields and are killed by the villagers.
(iv) Shortage of trained personnel to take care of the animals within the sanctuaries.
This leads to death of sick animals.
(v) Shortage of funds for management of the sanctuaries.

The wildlife sanctuaries can be protected better in the following ways:

(i) Strict vigilance of the areas within the sanctuaries.

(ii) Enforcing strict measures against people encroaching the wildlife sanctuaries
without proper permission.
(iii) Making laws against poaching and hunting more strict and punishing people
who dare to destroy the sanctity of the wildlife sanctuaries.
(iv) Training the personnel to take proper care of animals within the wildlife
sanctuary.
61
(v) Creating a proper, protected boundary for the wildlife sanctuaries.
(vi) Creating public awareness regarding the need of wildlife sanctuaries.
8. The main causes for depletion of biodiversity in India.
The varied climate and landform of India support of rich variety of natural
vegetation. But only about 23 per cent of the land area of India is at present under
forests. It is far lower than the desired 33 per cent outlined in the National Forest
Policy.

The main reasons behind the reduction of the natural vegetation of India are as
follows:

(i) Deforestation. Large areas of forests have been recklessly cleared by man due to
the following reasons:
(a) To meet the growing demand for cultivated land,
(b) To acquire land for setting up industries,
(c) To provide land for settlement and urbanization.
(ii) Shifting cultivation in hilly areas of northeast and Central India.

62
(iii) Mining. Large areas are cleared of natural vegetation for the purpose of mining.
(iv)Constructional activities like building of dams submerge areas of valuable forests
and destruct the natural vegetation.
(v) Natural hazards like forest fires and landslides affect natural vegetation in hilly
areas.
(vi)Cyclonic storms affect plant cover of the areas where they strike.
(vii) Overgrazing of pastures.
(viii) Wiped off valuable rainforests in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands.

These above mentioned human-made and natural factors have accelerated the
process of extinction of natural vegetation in India.

HOME WORK QUESTIONS

1. Quite a few species of plants and animals are endangered. Why?

2. India has a rich heritage of flora and fauna. Comment.
3. Distinguish between extinct and endangered species.
4. Describe any three features of thorn forests.
63
5. “Human beings influence the ecology of a region.” Justify with suitable
examples.
6. How are forests important for human beings? Explain.
7. Write any three measures to conserve ecosystem.
8. Give the main causes for depletion of biodiversity in India.
9. On an outline map of India, label the following.
a. Areas of Evergreen Forests
b. Areas of Dry Deciduous Forests
c. Two national parks each in Northern, Southern, Eastern and Western parts
of the country.

64
65
 CHAPTER – 6
POPULATION

1. Population growth and population change

Population growth is about increase or decrease in the population. Population
change is about changes in population composition; like age structure, sex ratio,
literacy rate, occupational structure, etc.
2. Reasons for the steep rise in the population of India since 1921

After 1921, India's population has been constantly increasing.

Social causes: (i) Early maniage of men and women (ii) lack of literacy, particularly
among females (iii) social and religious superstition and rigidity

66
Economic causes: (i) High brith rate and low death rate (ii) Lack of proper medical
facilities and high rate of infant mortality (iii) Lack of proper family planning
techniques.

3. The major components of population growth

There are three main components of population growth – birth rate, death rate and
migration.
Birth rate is the number of live births per thousand persons in a year. Death rate is
the number of deaths per thousand persons in a year.
The difference between birth rate and death rate is known as the natural increase
of population. Higher birth rate with low death rate results in a higher rate of
population growth. When the birth rate is low and death rate is high the result is a
low rate of population growth.
Migration is the movement of people across regions and territories. It can be
internal (within the country) or international (between the countries). It plays a
significant role in changing the composition and distribution of population.

4. Migration

67
 Migration is the movement of people across regions and territories.
 When people migrate into a nation from other nations it is known as immigration
or in-migration.
 When people migrate from one nation to other nations it is known as emigration
or out-migration.
 Immigration increases the total population of a nation by adding to the existing
population.
 Emigration decreases the total population of a nation because people move out
from the nation.
 People immigrate to nations having better work opportunities and better living
conditions People emigrate from nations in search of better opportunities for
survival and livelihood.

68
5. Relation between occupational structure and development

 The percentage of population that is economically active is an important index of

development. The distribution of the working population according to the
occupations they are engaged in, is referred to as the occupational structure. It
reflects the level of development of a country.

 In case of developed nations, the occupational structure shows that a high

proportion of people are engaged in secondary and tertiary activities.
Manufacturing industries and services are the main occupations in which their
workforce is engaged.

 The occupational structure of developing countries shows that they tend to have
a higher proportion of their workforce engaged in primary activities, especially
agriculture.

6. Census and its importance

69
A census is an official enumeration of population done periodically. The counting is
conducted usually every tenth year. The data collected regarding every aspect of
population is then compiled in a book and the whole process is called the census.
The various uses of a census are as follows:
(i) A census provides us information regarding the population of the country.
(ii) It is the most comprehensive source of demographic, social and economic data.
(iii) It provides us information regarding population size and distribution. So it helps
in planning the development of various regions.
(iv) The comparison of census reports of various decades helps in identifying the
trend of population growth. This helps in resource planning.
(v) The level of economic and social development of a country can be identified
from the occupational structure and literacy rates provided in the census.

7. Sex ratio and reasons for low sex ratio in India

Sex ratio is defined as the number of females per 1000 males in the population. The
sex ratio in India was 933 in 2001. The sex ratio in India is skewed with the number
of males exceeding the number of females. It has always remained unfavorable to
females. The main reasons behind this are:
70
(i) Unequal social treatment.
(ii) Discrimination against girl child.
(iii) Low literacy rates and lack of social awareness.
(iv) Evil effects of early marriage and large number of death during child birth.
(v) Insufficient attention to and care of girls after birth, during adolescent period
and during motherhood.
(vi) Poverty of the people leads to preference for male child as they become bread
earners. All of the above result in more death among females and affects the sex
ratio.

8. National Population Policy [NPP] 2000

National Population Policy (NPP) was implemented in the year 2000.
The NPP 2000 provides a policy framework for imparting
(i) Free and compulsory school education up to 14 years of age.
(ii) Reducing infant mortality rate to below 30 per 1000 live births.

71
(iii) Achieving universal immunization of children against all vaccine preventable
diseases.
Promoting delayed marriage for girls and making family welfare. In addition,
the policy makes a serious attention on adolescent’s population welfare.
(iv) Making family welfare a people-centered programme by encouraging public
involvement.
(v) NPP 200 has put special emphasis on the adolescent population. Focus is given
to special nutritional needs of the adolescents.
(vi) Awareness programmes are conducted to increase awareness about STDs,
unwanted pregnancies, child marriage, risks of unprotected sex, etc.

9. Three methods to show how the population of a nation can be planned

The population of a nation can be planned the through the successful controlling of
birth rates along with declining death rates. With the progress of medical science
and with spread of public health measures, death rates have fallen. But these
advantages should also be utilised to reduce the birth rates because rapidly rising
population is a strain on limited resources and leads to social and economic
problems.
72
The main role in planning the nation’s population has been taken up through the
family planning programmes and adoption of a National Population Policy. Certain
methods can be adopted in this regard:

(a) Motivation programmes to spread the knowledge of family planning through

mass media like newspapers, radio, television, films can help to make people
conscious about need of limiting family size.
(b) Making contraception services accessible and affordable to all sections of rural
and urban population.
(c) Encouraging delayed marriage and child bearing and strengthening legal
measures to prevent child marriage.

HOME WORK QUESTIONS

1. What is a census? Why is it important for a country to conduct censuses

periodically?
2. What are the reasons for the decrease in death rate in India after independence?
73
3. Discuss the reasons for very low population in Arunachal Pradesh.
4. How does migration affect the population of a nation? What are the causes of
migration?
5. Describe the reasons behind the high density of population in Uttar Pradesh and
West Bengal.
6. Distinguish between immigration and emigration.
7. Give any three reasons for the steep rise in the population of India since 1921.
8. Mention any three objectives of National Population Policy (NPP) 2000.
9. There are three main processes of change of population. Explain how these
processes change the size of population.
10. Discuss the advantage of having a higher percentage of young people in a
country.

74
75
76
 Economics

CHAPTER - 1
THE STORY OF VILLAGE PALAMPUR

1. Organization of Production / Factors of Production (Or Requirements for

Production of Goods and Services)

The aim of production is to produce the goods and services that we want. There are
four requirements of production:

77
I. Land: contains natural resources, water, forests and minerals or It includes all free
gifts of nature like soil, water, forests, minerals, etc.
II. Labour: People do the work and manufacture goods and services. Laborers may
be skilled, unskilled, educated and uneducated depending upon the production
work and requirement. It includes physical as well as mental labour
III. Physical capital: Can be of fixed capital and working capital (e.g. tools, machines,
building, etc.).
a. fixed capital: Tools, machines, buildings etc.. They may range from very
simple tools such as farmers plough to sophisticated machines to generators,
computers etc.
b. working capital: Raw materials and money in hand come under this
category. Ex. Yarn used by weaver and clay used by potter. Some money is
always required during production to make payments and buy other necessary
items.

IV. Human capital: The fourth important requirement is human capital. Without
human labour production cannot be done.
Land, labour and capital are the basic requirements for production of goods and
services which are popularly known as factors of production.
78
 2. Four steps involved in optimal utilization of land
Land area under cultivation is fixed. So, the ways of increasing farm produce on the
same piece of land are:
(i) Multiple cropping: It is the most common way of increasing production on a
given piece of land. Under it, more than one crop is grown on the same piece of
land during the year. Indian farmers should grow atleast two main crops in a year.
Some farmers have been growing a third crop also over the past twenty years.
(ii) Green Revolution: It was brought in India in the late 1960s, the use of HYV
(High Yielding Variety) seeds for increase in production of rice and wheat. It
promised to produce much greater amount of grains on a single plant.
(iii) Use of modern technology: By the use of well developed able to cultivate their
land with greater efficiency. Farmers use pump sets for irrigation, threshers for
threshing, harvesters for harvesting, tractors for ploughing etc.
(iv) Use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides: Use of chemical fertilizers and
pesticides improves fertility of soil and reduces pest respectively for the particular
period of production. This improves the quantity of production.

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 3. Important Changes in Farm Activities

 Land area under cultivation is virtually fixed. However, some wastelands in India
had been converted into cultivable land after 1960.
 Over the years, there have been important changes in the way of farming, which
have allowed the farmers to produce more crops from the same amount of land.
 These changes include :
o Multiple cropping farming
o Use of modern farming methods.
 Due to these changes (in the late 1960s) productivity of land has increased
substantially which is known as Green Revolution. Farmers of Punjab, Haryana
and western Uttar Pradesh were the first to try out the modern farming methods
in India.

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 Overuse of fertilizers, pesticides and water is resulting into land degradation. The
farmers in Punjab are facing these problems.
 Labour: After land, labour is the next basic factor of production. Small farmers
provide their own labour, whereas medium and large farmers make use of hired
labour to work on their fields. There are many landless families in Palampur
which provide labours. As the work is less for the number of laborers they are not
given minimum wages set by the government. So some laborers migrate to the
cities.
 Capital: After land and labour, capital is another basic factor of production. All
categories of farmers (e.g. small, medium and large) require capital. Small
farmers borrow from large farmers or the village moneylenders or the traders
who supply them various inputs for cultivation. Modern farming requires a great
deal of capital.
 Sale of Surplus Farm Products: Farmers produce crops on their lands by using the
three factors of production, viz. land, labour and capital. They retain a part of
produce for self-consumption and sell the surplus in the nearby market. That part
of farm produce which is sold in the market is called marketable surplus. Small
farmers have little surplus output. It is the medium and large farmers only who
have substantial surplus produce for selling in the market.
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 4. Methods used to increase production:

a. Multiple Cropping: In this method more than one crop is grown on a single
piece of land. For example: Wheat – bajra, potato.
 When more than one crop is grown on a piece of land during the year it is known
as multiple cropping.
 It is the most common way to increase production on a given piece of land.
 All farmers in Palampur grow atleast two main crops; many are growing potato as
the third crop in the past fifteen to twenty years.

b. Modern farming methods:

In this method modern HYV seeds, chemical fertilizers, modern tools and
machineries are used. This provides high yields.
 Use of Modern Farming Method:

 Modern farming methods also help to increase the yield per hectare.
 Farmers of Punjab, Haryana and Western Uttar Pradesh were the first to try
modern farming methods in India.
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 The farmers in these regions set up tube wells for irrigation and made use of HYV
seeds, chemical fertilizers and pesticides In farming.
 Some also used farm machinery like tractors and threshers, which made
ploughing and harvesting faster. They were rewarded with high yields of wheat,
increasing from 1300 kg per hectare to 3200 kg per hectare with HYV seeds.

5. “Modern methods have over used the natural resources and violated the
resources”

 Green revolution is associated with the loss of soil fertility.

 Continuous use of ground water for tube well irrigation has reduced the water –
table below the ground.
 Chemical fertilizers may destroy the bacteria and other micro organisms in the
soil.
 The consumption of chemical fertilizers in Punjab is highest in the country.

6. “Modem farming methods require more input”

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It is true that modern farming methods require more Inputs which are
manufactured in industry. For example:
 HYV seeds, insecticides, pesticides and chemical fertilizers needed for increasing
the yield per hectare are all manufactured industries
 Farmers use farm machinery like tractors, threshers and also combined
harvesters which are also manufactured in industries.
 Tube well equipment and water pumps used for irrigation are also manufactured
in industries.

7. Importance for increasing Irrigational area:

 It is important to increase the area under irrigation because water is very

essential for agriculture.
 In India, the rainfall is unevenly distributed in the country and if rainfall is less,
then production will be low, and they will be only able to grow one crop in a
season.
 With good irrigation it will be possible to do multiple cropping, helping to
increase the yield per hectare

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 8. Non-farming activities:
Non-farm activities refer to the activities other than farming which are undertaken
to earn income.
Different types of these activities include the following:
(i) Small manufacturing, i.e. the activities of weavers, potters, blacksmiths,
carpenters, basket-makers, etc.
(ii) Large manufacturing
(iii) Brick making units
(iv) Shop keeping/trading
(v) Transport
(vi) Dairying
(vii) Money lending
(viii) Making of jaggery (gur)
(ix) Coaching centres.

9. Measures to be taken to start non-farming production activities in the villages

of India

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 In future, there should be more and more non-farming activities in the villages.
The following steps/measures may be undertaken in this regard.

 Banks should provide loans at low Interest rates so that the poor villagers can
start some business to help them earn a living.
 Government should be more active and start and effective employment
generating schemes.
 Government should provide training to the villagers in different small crafts.
 Another thing which is essential for expansion of non-farm activities is to have
markets where goods and services produced can be sold. For example, there
should be markets for milk, cloth, clay, utensils, etc.
 Government should provide facilities for transportation and selling of locally
manufactured goods of the villagers in the cities.
 More villages need to be connected to towns and cities through all-weather
roads, transport and telephone.
 Industries can be set up in rural areas.
[Refer text book]
Types of production activities in the village:
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 There are two types of production activities: Farming and non- farming activities.

 Farming Activities: Farming is the main production activity.

 Non-farming activities : [Dairy, Small scale manufacturing , Shop-keeping,
Transport]

Define:
1. Factor of Production: Every production is organized by combining land, labour,
physical capital and human capital, which are known as factors of production.
2. Multiple cropping: In this method more than one crop is grown on a single piece
of land. For example: Wheat – bajra – potato.
3. Dual cropping: To grow two crops in the same piece of land
4. Green revolution: Excessive production in agriculture due to modern scientific
methods is called green revolution.
5. HYV: In late 1960s HYVs are introduced, which were a great boon to agriculture.
These are High Yielding Varieties of seeds which guarantees greater qualitative
and quantitative production. HYV seeds need plenty of water and also chemical
fertilizers and pesticides to produce best results.

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 Spread of electricity in Palampur Village:
 Most of the houses in Palampur have electric connections.
 Electricity powers all the tubewells in the fields that help to irrigate much larger
areas of land more effectively as compared to the traditional Persian wheel
drawn by bullocks. Since the entire cultivated area of 200 hectares had come
under irrigation farmers did not have to depend on rainfall and could grow
multiple crops.
 It helps small businesses run their machinery like Mishrilal’s sugarcane crushing
machine.

The capital needed in farming

 Medium and large farmers obtain capital for farming

 Modern farming methods such as use of HYV insecticides pesticides etc require a
great deal of capital so the farmer needs more money than before.
 The medium and large farmers have their own savings from farming. They are thus
able to arrange for the capital needed.

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 In contrast, the small farmers have to borrow money to arrange for the capital.
They borrow from large farmers or the village moneylenders or the traders who
supply various inputs for cultivation.
 The rate of interest on such loans is very high. They are put to great distress to
repay the loan, which is not so in the case of medium and large farmers. Ex: Savita,
a small farmer gets loan from Tejpal Singh a large farmer at a rate of 24% to
purchase seeds, fertilizers and pesticides.
 Farmers need capitals as they don’t have surplus of their own.

HOME WORK QUESTIONS

1. What are the different ways of increasing production on the same piece of land?
Use examples to explain.
2. How do the medium and large farmers obtain capital for farming? How is it
different from the small farmers?
3. What can be done so that more non-farm production activities can be started in
villages?

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4. Modern farming methods require the farmers to invest more cash than before.
Why? Explain.
5. What was the major disadvantage associated with HYV seeds? Explain.

CHAPTER – 2
PEOPLE AS A RESOURCE
1. Define:

a. People as a resource – refer’s to the country’s working population in terms of

their existing productive skills and abilities.

b. Unemployment – it is said to exist when people who are willing to work at the
prevailing wage rates cannot find jobs. When we talk of unemployed people, we
refer to those in the age group of 15-59 years. Children below 15 years of age and

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 the old people above 60 are not considered while counting the number of
unemployed.

2. Human Activities

Human beings perform many activities which can be grouped into economic and
noneconomic.

a. Economic Activities: Economic activities refer to those activities of man which are
undertaken for a monetary gain or to satisfy his/her wants. The activities of
workers, farmers, shopkeepers, manufacturers, doctors, lawyers, taxi drivers, etc.
fall under this category.

b.Non-Economic Activities: Non-economic activities are ones that are not

undertaken for any monetary gain. These are also called unpaid activities, e.g.,
Puja-paath, housekeeping, helping the poor or disabled, etc.

3. When does a human resource become human capital?

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The population of a country available for the production activities is called human
resource. Human resource becomes human capital when there is investment made
in the form of education, training and medical care. When the existing 'human
resource' is further developed by becoming more educated and healthy, we call it
'human capital formation'. Human capital adds to the productive power of the
country. It is the stock of skills and productive knowledge embodied in them.

4. The role of health in human capital formation

Improved health contributes to economic growth in the following ways:
 It reduces production loss caused by worker’s illness. And It increases the
efficiency of workers.
 It permits the use of natural and other resources.
 It increases the enrolment of children in schools and makes them better able to
learn.
 Only a healthy person can perform to his full potential.
 A healthy person can do the work in a more effective manner.
 A healthy person can contribute to the growth and development of the economy
by doing productive work.

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 An unhealthy person becomes a liability for an organisation. Indeed health is an
indispensable basis for realising one’s well being.
 Realising the importance of health, improvement in the health status of the
population has been the priority of the government.

5. Role of health in an individual’s working life.

Health is a yardstick of one’s well-being. Efficiency of a person largely depends on
his health. If a person falls sick quite often, he will not be able to do his job/work
efficiently. Therefore, his income will be low. Because of low level of income, he will
not be able to get proper food and proper education for his children. This will
further reduce his efficiency of work and thereby income. In fact, good health
improves the quality of life.
6. Infant Mortality Rate

Infant Mortality Rate (IMR) is the total number of children dying under one year of
age in a particular period of time.

a. Infant Mortality Rate is decreasing due to following reasons:

 Increase in life expectancy due to improved medical facilities.
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 Better protection of children from infection, ensuring nutrition along with mother
and child care.
b.Functions of IMR
 It indicates the increase in life expectancy and improvement in child care which is
useful in assessing the future progress of the country.
 Reduction in infant mortality involves the protection of children from infection,
ensuring nutrition along with mother and child care.
7. Measures taken by government to improve literacy condition in India.
(i) Opening of NavodayaVidyalayas: Government has started to establish
NavodayaVidyalayas in each district vocational streams have been developed
to equip large number of high school students with occupations related to
knowledge and skills.
(ii) SarvaShikshaAbhiyan: It is a significant step towards providing elementary
education to all the children of age group 6-14 years. It is an initiative of the central
government in partnership with states, local government and the community for
achieving the goal of universalization of elementary education.
(iii) Mid-day Meal Scheme: It is a programme aimed to encourage attendance and
retentionof children in schools and improve their nutritional status.
8. Suggest any three ways to transform population load into an asset
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The three ways to transform population load into an asset are:
(i) To improve literacy rate: Education provides new aspirations and developed
values of life. Education helps in enhancing the national income, cultural richness
and increases the efficiency of governance.
(ii) Health: The health of a person helps him to realize his potential and the ability
to fight illness. Increase in longevity of life is an indicator of good quality of life
marked by self confidence. It involves protection of children from infection,
ensuring nutrition and along with mother and child care.
(iii) Formation of skills: Providing vocational and skilled based education helps the
people to get employment and therefore they contribute to the national income
later on.
9. The role of human resources in economic development.
(i) Higher Productivity: Investment in human capital yields a return just like
investment in physical capital. This can be seen directly in form of higher incomes
earned because of higher productivity of the more educated or the better trained
persons as well as the higher productivity of healthier people. India’s Green
Revolution and IT Revolution are good examples of human resources development.

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(ii) Better Utilisation of Resources: Countries like Japan have invested in human
resource. They did not have any natural resource. They could become
rich/developed because of investments in people especially in the fields of
education and health. These people have made efficient use of other resources like
land and capital. Efficient technology developed by people has made these
countries developed.
(iii) Source of Demand: Human beings make demand for the output of goods and
services produced in the country. Expansion of market for various types of goods
and services further leads to the increase in production.

10. Strategies undertaken by the government to reduce unemployment or to

solve the problem of unemployment in India.

I Rural Self-Employment Scheme: Our government has introduced various schemes

for creating self-employment opportunities in rural areas. In April 1999,
SwarnaJayanti Gram-SewaRozgarYojana (SGSY) was introduced whose main aim
was to improve opportunities of self-development in rural areas.

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(ii) Wage-employment Schemes: Main objective of this scheme was to provide
opportunities for wage earning to rural people. Since June 23, 1999, all these
schemes were merged with Jawahar Gram Samridhi Yojana (JGSY).

(iii) Various schemes for providing employment to educated in urban areas:

Various schemes (like Prime Minister RozgarYojana PMRY),
SwarnJayantiShahriRozgarYojana (SJSRY) has been started by the government for
providing employment to the educated youth in urban area.
(iv) Opening schools in villages: Opening vocational and elementary schools in
villages create employment opportunities for people living there. Earlier people
were involved in primary sector only but now they have better employment
opportunities in other sectors also.
(v) Small scale manufacturing: Opening opportunities of self-employment in the
form of small scale manufacturing units like basket weaving etc. adds to the
employment opportunities to removes disguised and seasonal unemployment away
from people.
(vi) Introduction to modern farming methods: Use of modern farming methods
gave the surplus members of family to get involved in other employment
opportunities.
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(vii) Proper health facilities: Improvement in health facilities in urban and rural
areas improved in quality of human resource which in turn work more efficiently
and contributed to national income.

HOME WORK QUESTIONS

1. What is the role of education in human capital formation?

2. Why is educated unemployment a peculiar problem of India?
3. In which field do you think India can build the maximum employment
opportunity?
4. Can you suggest some measures in the education system to mitigate the problem
of the educated unemployed?
5. Can you imagine some village which initially had no job opportunity but later
came up with many?
6. Differentiate between Market Activities and Non-Market Activities.
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7. Discuss the factors responsible for the distribution of population in India.

CHAPTER – 3
POVERTY AS A CHALLENGE

1.
a. Social Groups Vulnerable to Poverty-
(i) Scheduled caste households
(ii) Scheduled tribe households
b. Economic Groups Vulnerable to Poverty-
(i) Rural agricultural labour households
(ii) Urban casual labour households.
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2. Three ways to estimate poverty in India:
While determining the poverty line in India, a minimum level of food requirement,
clothing, footwear, fuel and light, educational and medical requirement etc. are
determined for subsistence.

(i) The calorie requirement depending upon the age, sex, area and type of work is
the way of estimating poverty. Average calorie requirement in India is 2400 per
person per day in rural areas and 2100 per person per day in urban areas.
(ii) Monetary expenditure per capita needed is also a way of estimating poverty. In
the year 2000, poverty line for a person was fixed at Rs 328 per month for the
rural areas and Rs 454 for the urban areas.
(iii) A uniform standard for poverty line is also used, which is given by international
organizations like World Bank. This is equivalent of $ 1 per person per day.

3. Major Reasons for Poverty in India

The major causes/factors responsible for existence of poverty in India are discussed
below:

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(1) Fast Population Growth Among the Poor: The rapid growth of population,
particularly among the poor, is considered one of the major causes behind Indian
poverty. Poor people are illiterate and have traditional outlook. Hence, they are
either ignorant of birth control measures or not convinced of the need of birth
control. Moreover, they consider male child as an asset, that is, as a source of
income and a source of security during old age.
(2) Low Rate of Economic Development: The actual rate of growth in India has
always been below the required level. It has been around 4 per cent since 1951.
This has resulted in less job opportunities. This was accompanied by a high growth
rate of population. These two combined kept the growth rate of per capita income
very low. The failure at both fronts — promotion of economic growth and
population control — aggravated the problem of poverty.
(3) Unemployment: Another important factor that can be held responsible for the
incidence of high poverty in India is the high degree of unemployment and
underemployment. The job seekers are increasing at a higher rate than the increase
in the employment opportunities.

101
(4) Unequal Distribution of Income: Although national income of India has been
increasing since 1951, it was not properly distributed among different sections of
the society. A large proportion of increased income has been pocketed by a few
rich. They become richer. Consequently, the majority of people have to live below
the poverty line.
(5) Social Factors: Various social factors, viz., caste system, joint family system,
religious faiths, law of inheritance, etc., have blocked the path of economic
development. For example, because of religious beliefs, people regard poverty as
God given. Similarly, joint family system has prevented people from doing hard
work and made them dependent.
4. Government Strategy towards Poverty Alleviation
The current government strategy towards poverty alleviation has broadly been two-
dimensional:

a)Economic Growth: To fight against poverty our government laid emphasis on

promotion of economic growth. This strategy is based on the belief that the

102
 benefits of economic growth would automatically ‘trickle down’ to the poor
people in form of more employment and more income.

b)Anti-Poverty Programmes: With a view to launch a direct attack on poverty, our

government formulated several schemes to benefit the poor. Important among
them are:
a) Prime Minister RojgarYojana
b)SwarnaJayanti Gram SwarojgarYojana
c) PradhanMantriGramodayaYojana
d)SampoornaGrameenRojgarYojana
e)National Rural Employment Guarantee Act

Through the programmes, the government has tried to help the poor by way of
income generation, wage employment and asset building. However, the results of
their programmes have not been so satisfactory as were desired.

5. Measures to reduce regional poverty

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Several states of India like Orissa, Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Nagaland,
etc., are economically very poor. To remove this regional poverty the following
measures may be suggested:
(a) More Central assistance and grants should be given to backward states.
(b) Special concessions may be given for investments in backward areas.
(c) Public sector enterprises should be set up in backward states.

6. Measures to reduce poverty in India:

 More Industrialization: In order to remove poverty and unemployment,

especially in cities, more and more industries are to be set up.
 Improvement in Agriculture: While latest methods should be adopted in
improving agriculture, steps should also be taken so that land is provided to the
tiller and it is not concentrated in the hands of few rich farmers and landlords.
 Education: Education is must for removing any evil, including poverty and
unemployment. It must be made cheaper so that every person could get it easily.
 Increasing empowerment of women and the economically weaker sections of
society.
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 Fostering the economic growth.
 Increasing the stress on universal free elementary education.
 Caste and gender discrimination to be avoided.
 Improving health care, education and job security.
 Removing inequality of wealth among people.

7. The policies of colonial government – which was responsible for poverty in

India:

A policy of colonial government is one of the historical reasons of poverty after and
at the time of British colonial administration. The policies of the colonial
government ruined traditional handicrafts and discouraged development of
industries like textiles. The low rate of growth persisted until the nineteen eighties.
This resulted in less job opportunities and low growth rate of incomes. This was
accompanied by a high growth rate of population. The two combined to make the
growth rate of per capita income very low. The failure at both the fronts –
promotion of economic growth and population control – perpetuated the cycle of
poverty.

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HOME WORK QUESTIONS

1. Describe how the poverty line is estimated in India.

2. Discuss the major reasons for poverty in India.
3. Give an account of inter-state disparities in poverty in India.
4. Describe global poverty trends.
5. Explain how the low level of education can be held responsible for poverty in
India.
6. Suggest some measures to reduce regional poverty.
7. Mention any three features of the National Rural Employment Guarantee Act,
2005.
8. How the policies of colonial government were responsible for poverty in India?

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 CHAPTER – 4
FOOD SECURITY

1. Define:

 Food security – Food security means availability, accessibility and affordability of

food to all people at all times.
 Green Revolution – The Green Revolution implies large increase in agricultural
production due to use of high yielding varieties of seeds and other inputs such as
manure, fertilizers, etc.
 Minimum support price – The farmers are paid a pre-announced price for their
crops. This price is called Minimum Support Price. The MSP is before the sowing

107
 season to provide incentives to the farmers for raising the production of these
crops declared by the government every year.
 Issue price – It is a price at which food grains are distributed in the de􀂡cit areas
and among the poorer strata of society at a price lower than the market price.
 Cooperative societies –The cooperative societies are the societies which are run
by the local people, who are democratically elected by the people. These
cooperative societies provide people the basic necessities of life like food grains,
milk, vegetables, etc. at reasonable rates.
 Subsidy – A subsidy is a payment that a government makes to a producer to
supplement the market price of a commodity. Subsidies can keep consumer
prices low while maintaining a higher income for domestic producers.
 Fair Price Shops –The food procured by the government is distributed among the
poor. This task is done through government regulated shops which are known as
fair price shops.

2. Seasonal hunger and chronic hunger

Seasonal Hunger: Seasonal hunger persists only during a particular period of the
season. It is linked with the cycles of food growing and harvesting. In rural areas,
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the seasonal hunger is prevalent because of the seasonal nature of agricultural
activities. The gap between the sowing season and the reaping season is marked by
seasonal hunger.
Chronic Hunger: When diet is inadequate in terms of quantity or quality, it is called
chronic hunger. Usually poor people suffer from chronic hunger because of their
low income and as a result their inability to buy food even for their survival. This
type of hunger is more or less of a permanent nature and presents throughout the
year.

3. Buffer stock

Buffer stock is the stock of foodgrains, namely wheat and rice procured by the
government through Food Corporation of India (FCI).
The FCI purchases wheat and rice from the farmers in states where there is surplus
production. The purchased foodgrains are stored in granaries. This is done to
distribute foodgrains in the deficit areas and among the poorer strata of society at a
price lower than the market price, also known as Issue Price. This helps in resolving
the problem of shortage of food.

109
Government created the buffer stock for the following reason:

1. Food security: The main objective of the buffer stock is to distribute the
foodgrains in the deficit areas and among the poorer strata of society at a price
lower than the market price.
2. Disaster or Calamity: The second objective of the buffer stock is to resolve the
problem of shortage of food during adverse weather conditions or during the
period of calamity.
3. To save the farmers from the ups and downs of the market: The third important
objective of the buffer stock is to save the farmers from ups and downs of the
market. Under this farmers are paid a preannounced price for their crops. This price
is declared by the government before the sowing season to provide incentives to
the farmers.
4. Uninterrupted supply of foodgrains: Buffer stocks are also created by the
government to maintain uninterrupted supply of foodgrains throughout India and
throughout the year.

4. A brief account of these measures undertaken by our government to provide

food security for the poor
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 Maintenance of Buffer Stock. Our government maintains buffer stock of
foodgrains through Food Corporation of India. The FCI purchases wheat and rice
from the farmers in surplus states and stores in granaries.
 Public Distribution System (PDS). The food procured by the FCI is distributed
among the poor through ration shops. Presently, there are about 4.6 lakh ration
shops in the country.
 ICDS: Integrated Child Development Services were launched in 1975 to ensure
nutrition among children of backward area.
 FFW: ‘Food for work’ was introduced in 1977-78 to provide employment
opportunities for poors to ensure food security for them.
 Nutritional Programmes. In order to provide nutritional security, our government
has launched various schemes. Mid-day meal scheme for schoolchildren, scheme
for supply of foodgrains to scheduled castes/scheduled tribes and special
nutrition programmes for pregnant/nursing mothers are examples of such
schemes.

5. The measures undertaken by the government to increase the production and

supply of foodgrains
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a. Land Reform Measures: Our government introduced several land reform
measures soon after independence to increase domestic production of foodgrains.
These measures included
(i) Abolition of intermediaries to transfer land to the actual tiller
(ii) Tenancy reforms to regulate rents paid by the tenants to the landlords
(iii) Imposition of ceiling on landholdings to procure surplus land for distribution
among the landless.

b. Provision of Institutional Credit. To provide cheap and adequate agricultural

finance many institutional credit agencies were set up. The expansions of
institutional credit to farmers were made especially through cooperatives and
commercial banks. As a result, the importance of village moneylenders, who used
to exploit the farmers by charging high rates of interest, has drastically declined.
Initially, only four percent of the total agricultural credit was advanced by
cooperatives and commercial banks in 1950-51. Now their percentage share rose to
89 percent in 2004-05.

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c. New Agricultural Strategy. New agricultural strategy was introduced which
resulted in the Green Revolution, especially in the production of wheat and rice.
Total production of foodgrains has increased from 50.8 million tonnes in 1950-51 to
212.0 million tonnes in 2003-04.

6. The main advantages of Public Distribution System

(i) It is the most effective instrument of government policy over the years in
stabilising prices and making food available to consumers at affordable prices.
(ii) It averts widespread hunger and famine by supplying food from surplus regions
of the country to the deficit ones.
(iii) It revises the prices of food grains in favour of poor household.
(iv) The declaration of minimum support price and procurement has contributed to
an increase in food grains production and provided income security to farmers in
certain regions.

7. Limitations of the public distribution system

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 Failed to remove hunger: The PDS has been working for many years but still
hunger is prevailing in the Indian society.
 Overflowing godowns: The FCI godowns are overflowing with foodgrains. In 2012
the stock of wheat and rice was 82.3 million tonnes which was much more than
the minimum stock. There is a general consensus that high level of buffer stock of
foodgrains is very undesirable and can be wasteful.
 Poor foodgrain quality: As most of godowns have more stock than their capacity,
this leads to deterioration in grain quality.
 Adverse impact on the environment: Due to incentive by the government most of
the states are producing only rice and wheat. The intensive utilization of water in
the cultivation of rice has led to environmental degradation and fall in the water
level, threatening the sustainability of the agricultural development in many
states.
 High burden on the economy: The Minimum Support Price for food grains has
risen very sharply in the recent years leading to a very high burden on state
exchequer.
 Threat to sustainability of agriculture: The intensive utilisation of water in the
cultivation of rice has also led to environmental degradation and fall in the water

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 level, threatening the sustainability of the agricultural development in many
states.
 Corrupt dealers: PDS dealers are sometimes found resorting to malpractices like
diverting the grains to open market to get better margin, selling poor quality
grains at ration shops, irregular opening of the shops, etc. It is common to find
that ration shops regularly have unsold stocks of poor quality grains left.

8. Defects of India’s Food Security System

The major flaws/drawbacks of food security system in India are as follows:

(i) Limited Benefit to the Poor. The poor has not benefited much from the PDS.
They have depended to a great extent on the open market for most of the
commodities. Ration cards are issued only to those households who have proper
residential addresses. Hence, a large number of homeless poor could not be
covered under the PDS.

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(ii) Leakages from PDS. Another defect of PDS relates to the problem of leakages of
goods from PDS to open market. The shopkeepers who are running ration shops sell
ration in the open market at higher prices instead of selling to ration card-holders at
subsidized prices.
(iii) Increase in Prices. The PDS has also failed to protect the poor against price rise.
There have been frequent increases in procurement and issue prices. Moreover, an
excessive buffer stock of foodgrains has reduced its quantity available in the open
market. This has also put an upward pressure on the market prices of food grains.
(iv) Rising Burden of Food Subsidy: PDS is highly subsidized in India. This has put a
huge fiscal burden on the government. For example, food subsidy burden has risen
from Rs 602 crore in 1980-81 to Rs 25,800 crore in 2003-04.

9. Give Reason
a. Green Revolution has made India self-sufficient in foodgrains

After Independence, Indian policy-makers adopted all possible measures to achieve

self-sufficiency in food grains. India adopted a new strategy in agriculture which
resulted in the Green Revolution. Green Revolution took place especially in the
production of wheat and rice. The core of this new strategy was the use of HYV
seeds along with chemical fertilizer and assured water supplies. As a result, total
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production of foodgrains increased from 50.8 million tonnes in 1950-51 to 212.0
million tonnes in 2003-04. The largest contribution came from wheat, whose
production rose from 6.4 million tonnes to 72.1 million tonnes.

b. The task of attaining self-sufficiency in foodgrains in future seems to be

difficult.
The task of attaining self-sufficiency in foodgrains in future seems to be difficult in
India. It is because:
 There is gradual increase in the growth of population.
 There has been a gradual shift from cultivation of food crops to cultivation of
fruits, vegetables, oil seeds and crops which act as industrial raw materials.
 More and more land is being used for construction of factories, residential
buildings, etc.

HOME WORK QUESTIONS

1. Do you believe that Green Revolution has made India self-sufficient in

foodgrains? How?
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2. What happens to the supply of food when there is a disaster or a calamity?
3. Differentiate between seasonal hunger and chronic hunger
4. What has our government done to provide food security for the poor? Discuss
any two schemes launched by the government.
5. Why is buffer stock created by the government?
6. What are the problems of the functioning of ration shops?
7. Write a note on the role of cooperatives in providing food and related items.
8. Briefly describe about the Public Distribution System in India.

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 History

CHAPTER-1
THE FRENCH REVOLUTION

Introduction

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French revolution started in 1789. The series of events started by the middle class
shaken the upper classes. The people revolted against the cruel regime of monarchy.
This revolution put forward the ideas of liberty, fraternity, and equality.

• The revolution began on 14th July, 1789 with the storming of the fortress-prison,
the Bastille.
→The Bastille, the fortress prison was hated by all, because it stood for the despotic
power of the king.
→ The fortress was demolished.

1. Causes of the French Revolution:

Social Cause

French Society During the Late Eighteenth Century

The term ‘Old Regime’ is usually used to describe the society and institutions of
France before 1789.

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The society was divided into three estates.
1. 1st Estate: Clergy (Group of persons involved in church matters)
2. 2nd Estate: Nobility (Persons who have high rank in state administration)
3. 3rd Estate: (Comprises of Big businessmen, merchants, court officials, lawyers,
Peasants and artisans, landless labour, servants)

• First two classes were exempted from paying taxes. They enjoyed privileges by
birth. Nobility classes also enjoyed feudal privileges.

• Only the members of the third estate had to pay taxes to the state.
→ Direct tax called taille and also a number of indirect taxes which were charged on
articles of everyday consumption like salt or tobacco.

• A tax called Tithe was also collected by the church from the peasants.

• Clergy and Nobility were 10% of the population but possessed 60% of lands. Third
Estate was 90% of the population but possessed 40% of the lands.

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Economic Cause

Subsistence Crisis

• The population of France rose from about 23 million in 1715 to 28 million in 1789.

• This increased the demand for the foodgrains. However, production could not
keep pace with the demand which ultimately increased the prices of the foodgrains.

• Most workers work as labourers in the workshops and they didn’t see increase in
their wages.

• Situation became worse whenever drought or hail reduced the harvest.

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• This led to the scarcity of foodgrains or Subsistence Crisis which started occurring
frequently during old regime.

Political Cause

• Louis XVI came into the power in 1774 and found empty treasury.

• Long years of war had drained the financial resources of France.

• Under Louis XVI, France helped the thirteen American colonies to gain their
independence from the common enemy, Britain which added more than a billion
livres to a debt that had already risen to more than 2 billion livres.

• An extravagant court at the immense palace of Versailles also cost a lot.

• To meet its regular expenses, such as the cost of maintaining an army, the court,
running government offices or universities, the state was forced to increase taxes.

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 2. Growing Middle Class

• The eighteenth century witnessed the emergence of social groups, termed the
middle class, who earned their wealth through overseas trade, from manufacturing
of goods and professions.

• This class was educated believed that no group in society should be privileged by
birth.

• They were inspired by the ideas put forward by the various philosophers and
became a matter of talk intensively for these classes in salons and coffee-houses
and spread among people through books and newspapers.

• The American constitution and its guarantee of individual rights was an important
example for political thinkers in France.

Philosophers and their contribution in revolution

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• John Locke: (written a book named ‘Two Treatises of Government’) in which he
criticized the doctrine of the divine and absolute right of the monarch.

• Jean Jacques Rousseau (written a book named ‘Social Contract’) in which he

proposed a form of government based on a social contract between people and their
representatives.

• Montesquieu (written a book named ‘The Spirit of the Laws’) in which he proposed a
division of power within the government between the legislative, the executive and
the judiciary.

3. The Outbreak of the Revolution

• Louis XVI called an assembly of the Estates General to pass his proposals to
increase taxes on 5th May 1789.

• The first and second estates sent 300 representatives each, who were seated in

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rows facing each other on two sides, while the 600 members of the third estate had
to stand at the back.

• The third estate was represented by its more prosperous and educated members
only while peasants, artisans and women were denied entry to the assembly.

• Voting in the Estates General in the past had been conducted according to the
principle that each estate had one vote and same practice to be continued this
time. But members of the third estate demanded individual voting right, where
each member would have one vote.

• After rejection of this proposal by the king, members of the third estate walked
out of the assembly in protest.
• On 20th June, the representatives of the third estate assembled in the hall of an
indoor tennis court in the grounds of Versailles where they declared themselves a
National Assembly and vowed to draft a constitution for France that would limit the
powers of the monarch.

• Mirabeau, a noble and Abbé Sieyès, a priest led the third estate.
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• While the National Assembly was busy at Versailles drafting a constitution, the
rest of France was in trouble.

• Severe winter destroyed the food crops which resulted in increase in the prices.
The bakers also hoarded supplies of breads for making greater profit.

• After spending hours in long queues at the bakery, crowds of angry women
stormed into the shops.

• At the same time, the king ordered troops to move into Paris. On 14 July, the
agitated crowd stormed and destroyed the Bastille.

• In the countryside rumours spread from village to village that the lords of the
manor were on their way to destroy the ripe crops through their hired gangs.

• Due to fear, peasants in several districts attacked the castle of nobles, looted
hoarded grain and burnt down documents containing records of manorial dues.
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• Large numbers of noble fled from their homes and many migrated to
neighbouring countries.

• Louis XVI finally recognised the National Assembly and accepted the constitution.

• On 4th August, 1789, France passed the law for abolishing the feudal system of
obligations and taxes.

• The member of clergy were also forced to give up their privileges.

• Tithes were abolished and lands owned by the Church were confiscated.

4. France Becomes a Constitutional Monarchy

• The National Assembly completed the draft of the constitution in 1791 which
main object was to limit the powers of the monarch.

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• The powers were now separated and assigned to different institutions – the
legislature, executive and judiciary which made France a constitutional monarchy.

• The Constitution of 1791 gave the power of making laws in the hands of National
Assembly, which was indirectly elected.

• The National Assembly was elected by a group of electors, which were chosen by
active citizens.

• Active Citizens comprises of only men above 25 years of age who paid taxes equal
to at least 3 days of a labourer’s wage.

• The remaining men and all women were classed as passive citizens who had no
voting rights
.

5. France Constitution at that time

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• The Constitution began with a Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen.

• Rights such as the right to life, freedom of speech, freedom of opinion, equality
before law, were given to each human being by birth and could not be taken away.

• It was the duty of the state to protect each citizen’s natural rights.

• Various Political Symbols:

→ The broken chain: stands for the act of becoming free.
→ The bundle of rods or fasces: Show strength lies in unity.
→ The eye within a triangle radiating light: The all-seeing eye stands for knowledge.
→ Sceptre: Symbol of royal power.
→ Snake biting its tail to form a ring: Symbol of Eternity.
→ Red Phrygian cap: Cap worn by a slave upon becoming free.
→ Blue-white-red: The national colours of France.
→ The winged woman: Personification of the law.
→ The Law Tablet: The law is the same for all, and all are equal before it.

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 6. France Abolishes Monarchy and Becomes a Republic

• Louis XVI had signed the Constitution, but he entered into secret negotiations
with the King of Prussia.

• Rulers of other neighbouring countries too were worried by the developments in

France and made plans to send troops to stop the revolutionary events taking place.

• Before this could happen, the National Assembly voted in April 1792 to declare
war against Prussia and Austria.

• Thousands of volunteers joined the army from the provinces to join the army.

• People saw this war as a war of the people against kings and aristocracies all over
Europe.

• The patriotic song Marseillaise, composed by the poet Roget de L’Isle was sung for
the first time by volunteers from Marseilles as they marched into Paris which is now
the national anthem of France.
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• The revolutionary wars brought losses and economic difficulties to the people.

• The Constitution of 1791 gave political rights only to the richer sections of society.

• Political clubs were established by the people who wished to discuss government
policies and plan their own forms of action.

• The most successful of these clubs was that of the Jacobins.

• The members of the Jacobin club belonged mainly to the less prosperous sections
of society such as small shopkeepers, artisans as well as servants and daily-wage
workers. Their leader was Maximilian Robespierre.

• Jacobins start wearing long striped trousers and came to be known as the sans-
culottes, literally meaning those without knee breeches.

• In the summer of 1792 the Jacobins planned a revolt of a large number of the
people of Paris who were angered by the short supplies and high prices of food.
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• On August 10, they stormed the Palace of the Tuileries, massacred the king’s
guards and held the king himself as hostage for several hours.

• Later the Assembly voted to imprison the royal family. Elections were held.

• From now on all men of 21 years and above, regardless of wealth, got the right to
vote.

• The newly elected assembly was called the Convention.

• On 21st September 1792, it abolished the monarchy and declared France a

republic.

• Louis XVI was sentenced to death by a court on the charge of treason.

• The queen Marie Antoinette met with the same fate shortly after.

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 7. The Reign of Terror

• The period from 1793 to 1794 is referred to as the Reign of Terror as Robespierre
followed a policy of severe control and punishment.

• All his enemies, Ex-nobles, clergy, members of other political parties, even
members of his own party who did not agree with his methods were arrested,
imprisoned and guillotined.

• Robespierre’s government issued laws placing a maximum ceiling on wages and

prices.
→ Meat and bread were rationed.
→ Peasants were forced to transport their grain to the cities and sell it at prices
fixed by the government.
→ The use of more expensive white flour was forbidden and all citizens were
required to eat the equality bread, a loaf made of whole wheat.

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• Instead of the traditional Monsieur (Sir) and Madame (Madam) all French men
and women were addressed as Citoyen and Citoyenne (Citizen).

• Churches were shut down and their buildings converted into barracks or offices.

• Robespierre pursued his policies so harshly that even his supporters began to
demand moderation.

• Finally, he was convicted by a court in July 1794, arrested and on the next day
sent to the guillotine.
(The guillotine is a device consisting of two poles and a blade with which a person is
beheaded. It was named after Dr.Guillotin who invented it.)

8. A Directory Rules France

• A new constitution was introduced which denied the vote to non-propertied

sections of society.

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• It provided for two elected legislative councils which then appointed a Directory,
an executive made up of five members.

• The Directors often clashed with the legislative councils, who then sought to
dismiss them.

• The political instability of the Directory paved the way for the rise of a military
dictator, Napoleon Bonaparte.

9. Women Revolution

• From the very beginning women were active participants in revolution.

• They hoped that their involvement would pressurise the revolutionary

government to introduce measures to improve their lives.

• Most women of the third estate had to work for a living as laundresses, sellers,
domestic servants in the houses of prosperous people.
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• Most women did not have access to education or job training.

• To discuss and voice their interests women started their own political clubs and
newspapers.
→ The Society of Revolutionary and Republican Women was the most famous of
them.

• Women were disappointed that the Constitution of 1791 reduced them to passive
citizens.

• They demanded the right to vote, to be elected to the Assembly and to hold
political office.

• The revolutionary government did introduce laws that helped improve the lives of
women.
→ By creation of state schools, schooling was made compulsory for all girls.
→ Their fathers could no longer force them into marriage against their will.

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→ Marriage was made into a contract entered into freely and registered under civil
law.
→ Divorce was made legal, and could be applied for by both women and men.
→ Women could now train for jobs, could become artists or run small businesses.

• During the Reign of Terror, the new government issued laws ordering closure of
women’s clubs and banning their political activities.
→ Many prominent women were arrested and a number of them executed.

• It was finally in 1946 that women in France won the right to vote.

10. The Abolition of Slavery

• The unwillingness of Europeans to go and work in the colonies in the Caribbean

which were important suppliers of commodities such as tobacco, indigo, sugar and
coffee created a shortage of labour on the plantations. Thus, the slave trade began
in the seventeenth century.

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→ French merchants sailed from their ports to the African coast, where they bought
slaves from local chieftains.

→ Branded and shackled, the slaves were packed tightly into ships for the three-
month long voyage across the Atlantic to the Caribbean.

• There they were sold to plantation owners. The exploitation of slave labour made
it possible to meet the growing demand in European markets for sugar, coffee, and
indigo.

• Port cities like Bordeaux and Nantes owed their economic prosperity to the
flourishing slave trade.

• The National Assembly held long debates for about whether the rights of man
should be extended to all French subjects including those in the colonies.

• But it did not pass any laws, fearing opposition from businessmen whose incomes
depended on the slave trade.
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• Jacobin regime in 1794, abolished slavery in the French colonies.

• However, ten years later, Napoleon reintroduced slavery.

• Slavery was finally abolished in French colonies in 1848.

11. The Revolution and Everyday Life

• After the storming of the Bastille in the summer of 1789 was the abolition of
censorship.

• The Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen proclaimed freedom of speech
and expression to be a natural right.

• Newspapers, pamphlets, books and printed pictures flooded the towns of France
from where they travelled rapidly into the countryside and described and discussed
the events and changes taking place in France.

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• Plays, songs and festive processions attracted large numbers of people which was
one way they could grasp and identify with ideas such as liberty or justice.

12. Rise of Napoleon Bonaparte

• After the end of reign of terror, directory created political instability.

• In 1804, Napoleon Bonaparte crowned himself Emperor of France.

• He conquered many neighbouring countries and placed members of his family on

the crown

• Napoleon saw his role as a moderniser of Europe.

• He introduced many laws such as the protection of private property and a uniform
system of weights and measures provided by the decimal system.

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• Initially, many welcomed Napoleon as a liberator who would bring freedom for
the people. But soon the Napoleonic armies came to be viewed everywhere as an
invading force.

• He was finally defeated at Waterloo in 1815.

Legacy of the French Revolution

• The ideas of liberty and democratic rights were the most important legacy of the
French Revolution.

• These spread from France to the rest of Europe during the nineteenth century,
where feudal systems were abolished.
• Later, these ideas were adopted by Indian revolutionary strugglers, Tipu Sultan
and Rammohan Roy also.

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 CHAPTER -2
Socialism in Europe &The Russian Revolution

1. Liberals, Radicals, and Conservatives:

(i)Liberals looked to change society, they wanted a nation which tolerated all
religions.

They opposed the uncontrolled power of dynastic rulers. They wanted to safeguard
the rights of individuals against governments.

They argued for a representative, elected parliamentary government, subject to

laws interpreted by a well-trained judiciary that was independent of rules and
officials.

They did not believe in Universal Adult Franchise, felt a man of property mainly
should have the vote, also did not want the vote for a woman.

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(ii)Radicals wanted a nation in which government was based on the majority of the
country’s population.

They supported women’s suffragette movements. They opposed the privileges of

great landowners and wealthy factory owners.

They were not against the existence of private property but disliked concentration
of property in the hands of a few.

(iii)Conservative opposed to radicals and liberals. After the French revolution,

however, even conservatives had opened their minds to the need for change.

In the eighteenth century, conservatives had been generally opposed to the idea of
change.

By the nineteenth century, they accepted that some change was inevitable but
believed that the past had to be respected and change had to be brought about
through a slow process.

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2. Industrial Society and Social Change:

(i)New cities came up and new industrialized regions developed, railways expanded
and the Industrial Revolution occurred.

(ii)Working hours were often long, wages were poor, unemployment was common,
and problems of housing and sanitation were growing rapidly. liberals and radicals
searched
for solutions to these issues.

(iii)Liberals and radicals who themselves were often property owners and
employers firmly believed in the values of individual effort, labor, and enterprise. If
freedom of individuals was ensured, if the poor could labor, and those with capital
could operate without restraint, they believed that societies would develop.

(iv)Some nationalists, liberals, and radicals wanted the revolution to put an end to
the king of governments established in Europe in 1815.

145
Nationalists talked of revolutions that would create ‘nations’ where all citizens
would have equal rights. After 1815, Giuseppe Mazzini, an Italian nationalist,
conspired with others to achieve this in Italy.

3. The Coming of Socialism to Europe:

(i)By the mid-nineteenth century in Europe, socialism was a well-known body of

ideas that attracted widespread attention.

(ii)Socialists were against private property and saw it as the root of all social evils of
the time. ratherthen single individuals controlling property, they wanted that more
attention would be paid to collective social interests.

(iii)Socialists had different visions of the future: Robert Owen (1771-1858) a leading
English manufacturer, sought to build a cooperative community called New
Harmony in Indiana (USA).

146
Other socialists, for instance, Louis Blanc(1813- 1882) wanted the government to
encourage cooperatives and replace capitalist enterprises. these cooperatives were
to be associations of people who produced goods together and divided the profits
according to the work done by members.

Karl Marx (1818-1883)and Friedrich Engels (1820-1895) added other ideas to this
body of arguments.

4. THE RUSSIAN REVOLUTION:

(a) The Russian Empire in 1914:

In 1914, Tsar Nicholas II ruled Russia and its empire. Besides the territory around
Moscow, the Russian empire included current- day Finland, Lithuania, and Estonia,
parts of Poland, Ukraineand Belarus.

It stretched to the Pacific and comprised today’s Central Asian states, as well as
Georgia, Armenia, and Azerbaijan.

147
The majority religion was Russian Orthodox Christianity – which had grown out of
the Greek Orthodox Church – but the empire also included Catholics, Protestants,
Muslims, and Buddhists.

(b)Economic and Social conditions of Russia before the revolution:

(i)Peasants and workers formed most of the Czarist Russia’s population including
the Non-Russian nationalities. Their condition was miserable.

(ii)Russia was industrially a backward country. The condition of the workers was
bad. They were forced to work for long hours on low wages.

(iii)Both the workers and peasants had no meaningful place in society.They had no
political rights. In, contrast the nobility at the top enjoyed all the privileges in the
state.

(iv)Corruption was widespread at all levels. The condition of the soldiers was also
not satisfactory.

148
Political Conditions:

(i)The Russian Czars continued to enjoy unlimited powers and were cruel and
irresponsible as before. They never cared for the welfare of their people.

(ii)Czar Nicholas II still believed in the old ‘Divine of Kings’.

(iii)People were taxed heaved to maintain armed forces. Only the nobility supported
the Czar as an all-important position in the state were occupied by it.

(iv)All right officials were recruited from the upper classes only. They were corrupt
and inefficient.

(iv)The Royal family was also corrupt and immoral

(v)The Russian Czars had built a vast empire by conquering diverse nationalities in
Asia and Europe. The Czars forced the people there to adopt the Russian language
and culture.

149
vi)The Czar’s policy of expansion also brought them in conflict or wars with other
major imperialist powers

5. Socialism in Russia:

George Plekhanov a follower of Karl Marx formed the Russian Social Democratic
Party in 1883. Many there socialist groups later joined this organization and were
known as the Russian Social Democratic Labor Party in 1898.

However, the party soon split into two groups over questions of organization and
policy. They were known as the Mensheviks and the Bolsheviks. Differences
between these two groups were as follows:

(i)The minority group, led by Plekhanov, was known as the Mensheviks. They
wanted to bring changes through peaceful and constitutional means, favored the
parliamentary system of government.

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(ii)The minority group consisted of extreme socialists who were called the
Bolsheviks. Lenin was their leader.

6. Bloody Sunday:

On January 9, 1905, a body of peaceful workers led by Father Gapon, with their
wives and children was fired at in St. Petersburg.

They were on their way to present a petition to the Czar there. Over a thousand of
them were killed and many more wounded in the firing.

This day came to be known as ‘Bloody Sunday’ as the massacre had taken place on
Sunday.

A dress Rehearsal:

The 1905 revolution proved to be a dress rehearsal of the revolution that came in
1917.
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The incident of Bloody Sunday caused widespread disturbances all over Russia.

Strikes took place in many Russian towns. Mutinies or rebellions broke out in
the navy and the army.

The sailors of the battleship ‘Potemkin’ joined the revolutionaries. The work in trade
and industry came to a standstill.

Workers in factories, docks, and railways also went on a strike.

The soldiers and the representatives of the non- Russian nationalities came into
close contact with the revolutionaries (Bolsheviks) in the country.

7. Formation of Soviets:

The 1905 revolution gave birth to a new form of organization, called the ‘Soviet’.

It was the council of workers representatives to conduct strikes, but soon it

became the instruments of political power.
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Soviets played a decisive role, particularity in the 1917 October Revolution.

The Tsar dismissed the first Duma within 75 days and the re- elected second Duma
within three months.

He changed the voting laws and packed the third Duma with conservative
politicians. Liberals and revolutionaries were kept out.

(e)The First World War and the Russian Empire: In Russia, the war was initially
popular
and people rallied around Tsar Nicholas II.

Later Tsar refused to consult the main parties in the Duma. The common people’s
support also declined.

The Tsarina Alexandra’s German origins and poor advisors, especially a monk called
Rasputin, made the autocracy unpopular.
153
Though Russia gained initial success in the war but later lost badly in Germany and
Austria between 1914 and 1916.

The situation discredited the government and the tsar. Soldiers did not wish to fight
such a war. Industries suffered a setback, Railway lines began to break down.

As most of the men were fighting on the front, there were labor shortages. Large
supplies off grain were sent to feed the army. By the winter of 1916, riots at bread
shops were common.

8. THE FEBRUARY REVOLUTION IN PETROGRAD

 In the winter of 1917, conditions in the capital Petrograd were grim. In

February 1917, food shortages were deeply felt.

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 On 22 February, a lockout took place at a factory on the right bank of the River
Nava. Workers in fifty factories called a strike in sympathy.

 In many factories, women led the way to strikes. This came to be called the
International Women’s day.

 As the fashionable quarters and official buildings were surrounded by workers,

the government imposed a curfew.

 The government called out the cavalry and police to keep an eye on them. On
Sunday, 25 February, the government suspended the Duma .

 Demonstrations returned in force to the streets of the left bank on the 26th On
the 27th, the Police Headquarters were ransacked.

 The government tried to control the situation and called out the cavalry, who
refused to fire on the demonstrators.

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  By that evening, soldiers and striking workers had gathered to form a ‘soviet’ or
‘council’. This was the Petrograd Soviet.

 Military commanders advised Tsar to abdicate. He followed their advice and

abdicated on 2 March. Soviet leaders and Duma leaders formed a Provisional
Government to run the country.

 Petrograd had led the February Revolution the brought down the monarchy in
February 1917.

9. After February

 Through the summer the worker's movement spread in industrial areas, a

factory was formed which began questioning the way industrialists run their
factories.

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 Trade unions grew in number. Soldiers committees were formed in the army.
In June, about 500 Soviets sent representatives to an All Russian Congress of
Soviets.

 As the Provisional Government saw its power reduce and Bolshevik influence
grew, it decided to stern measures against the spreading discontent.

 It resisted attempts by workers to run factories and began arresting leaders.

Popular demonstrations staged by the Bolsheviks in July 1917 were seemly
repressed.

 Many Bolsheviks leaders had to go into hiding or flee. Meanwhile, in the

countryside, peasants and their Socialist revolutionary leaders pressed for a
redistribution of land.

 Land committees were formed to handle this. Encouraged by the Socialist-

Revolutionaries, peasants seized land between July and September 1917

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10. The contribution of Lenin in the Russian revolution:

 Vladimir Ulyanov population knows as Lenin is regarded as one of the socialist

revolutionists after Marx and Angels. His name has become inseparable from
the revolution of 1917.

 (i)He organized the Bolshevik party as an instrument for bringing about

revolution.

 (ii)He set fort ‘the fundamental laws for a successful revolution’.

 (iii)Under Lenin’s leadership, Bolshevik party put forward clear policies to end
the war and transfer land to the peasants and advance the slogan “ All power
to the Soviets”.

 (iv)Lenin proclaimed the right of all people including those under the Russian
empire, to self-determination.

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  (v)Under the able leadership of Lenin Russia and other Soviets were united into
USSR and it emerged as a superpower.

11. Lenin’s “Fundamental Law for a successful revolution:

 The people should fully understand that revolution is necessary and be ready to
sacrifice their lives for it.

 The existing government should be in a state of crisis to make it possible for to

be overthrown rapidly.The fourfold demand of the Russian Revolutionaries:

 Land to the tiller. Land of the nobles, Church and the Czar was to be taken over
and transferred to the peasant's families for distribution.

 Control of industry was to be handed over to the workers or workers soviets.

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  Peace for all, in particular to soldiers who were suffering heavy losses on the
front.

 Equal status was to be granted to all non-Russiannationalities living in the

Russian territories.

12. The Revolution of October 1917:

 Lenin feared the Provisional government would set up a dictatorship. He began

discussion for an uprising against the government.

 On 16 October 1917, Lenin persuaded the Petrograd Soviet and the Bolshevik
Party to agree to a socialist seizure of power.

 A Military Revolutionary Committee was appointed by the Soviet under Leon

Trotsky to organize the seizure.

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  The uprising began on 24 October. Military men loyal on the government
seized the buildings of two Bolshevik newspaper Military Revolutionary
Committee order its supporters to seize government offices and arrest
ministers.

 The ship Aurora shelled Winter Place. The city was taken under the control
committee’s control and the ministers surrendered.

 At a meeting of the All Russian Congress of Soviets in Petrograd, the majority

approved the Bolshevik action. Uprising took place in other cities.

13. WHAT CHANGED AFTER OCTOBER?

 Congress of the Soviets met on the day after the October Revolution and issued
a proclamation.

 It appealed all peoples and states participating in the war to open negotiations
for a just peace. It opposed annexation and paying for war damages.
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 Russia withdrew to form the war. Signed a peace treaty with Germany, it
surrendered all its territories which it had acquired since the time of Peter the
Great.

 As a result of the decree on land, the estates of the Czar, the Church, and the
landlords were taken over and transferred to the Soviets of the peasants.

 The control of industries was passed over to shop committees or soviets of

workers.

 Banks/insurances, large industries, mines, water transport, and railways were

nationalised by 1918.

 The new government disowned foreign debts. It also tookpossession of foreign

investments without payment.

 A declaration of the ‘Rights of People’ was also issued. It gave the right to self-
determination to all non-Russiannationalities living within Russian territories.
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  The new revolutionary government that came into being was called the Council
of
 People’s Commissars. it was headed by Lenin. Its first act marked the beginning
of the ear of socialism in Russia. It later spread to many other country

14. Stalinism and Collectivization:

 By 1927-28, the towns in Soviet Russia were facing an acute problem of grain
supplies.

 Stain believed that the rich person and traders in the countryside were holding
stocks in the hope of higher prices.

 Raids were made on ‘Kulaks’ –the well -to –do peasants. as shortages
continued, the decision was taken to collectivize farms.

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  From 1929 the party forced all forced all peasants to cultivate in collective
farms (kolkhoz). The bulk of land and implements were transferred to the
ownership of collective farms.

 Those who resisted collectivization were severely punished. many inside the
party criticized the confusion in industrial production under the Planned
Economy and the consequences of collectivization but were charged with
conspiracy against socialism.

 A large number were forced to make false confessions under torture and were
executed, several among them were talented professionals.

15. The consequence of the Russian Revolution in Russia:

The immediate consequence of the Russian Revolution was as follows:

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 (i)The autocratic rule of the Czar ended forever. the revolution destroyed the
power of both aristocracy and the church.

 (ii)Russia became the world’s first socialist society. TheCzarist Empire changed
into a new state called the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics or the Soviet
Union.

 (iii)It withdrew from the First World War.

 (iv)The new government signed a peace treaty with Germany. it concedes the
territories demanded by its old enemy as a price for peace.

 (v)In order to establish peace, law, and order in the new society, Lenin was
forced to adopt some drastic measures. these steps were taken under a policy
called ‘War Communism’.

 (vi)It was during this period (1917-20) that a large scale nationalization of
various enterprises, as described under the proclamation of the Congress of
Soviets, took place.
165
 CHAPTER 3
Nazism and the Rise of Hitler

 The Allied Powers -The UK, France, the then USSR and USA. Axis Powers-
Germany, Italy and Japan.

166
 Central powers- Germany, Austria-Hungary and Turkey (Ottoman Empire).

1. Germany in the World WarI

 1.Germany, a powerful empire fought the First World War(1914-1918)

alongside the Austrian empire and Turkey and against the Allies (England,
France and Russia.)

 2.All joined the war enthusiastically hoping to gain from a quick victory.

 3.Germany made initial gains by occupying France and

Belgium.

 4.But USA’s entry changed the course of the war.

 5.However the Allies won the War by defeating Germany and

the Central Powers in November 1918.

2. Birth of the Weimar Republic and its failure

167
 1.The defeat of Imperial Germany and the abdication of the emperor gave an
opportunity to parliamentary parties to recast German polity. A National
Assembly met at Weimar and established a democratic constitution with a
federal structure.

 2.The Weimar constitution had some inherent defects, which made it unstable
and vulnerable to dictatorship. One defect was proportional representation.
This made achieving a majority by any one party a near impossible task, which
led to a rule by coalitions.

 3.Another defect was Article 48, which gave the President the powers to
impose emergency, suspend civil rights and rule by decree.

 4.Within its short life, the Weimar Republic saw twenty different cabinets
(governments) lasting on an average 239 days, and a liberal use of Article 48.
People lost confidence in the democratic parliamentary system, which seemed
to
offer no solutions except Hitler.
168
3. Versailles treaty- (A Peace treaty signed between allied powers and Germany)

 1.Germany lost its overseas colonies, a tenth of its population and 13 per cent
of its territories.

 2.75 per cent of its iron mines and 26 per cent of its coal mines were given to
France, Poland, Denmark and Lithuania.

 3.The Allied Powers demilitarised Germany to (not to possess more than one
lakh soldiers) weaken its power.

 4.Germany was made responsible for the I World War and damages the Allied
countries suffered. Germany was forced to pay compensation amounting to £6
billion.
169
 5.The Allied armies also occupied the resource-rich Rhineland for much of the
1920s.

4. November criminals

 Many Germans held the new Weimar Republic responsible for not only the
defeat in the war but the disgrace at Versailles. Those who supported the
Weimar Republic, mainly Socialists, Catholics and Democrats became easy
targets of attack in the conservative nationalist circles. They were mockingly
called as the November criminals.

5. . The Effects of the World War I in Germany

a.Psychological Effect (social effect)

 1.The First World War left a deep imprint on European society. Soldiers were
placed above civilians.
170
  2.Politicians and media laid great stress on the need for men to be aggressive,
strong and masculine.

 3.Aggressive war propaganda and national honour led to popular support for
conservative dictatorships.

b.Political Radicalism( Political effect)

 1.The birth of the Weimar Republic coincided with the revolutionary uprising of
the Spartacist League on the pattern of the Revolution in Russia.

 2.The political atmosphere in Berlin was charged with demands for Soviet-style
government. But the uprising was suppressed with the help of a war
veteransorganisation called Free Corps.

c.Economic crisis (Hyperinflation)

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 1.Germany had fought the war largely on loans and had to pay war reparations
in gold. This depleted gold reserves.
 2.In 1923 Germany refused to pay so the French occupied its leading industrial
area, Ruhr.

 3.Germany printed paper currency recklessly. With too much printed money in
circulation, the value of the German mark fell. In April the US dollar was equal
to 24,000 marks, in August 4,621,000 marks and in December 98,860,000
marks.

 4.This crisis cameto be known as hyperinflation, a situation when price s rise

phenomenally high.

d.Economic Depression and its impact on Germany

 1.The years between 1924 and 1928 USA gave short-term loans to Germany.
This support was withdrawn when the Wall Street Exchange crashed in 1929 in
the USA.
172
 2.Fearing a fall in prices, people made frantic efforts to sell their shares. On one
single day, 24 October, 13 million shares were sold. This was the start of the
Great Economic Depression in the USA.

 3.The German economy was the worst hit by the economic crisis. By 1932,
industrial production was reduced to 40 percent, Workers lost their jobs, and
number of unemployed touched an unprecedented 6 million.

 4.Germans hung placards around their necks saying, Willing to do any work.

 5.Unemployed youths took to criminal activities and total despair became

common place. The middle classes, especially salaried employees and
pensioners, saw their savings diminish when the currency lost its value.

 e. Proletarianisation ( Fear of becoming poor)

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 1.The rich, small business men, middle class and self- employed persons
developed a fear that at any time they would become poor and come to street
in poverty.

 2.This group began to support Hitler and his ideas.

6. Hitler’s Promises

 1.Hitler promised to build Germany in to a strong nation.

 2. to undo the injustice of the Versailles Treaty and restore the dignity of the
German people.

 3.employment for those looking for work.

 4.to secure future of the youth.

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 5 weed out all foreign influences and resist all
foreign conspiracies against Germany.
7. Hitler’s Destruction of Democracy

 1.On 30 January 1933, President Hindenburg offered the Chancellorship to

Hitler. Having acquired power, Hitler set out to dismantle the structures of
democratic rule

 2.A mysterious fire that broke out in the German Parliament building and the
Fire Decree of 28 February 1933 was passed which indefinitely suspended civic
rights like freedom of speech, press and assembly.

 3.Then he turned on his arch- enemies, the Communists, most of whom were
hurriedly packed off to the newly established concentration camps. The
repression of the Communists was severe. The socialists, democrats and
Catholics also were
arrested and killed.

175
 4.On 3 March 1933, the famous Enabling Act was passed. This Act established
dictatorship in Germany. It gave Hitler all powers to control over the economy,
media, army and judiciary.

 5.Special surveillance and security forces were created to control and order
society in ways that the Nazis wanted. Apart from the already existing regular
police in green uniform the Gestapo (secret state police), the SS (the protection
squads), criminal police and the Security Service (SD). The police forces
arrested, tortured and killed the undesirables.

8. E-Construction of German Economy by Hitler

 1.Hitler assigned the responsibility of economic recovery to the economist

Hjalmar Schacht who provided employment through a state-funded work-
creation programme. This project produced the famous German superhighways
and the people’s car, the Volkswagen.

176
 2.In foreign policy also Hitler acquired quick successes. He reoccupied the
Rhineland in 1936, and integrated Austria and Germany in 1938 under the
slogan, One people, One empire, and One leader.

 3.He then went on to wrest German-speaking Sudetenland from

Czechoslovakia, and gobbled up the entire country. In all of this he had the
unspoken support of England and France.

 4.These quick successes at home and abroad seemed to reverse the destiny of
the country. Hitler invested hugely in rearmament as the state still ran on
deficit financing.

 5.Hitler chose war as the way out of the approaching economic crisis which led
to II World War.

9. Germany in the World War II

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 1.In September 1939, Germany invaded Poland. This started a war with France
and England. In September 1940, a Tripartite Pact was signed between
Germany, Italy and Japan, strengthening Hitler’s claim to international power.

 2.Hitler moved to achieve his long-term aim of conquering Eastern Europe. He

wanted to ensure food supplies and living space for Germans.

 3.He attacked the Soviet Union in June 1941. In this historic blunder Hitler
exposed the German western front to British aerial bombing and the eastern
front to the powerful Soviet armies. The Soviet Red Army inflicted a crushing
and humiliating defeat on Germany at Stalingrad.

 4.Japan was expanding its power in the east. It had occupied French Indo-China
and was planning attacks on US naval bases in the Pacific. When Japan
extended its support to Hitler and bombed the US base at Pearl Harbor, the US
entered the Second World War.

 5.The war ended in May 1945 with Hitler’s defeat and the US dropping of the
atom bomb on Hiroshima and Nagasaki in Japan.
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10. Hitler’s worldview/ Nazi ideology/ Nazi worldview (peculiar features of
Nazi World View)

 1.According to Nazi ideology there was no equality between people, but only a
racial hierarchy. In this view blond,blue-eyed, Nordic German Aryans were at
the top, while Jews were located at the lowest rung. They came to be regarded
as an anti-race, the arch-enemies of the Aryans.

 2.The other ideology of Hitler’s was Lebensraum, or living space. He believed

that new territories had to be acquired for settlement. This would enhance the
area of the mother country, and the material resources to be used for
Germany.

 3.Nazis wanted only a society of pure and healthy Nordic Aryans. They alone
were considered desirable. Only they were seen as worthy of prospering and
multiplying against all others who were classed as undesirable.

179
 4.Under the Euthanasia Programme, Helmuth’s father along with other Nazi
officials had killed many Germans who were considered mentally or physically
unfit.

 5.Many Gypsies and blacks living in Nazi Germany were considered as racial
inferiors. They were widely persecuted. Even Russians and Poles were
considered subhuman and killed.

 6.Jews remained the worst sufferers in Nazi Germany. They had been
stereotyped as killers of Christ and usurers. They lived in separately marked
areas called ghettos. Theywere often persecuted through periodic organised
violence, and expulsion from the land.

11. The Racial Utopia and killing of polish Civilians

 1.Genocide and war became two sides of the same coin in Germany. Occupied
Poland was divided up. Much of north- western Poland was annexed to

180
 Germany. Poles were forced to leave their homes and properties behind to be
occupied by ethnic Germans

 2.Members of the Polish intelligentsia were murdered in large numbers in

order to keep the entire people intellectually and spiritually servile.

 3.Polish children who looked like Aryans were forcibly snatched from their
mothers and examined by race experts. If they passed the race tests they were
raised in German families and if not, they were deposited in
orphanages where most perished.

12. Youth in Nazi Germany / What happened in schools under Nazism?

 1.All schools were cleansed and purified. This meant that teachers who were
Jews or seen as politically unreliable were dismissed.

181
 2.Children were first segregatedGermans and Jews could not sit together or
play together. Subsequently, undesirable children Jews, the physically
handicapped, Gypsies were thrown out of schools.

 Good German children were subjected to a process of Nazi schooling,a

prolonged period of ideological training. School textbooks were rewritten.
Racial science was introduced to justify Nazi ideas of race. Stereotypes about
Jews were popularised even in classes.

 Children were taught to be loyal and submissive, hate Jews, and worship Hitler.
Even the function of sports was to nurture a spirt of violence and aggression
among children. Hitler believed that boxing could make children iron hearted,
strong and masculine.

 Youth organisations were made responsible for educating German youth in

the .the spirit of National Socialism.

182
 Ten- year-olds had to enter Jungvolk. At 14, all boys had to join the Nazi youth
organization called Hitler Youth, where theylearnt to worship war, glorify
aggression and violence, condemn democracy, and hate Jews, communists,
Gypsies and all those categorised as undesirable.

13. The Nazi Cult of Motherhood

 While boys were taught to be aggressive, masculine and steel hearted, girls
were told that they had to become good mothers and rear pure-blooded Aryan
children. Girls had to maintain the purity of the race, distance themselves from
Jews, look after the home, and teach their children Nazi values

 In Nazi Germany all mothers were not treated equally. Women who bore
racially undesirable children were punished and those who produced racially
desirable children were awarded. They were given favoured treatment in
hospitals and concessions in shops, theatre tickets and railway fares.

183
 To encourage women to produce many children, Honour Crosses were
awarded. A bronze cross was given for four children, silver for six and gold for
eight or more.

 All Aryan women who deviated from the prescribed code of conduct were
publicly condemned, and severely punished. Those who maintained contact
with Jews, Poles and Russians were paraded through the town with shaved
heads and blackened faces.

14. The Art of Propaganda (why was Nazi propaganda effective in creating a
hatred for Jews)

 The Nazi regime used language and media with care, and often to great effect.
Nazis never used the words kill or murder in their official communications.
Mass killings were termed special treatment, finalsolution, euthanasia,
selection and disinfections.

184
 Media was carefully used to win support for the regime and popularise its
worldview. Nazi ideas were spread through visual images, films, radio, posters,
catchy slogans and leaflets.

 In posters, groups identified as the enemies of Germans were stereotyped,

mocked, abused and described as evil. Socialists and liberals were represented
as weak and degenerate. They were attacked as malicious foreign agents.

 Orthodox Jews were shown with flowing beards wearing kaftans. They were
referred to as vermin, rats and pests. Their movements were compared to
those of rodents.

15. What did Jews feel in Nazi Germany?

 Charlotte Beradt secretly recorded jew’s dreams in her diary and later
published them in a highly disconcerting book called the Third Reich of Dreams.

185
  She describes how Jews themselves began believing in the Nazi stereotypes
about them. They dreamt of their hooked noses, black hair and eyes, Jewish
looks and body movements.

 The stereotypical images publicised in the Nazi press them even in their
dreams. Jews died many deaths even before they reached the gas chamber.

16. Holocaust

1.Jews wanted the world to remember the atrocities and sufferings they had
endured during the Nazi killing operations. They collected and preserved
documents wrote diaries, kept notebooks, and created archives which are called
the Holocaust.

2.On the other hand when the war seemed lost, the Nazi leadership distributed
petrol to its functionaries to destroy all incriminating evidence available in offices.

186
3.The history and the memory of the Holocaust live on in memoirs, fiction,
documentaries, poetry, memorials and museums in many parts of the world today.
These are a tribute to those who resisted Nazism and a warning to those who
watched the Nazi crimes in silence.

CHAPTER – 4
Forest Society and Colonialism
1. ADVANTAGES OF FOREST

(i)Play a major role in improving the quality of environment, modify the local
climate, controls soil erosion , regulate stream flow, support a variety of industries,
provide livelihood for many communities and after opportunities for recreation.

187
(ii)Forest adds to the floor large quantities of leaves, twigs and branches which after
decomposition forms humus.

(iii)Provided industrial wood, limber, fuel wood, fodder and several other minor
products of great economic value.

(iv)They also provide natural environment for wild life, play an important role in
maintaining the life support system.

The disappearance of forest is referred to as deforestation. Deforestation is not a

recent problem. The process began many centuries ago; but under colonial rule it
became more systematic and extensive.

(a)Land to be improved:

 (i)As population increased over the centuries and the demand for food went
up, peasants extended the boundaries of cultivation, clearing forests and
breaking new land.
188
 (ii)The British directly encouraged production of commercial crops like jute,
sugar, wheat and cotton. the demand for these crops increased in nineteenth-
century Europe where food grains were needed to feed the growing urban
population and raw materials were required for industrial production.

 (iii)In the early nineteenth century, the colonial state thoughtthat forests were
unproductive.

 They were considered to be wilderness that had to be brought under

cultivation so that the land could yield agricultural products and revenue and
enhance the income of the state. so between 1880 and 1920, cultivated area
rose by 6.7 million hectares.

(b) Sleepers on the Tracks:

 (i)Due to high demand, oak forests in England were disappearing. This created a
problem of timber supply for the Royal Navy which required it for building

189
 ships. To get the supply of oak for the ship industry British stared exploring
Indian forests on a massive scale.

 (ii)The spread of railways from the 1850s created a new demand. To run
locomotives, wood was needed as fuel. As railway was expanding, the demand
for rule also became very high.

 (iii)To lay railway lines sleepers were essential to hold the tracks together. Each
mile of railway track required between 1760 and 2000 sleepers.

 To fulfill the demand of sleepers’ tress were felled on massive scale. Up to

1946, the length of the tracks had increased to over 765000 km.

 As the railway tracks spread through India, a larger numbers of trees were
felled. Forests around the railway tracks started disappearing.

(c) Plantations:
190
 Large areas of natural forests were also cleared to make way for tea, coffee and
rubber plantations to meet Europe’s growing need for these commodities.

 The colonial government took over the forests, and gave vast areas to
European planters at cheap at cheap rates. These areas were enclosed and
cleared of forests, and planted with tea or coffee.

2. THE RISE OF COMMERCIAL FORESTRY

 In India colonial rulers needed huge supplies of wood for railways and ship. This
led to
widespread deforestation.

 The British government got alarmed. The government invite Dietrich Brand is a
German expert on forests, for advice, he was appointed as the First inspector
General of Forests in India.

191
 Brand is emphasized that rules need be framed about the use of forest wealth.
Brand is realized that a proper system had to be introduced to mange the
forests and people had to be science of conservation.

 This system needed legal sanction. It was at his initiatives that;

 (i)Indian Forest Service was set up in 1864.

 (ii)Indian Forest Act was enacted in 1865

 (iii)Imperial Forest Research institute was set up in 1906. The system they
taught here was called ‘scientific forestry’.The 1878 Act divided forests into
three categories: reserved, protected and village forests.

 The best forests were called ‘reserved forestry’. Villagers could not take
anything from these forests, even for their own use. For house building or fuel,
they could take wood from protected or village forests.

192
3. How were the Lives of People Affected?

 The Forest Act meant severs hardship for villagers across the country. After the
Act all their everyday practice - cutting wood for their houses, grazing their
cattle, collecting fruits and roots, hunting and fishing n- became illegal.

 People were now forced to steal wood from the forests, and if they were
caught, they were at the mercy of the forest guards who would take bribes
from them. Women who collected fuel wood were especially worried.

 It was also common for police constables and forest guards to harass people by
demanding free food from them.

4. How did Forest Rules Affect Cultivation?

 One of the major impacts of European colonialism was off the practice of
shifting cultivation or swidden agriculture. Shifting cultivation as a system of
agriculture has the following features:
193
 (i)Parts of forests are cut and burnt in rotation

 (ii)Seeds are sown in the ashes sifter the first monsoon rains.

 (iii)Crop is harvested by October-November.

 (iv)Such plots are cultivated for a couple of years and then left- fallow for 12 to
18 years for the forest to grow back.

 Shifting cultivation has been practiced in many parts of Asia, Africa and South
America. In India, it is known by different names, such as dhya, panda, bewar,
nevad, jhum, podu, khandad and kumri .

 The colonial government banned this practice of shifting cultivation. They felt
that land which was used for cultivation every few years could not grow trees
for railway timber.

5. Who could Hunt?

194
 The forest laws forbade the villagers from hunting in the forests but
encouraged hunting as a big sport.

 They felt that the wild animals were savage, wild and primitive, just like the
Indian
society and that it was their duty to civilisethem.New Trades, New
Employments and New Services

 Forest communities rebelled against the changes imposed upon them.

6. The People of Bastar

 Bastar is located in the southernmost part of Chhattisgarh.

 The initiative was taken by the Dhurwas of the Kanger forest where reservation
first took place.

195
 The new law of Forest Act introduced by the Colonial government
reserved two-thirds of the forest in 1905.

 The British sent troops to suppress the rebellion.

 It took them three months to regain control.

 A victory for the people of Bastar was that the work on reservation was
suspended and the area was reduced to half of that planned before 1910.

7. Changes in Java

The Kalangs

 They rose in rebellion against the Dutch in 1770 but their uprising was
suppressed.
Scientific Forestry in Java

196
 Forest laws were enacted in Java.

 The villagers resisted these laws.

 Forest timber was used for ships and railway sleepers.

 The Dutch government used the ‘blandongdiensten’ system for extracting free
labourfrom the villagers.

8. Samin’s Movement

 Around 1890, Samin of Randublatung village (a teak forest village) questioned

the state ownership of forests.

 A widespread movement spread.

197
 They protested by lying on the ground when the Dutch came to survey it and
refusing to pay taxes and perform labour.
 World Wars and Deforestation. The world wars had a major impact on forests.

 The forest department cut freely to meet the British demands. In Indonesia, the
Dutch destroyed sawmills and burnt huge piles of teak logs.

 The Japanese after occupying Indonesia exploited the forests recklessly for
their war needs.

9. New Developments

 The government realised that if forests are to survive, the local community
needs to be involved.

 There are many such examples in India where communities are conserving
forests in sacred groves. This looking after is done by each member of the
village and everyone is involved.
198
199
DEMOCRATIC POLITICS

200
 CHAPTER - 1
What is Democracy? Why Democracy?

1. What is Democracy?

• A simple Definition: Democracy is a form of government in which the rulers are

elected by the people.

2. Features of Democracy
201
• The rulers are elected by the people.

• Free and competitive elections are held.

• Each adult irrespective of religion, education, caste, colour, wealth have one vote,
one value.

• The elected rulers take decisions within limits set by constitutional law and
citizens’ rights.

• Rule of Law

• The rights of the citizens must be protected through Constitution.

• There must be an independent judiciary.

3. Major Decisions by Elected leaders

202
• In Pakistan, General Pervez Musharraf led a military coup in October 1999 and
overthrew democratically elected government and became President of the
country.
→ In 2002, he held a referendum in the country which was based on malpractices
and fraud granted him a five-year extension.
→ After passing law, ‘Legal Framework Order’ which gave the president power to
dismiss the national and provincial assemblies, elections were held to the national
and provincial assemblies.

• In this case, Pakistan has had elections, elected representatives have some
powers. But the final
power rests with military officers and General Musharraf himself. So,this should not
be called a
democracy.

• In a democracy, the final decision-making power must rest with those elected by
the people.

203
4. Free and fair electoral competition

• In China, elections are regularly held after every five years for electing the
country’s parliament called National People’s Congress.
→ Before contesting elections, a candidate needs the approval of the Chinese
Communist Party.
→ The government is always formed by the Communist Party.

• Mexico holds elections after every six years to elect its President.
→ But until 2000 every election was won by a party called PRI (Institutional
Revolutionary Party). → Opposition parties did contest elections, but never
managed to win as PRI was known to use many dirty tricks to win elections.

• Both the cases should not be called a democracy.

204
• A democracy must be based on a free and fair election where those currently in
power have a fair chance of losing.

5. One person, one vote, One value

• There are many instances of denial of equal right to vote.

→In Saudi Arabia women do not have the right to vote.

→ Estonia has made its citizenship rules in such a way that people belonging to
Russian minority find it difficult to get the right to vote.

→ In Fiji, the electoral system is such that the vote of an indigenous Fiji has more
value than that of an Indian-Fijian.

• In a democracy, each adult citizen must have one vote and each vote must have
one value.

205
6. Rule of Law and respect for rights

• Since independence, Zimbabwe ruled by ZANU-PF.

→ Its leader, Robert Mugabe has been ruling the country. He is popular but also
uses unfair practices in elections.
→ Elections have been held regularly and always won by ZANU-PF.
→ Opposition party workers are harassed and their meeting disrupted.
→ Public protests and demonstrations against the government are declared illegal.
→ Television and radio are controlled by the government and give only the ruling
party’s version.
→ Independent newspapers are there but the government harasses those
journalists who go against it.
→ The government has ignored some court judgments that went against it and has
pressurised judges.

• In this case, government is not democratic as there is no there is no citzen' basic

rights, no political opposition, no judiciary.

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• A democratic government rule within limits set by constitutional law and citizens’
rights.

Why Democracy?

7.Arguments against democracy

• Leaders keep changing in a democracy. This leads to instability.

• Democracy is all about political competition and power play. There is no scope for
morality.

• So many people have to be consulted in a democracy that it leads to delays.

• Elected leaders do not know the best interest of the people. It leads to bad
decisions.

• Democracy leads to corruption for it is based on electoral competition.

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• Ordinary people don’t know what is good for them; they should not decide
anything.

8. Arguments for democracy

• A democratic government is a better government because it is a more

accountable form of government.

• Democracy improves the quality of decision-making.

• Democracy provides a method to deal with differences and conflicts.

• Democracy enhances the dignity of citizens.

• Democracy allows us to correct its own mistakes.

9. Broader Meanings of Democracy

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• The most common form that democracy takes in our times is that of a
representative democracy where majority is allowed to take decisions on behalf of
all the people.
→ The majority of people rule through their elected representatives.

• A democratic decision involves consultation with and consent of all those who are
affected by that
decision.
• Democracy is a principle that can be applied to any sphere of life.
→ Democracy can apply to a government or a family or any other organisation.

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CHAPTER -2

210
 Constitutional Design
1. Democratic Constitution in South Africa

Struggle against Apartheid

• Apartheid was the name of a system of racial discrimination unique to South

Africa.

• This system was particularly oppressive for the blacks.

→ They were forbidden from living in white areas.

• Since 1950, the blacks,coloured and Indians fought against the apartheid
system.

• The African National Congress (ANC) was the umbrella organisation that led
the struggle against the policies of segregation.

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 • In 1964, Nelson Mandela and seven other leaders were sentenced to life
imprisonment in 1964 for daring to oppose the apartheid regime in his country.

2. Towards a New Constitution

• As protests and struggles against apartheid had increased, the white regime
changed its policies.

• After 28 years of imprisonment, Nelson Mandela released from jail.

• At the midnight of 26 April 1994, democracy was adopted as a form of

government in South Africa.

• After two years, a constitution came out which gave to its citizens the most
extensive rights available in any country.

3. Why do we need a Constitution?

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 A constitution is necessary because:
→ It generates a degree of trust and coordination that is necessary for different
kind of people to live together.
→ It specifies how the government will be constituted, who will have power to
take which decisions.
→ It lays down limits on the powers of the government and tells us what the
rights of the citizens are.
→ It expresses the aspirations of the people about creating a good society.

4. Making of the Indian Constitution

• In 1928, Motilal Nehru and eight other Congress leaders drafted a

constitution for India.

• In 1931, the resolution at the Karachi session of the Indian National Congress
dwelt on how independent India’s constitution should look like.

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 • Factors contributed to the making of our Constitution.
→ Ideals of French Revolution
→ The practice of parliamentary democracy in Britain
→ The Bill of Rights in the US
→ The socialist revolution in Russia

5. The Constituent Assembly

• In July 1946, Elections to the Constituent Assembly were held.

→ The drafting of the document called the constitution was done Constituent
Assembly.
→ Dr.Rajendra Prasad was the Chairman of the Constituent Assembly.
→ In December 1946, the first meeting was held.

• After the country was divided into India and Pakistan, the Constituent
Assembly also got divided.

• The Assembly adopted the Constitution on 26 November 1949 but it came

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 into effect on 26 January 1950.

• To mark this day we celebrate January 26 as Republic Day every year.

• The Constituent Assembly worked in a systematic, open and consensual

manner.
→ First some basic principles were decided and agreed upon.
→ Then a Drafting Committee chaired by Dr. B.R. Ambedkar prepared a draft
constitution for discussion.
→ More than two thousand amendments were considered.

6. Philosophy of the Constitution

• The Constitution begins with a short statement of its basic values which is
called the Preamble to the constitution.

The preamble focuses on:

→ Justice, social, economic and political.
→ Liberty of thoughts, expression, belief, faith and worship.
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→ Equality of status and of opportunity.
→ Fraternity assuring the dignity of the individual and the unity and integrity of
the nation.

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217
 Chapter-3
Electoral Politics

In a democracy, people do not govern directly. They govern through the elected-
representatives. Governing through elected representatives is the most common
form of democracy.

1. Elections

The mechanism or procedure by which people choose their representatives at

regular intervals is called election. If people are not satisfied with the working of
the government then they can change the government in the next term of
elections.

2. Procedure of Elections
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The procedure of election can be understood by the real example of Haryana
Assembly elections. It will show how candidates standing in election become
representatives and how power can be removed from their hands.

3. Need for Elections

 Elections are needed to elect representatives. The need of elections can be

understood by imagifufig of democracy without elections.

 In the absence of the election, all the people have to sit together every day and
take all the decisions. But this is not possible in any large community.

 Nor it is possible for everyone to have the time and knowledge to take
decisions on all matters. Therefore, in most democracies, people rule through
their representatives.

4. The elections are needed for any representative democracy because

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 They solve the problem of assessing people on the basis of education,
knowledge or experience,

 They help in analysing that people like their representatives or not.

 They ensure that the representatives rule as per the wishes of the people and
make sure that those who are not working for the people, do not remain their
representatives.

 In an election, the voters make many choices like

 They can choose who will make laws for them.

 They can choose who will form the government and take major decisions.

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 They can choose the party whose policies will guide the government and
lawmaking.

5. What Makes An Election Democratic?

 Elections are held in all democratic countries and also in most of the non-
democratic countries in many ways. But there is a simple list of the minimum
conditions which make an election democratic like

 Everyone should have the right to choose a representative. It means everyone

has one vote and every vote has equal value.

 Political parties and candidates should be free to contest elections and offer
some real choices to the voters.

 The choices should be offered at regular intervals. For that elections must be
held regularly after a certain period.

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 The candidates preferred by the people only should get elected.

 Elections are conducted in a free and fair manner where people choose those
representatives whom they really wish.

6. Political Competition

 Elections are all about competition. Without competition, elections would

become meaningless. Political competition takes place when different political
parties compete to gain confidence and ultimately the vote of the voters. They
make promises and give incentives to motivate the voters.

This electoral competition has many demerits like

 It creates a sense of disunity and factionalism (Groupism) and party-politics in

every locality.
 Different political parties and candidates often use dirty tricks like booth
capturing to win elections.
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 The pressure to win electoral fights does not allow to- form useful long term
policies.

 The competition leads to the idea of being dragged into the unhealthy
competition. That’s why good people do not enter and participate in political
competition.

The electoral competition also has some merits like

 Regular electoral competition provides incentives to political parties and

leaders. If they can satisfy the voters with their work, they will be able to win
again.

 If a political party is motivated only by the desire to be in power, even then it

will be forced to serve the people.

 It reveals the real motive of political parties.

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 It gives choices to voters to choose among the best.

7. System Of Elections In India

 In India, LokSabha and VidhanSabha (Assembly) elections are held regularly

every five years.

 After five years, the term of all the elected representatives comes to an end.
Elections are held in all constituencies at the same time, either on the same day
or within a few days. This is known as General Election.

 Sometimes an election is held only for one constituency to fill the vacancy
caused by death or resignation of a member. This is known as a by-election.

 Electoral Constituencies

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 In India, an area based system of representation is followed where the country
is divided into different areas for purpose of elections. These are called
Electoral Constituencies.

 Every voter who lives in an area elect one representative.

 For the LokSabha election, India is divided into 543 constituencies. The
representative elected from each constituency is called Member of Parliament
or an MP.

 One of the features of a democratic election is that every vote has equal value.

 For VidhanSabha election, each state is divided into a specific number of

assembly constituencies and the elected representative of eaph assembly
constituency is called the Member of Legislative Assembly or an MLA.

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 By-election: If a representative from a constituency dies while in office or if the
office-falls are vacant because of reasons like resignation, fresh elections are
held in that particular constituency. Such an election is called a by-election.

 Constituency’ Voters in a geographical area who elect a representative to the

Legislative Bodies.

 Each parliamentary constituency has within it several assembly constituencies.

The same principle applies for Panchayat and Municipal elections.

 Each village or town is divided into different wards that are like constituencies.
Eachward elects one member of the village or the urban local body.

 Sometimes these constituencies are counted as ‘seats’ and each constituency

represents one seat in the assembly.

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 For example, when we say that ‘Lok Dal won 60 seats1 in Haryana, it means
that candidates of Lok Dal won in 60 assembly constituencies in the state and
thus Lok Dal had 60 MLAs in the State Assembly..

8. Voters List
 When the constituencies are decided, the next step is to decide who can and
who cannot vote.

 In a democratic election, the list of those who are eligible to vote is prepared
much before the election and given to everyone.

 This list is officially called the Electoral Roll and is commonly known as the
Voters’ List.

 This is an important step as it is linked to the first condition of a democratic

election i.e. everyone should get an equal opportunity to choose
representative.
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 The right to vote falls under Universal Adult Franchise. It means all the citizens
aged 18 years and above can vote in an election regardless of his or her caste,
religion or gender.

9. Maintaining of Voters’ list

 It is the responsibility of the government to get the names of all the eligible
voters put on the voters’ list. As new persons attain voting age, names are
added to the voters’ list, names of those who move out of a place or those who
are dead are deleted. A complete revision of the list takes place every five
years. This is done to ensure that it remains up to date.

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 [Note Some criminals and persons with unsound mind can be denied the right
to vote, but only in rare situations.]

 Election Photo Identify Card (EPIC)

 In the last few years, a new system of Election Photo Identity Card (EPIC) has
been introduced. The voters are required to carry this card when they go out to
vote so that no one can vote in their place. The card has not been made
compulsory for voting, and. voters can show many other proofs of identity like
the ration card, driving’ licence or Adhar Card.

Nomination Of Candidates
 The system of our country provides almost no restrictions on anyone to contest
the election. This only makes any election a democratic election.

 Anyone who can be a voter can also become a candidate in elections. The only
difference to be a voter is that the minimum age is 18 years while to be a
candidate in the election the minimum age is 25 years.
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 There are also some other restrictions on criminals but these apply in very
extreme cases.

 Political parties nominate their candidates who get the party support and
symbol. Party’s nomination is often called Party Ticket. The candidate has to fill
a nomination form and give some money as a security deposit.

 Moreover, every candidate has to make a legal declaration giving full details of

Educational Qualifications for Candidates

 There is no educational qualification for candidates for being an MP or an MLA.

 However, the relevant qualification for candidates is the ability to understand

people’s concerns, problems and to represent people’s interests.

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 Putting an educational qualification would go against the spirit of democracy
because it would deprive a majority of the citizens right to contest elections.

 This is because still, the majority of the Indian population is uneducated.

Election Campaign

 Election campaign means the promotion (or propaganda) of the policies, offers
and promises that the candidates make to voters to fulfill if they are elected.

 In this way, voters can decide the candidate to vote for. They vote for the
candidate whose policies they like.

 In our country, election campaigning takes place for a two-week period

between the announcement of the final list’of candidates and the elate of
polling.

 During this period, the candidates contact their electorate, political leaders,
address. ..election meetings and political parties mobilise their supporters. This
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 is also the period when Print Media and television news are full of election-
related stories and debates.

 The election campaign is not limited to these two weeks only. Political parties
start preparing for elections months before they actually take place.

 They prepare their election manifestos. In election campaigns, political parties

try to focus public attention on some big issues.

 They want to attract the public to that issue and get them to vote for their
party on that basis.

 Slogans Given by Different Political Parties

 Some of the successful slogans given by different political parties in various

elections are given below

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 The Congress party led by Indira Gahdhi gave the slogan of ‘GaribiHatao’
(Remove poverty) in the LokSabha elections of 1971. The party promised to
reorient all the policies of the government to remove poverty from the country.

 Save Democracy’ was the slogan given by Janata Party in the next LokSabha
election held in 1977. Hie party promised to undo the .excesses committed
during Emergency and restore civil liberties.

 The Left Front used the slogan of ‘Land to the Teller’ in the West Bengal
Assembly elections held in 1977.

 Protect the Self-Respect of the Telugus’ was the slogan used by N.T. Rama Rao,
the leader of the Telugu Desam Party in Andhra Pradesh Assembly elections in
1983.

10. Code of Conduct and Laws

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 To regulate the election campaign, there are some election laws. According to
these laws, no party or candidate can

 bribe or threaten voters,

 appeal to them in the name of caste or religion,

 use government resources for election campaign and

 spend more than Rs. 25 lakh in a constituency for a LokSabha election or Rs. 10
lakh in a constituency in an Assembly Election.

 If any party or candidate is found practising any of the above, their election can
be rejected by the court even after they have won the election. In addition to
the laws, all the political parties in our country have agreed to a Model code of
conduct for an election campaign.

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 According to this, no party or candidate can

 use any place of worship for election propaganda

 use government vehicles, aircraft and officials for elections

 once elections are announced, ministers shall not lay foundation stones of any
project, take any big policy decision or make any promise of providing public
facilities.

11. Polling

 On the day when dying voters cast or ‘poll’ their vote is called an Election Day.

 Every person whose name is on the voters’ list can go to a nearby potting booth
and cast his/her vote through a Secret ballot.

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 Once the voter goes inside the booth, the election official identify him/ her, put
a mark on the voter’s finger and allow him/ her to cast his/ her vote.

 An agent of each candidate is allowed to sit inside the polling booth and ensure
that the voting takes place in a fair way

 . Earlier voting was done, by putting a stamp on the ballot paper. A ballot paper
is a sheet of paper on which die names of the contesting candidates along with
party name and symbols are listed.

 Now Electronic Voting Machines (EVMs) are used to record votes. The machine
shows the names of the candidates and the party symbols. The voter has to
press the button against the name of the candidate, he/she wants to cast
his/her vote.

12. Counting of Votes

 Once the polling is over, all the EVMs are sealed and taken to a secure place.

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 A few days later, oft a fixed date, all the EVMs are opened and the votes
secured by each candidate are counted.

 The candidate who secures the highest number of votes from a constituency is
declared elected. Within a few hours of counting, all the results are declared.

 In general elections, the counting of votes in all constituencies takes place at

the same time, on the same day. Within a few hours of counting, all the results
are declared and it becomes clear as who will form the next government.

 This event is reported by television channels, radio and newspapers.

13. Independent Election Commission :

 In our country, elections are conducted by an independent and very powerful

Election Commission (EC).

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 It enjoys the same kind of independence that the judiciary enjoys.

 The Chief Election Commissioner (CEC) is appointed by the President of India.

But once appointed, he is not answerable to even the President or the
government Powers of Election Commission

14. Powers enjoyed by Election Commission are.

 It takes decisions on every aspect of conduct and control of elections right from
the announcement of elections to the declaration of results.

 It implements the code of conduct and punishes any candidate or party that
violates it.

 During the election period, die Election Commission can order the government
to follow some guidelines to prevent the use and misuse of governmental
power to enhance its chances to win elections or to transfer some government
officials.
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 When on election duty, government officers work under the control of the
Election Commission and not the government.

 When election officials come to the opinion that polling was not fair in some
booths or even an entire constituency, they order a repoll.
 Popular Participation

 The participation and enthusiasm of people in an election is another criterion

to check the quality of elections.

 If the election process is not free or fair, people will not continue to participate
in the exercise. People’s participation in election is usually measured by voter
turnout figures.

 Turnout indicates the per cent of eligible voters who actually cast their vote. In
India, there is greater voter turn out of poor illiterate people as compared to
western democracies.

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 Acceptance of Election Outcome

 The outcome of elections-the final test of the free and fairness of it. If elections
are not free or fair, the outcome always favours the powerful.

 In such a situation, the ruling parties do not lose elections. Usually, losing party
does not accept the outcome of a rigged election.

15. Challenges to Free and Fair Elections

 The challenges to free and fair elections are listed as follows

 Candidates and parties with a lot of money may not be sure of their victory but
they do enjoy an unfair advantage over smaller parties and independents.

 Some candidates with criminal records are able to secure party tickets from
major parties due to their connections political.

240
 Some families tend to dominate political parties; a tendency for the dynastic
rule is very common.

 Elections offer only little choice to ordinary citizens. All the major parties are
quite similar to each other both in policies and practice.

 Smaller parties and independent candidates suffer a huge disadvantage

compared to bigger parties in terms of money power and organisational
support

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242
 Chapter 4
Working of Institutions

 In a democracy, the rulers have to follow some rules and procedures. They
have to work with and within institutions. In this process, they come across

243
 three institutions that play a key role in major decisions. These institutions are
legislature, executive and judiciary.

1. Need for Political Institutions

 So without the functions of the political institution, the democracy cannot
work.

 Institutions involve rules and regulations, which can bind the hands of the
leaders. By having meetings arid making committees institution consult a wider
set of people for any decision.

 Institution makes it difficult to have a good decision taken very quickly, but at
the same time, they make it equally difficult to rush through a bad decision.

2. Parliament

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 Parliament is a set of people elected regularly by the people of the country,
directly
(through direct elections) or Indirectly (through indirect election).

 All the by the government, before implementation, are put in the Parliament
for discussion. Decisions can be implemented only after the approval by the
Parliament.
3. Need of Parliament

We need Parliament due to the following reasons.

 Parliament is the final authority for making new laws and changing existing
laws in our country.

 In India, the control of Parliament over the government is direct and full. Those
who run the government can take decisions only as long as they enjoy the
support of the Parliament

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  Parliament controls all the money that the government has. In most countries,
public money can be spent only when Parliament sanctions it.

 Parliament is the highest forum of discussion and debate on public issues and
national policy in my country. Parliament can seek information about any
matter.

4. Two Houses of Parliament

The Parliament plays a central role in modern democracies. Large countries

have divided the role and powers of Parliament into two parts. They are called
Chambers or Houses.

 Usually, One house is directly elected by the people and exercises the real
power on behalf of the people. The second house is usually elected indirectly,
its main work is to look after the Interests of Various States, regions or federal
units. Indian
Parliament consists of two houses or chambers.

246
 LokSabha (House of the People) or Lower Chamber It is Usually directly elected
by the people and exercises the real power on behalf of the people.

 RajyaSabha (Council of States) or Upper Chamber It is indirectly elected and

performs special functions such as interest of various states, regions or federal
units.

 The President of India is a part of the parliament of, although she is not a
member of either house. Due to this reason, all laws made in the houses come
into force only after they receive the assent of the President.

 Special Powers of LokSabha

Over RajyaSabha
Our Constitution gives some special powers to RajyaSabha but on most of the
matters, the LokSabha exercises supreme power.
These are
Any ordinary law needs to be passed by both the houses. But if there is a

247
 difference between the two houses, the final decision is taken in a joint session,
where the view of LokSabha is likely to prevail because of its larger number of
members.

 LokSabha exercises more powers in money matters. Once the Lok- Sabha
passes the budget of the government or any other money-related law or
Money Bill, foe RajyaSabha cannot reject it.

 The RajyaSabha can only delay it by 14 days or suggest to change it. But, foe
LokSabha may or may not accept these changes.

 Most importantly, foe LokSabha controls foe Council of Ministers. Only a

person Who enjoys the support of foe majority of foe members in foe LokSabha
is appointed foe Prime Minister.

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  If the majority of foe LokSabha members say that they have ‘no confidence’ in
foe Council of Ministers, all ministers including foe Prime Minister have to quit.
But, foe RajyaSabha does not have this power.

5. Executive
 The functionaries (the people and organisation) who take day-to-day
decisions but do not exercise supreme power on behalf of the people are
known as executive.

 They are called executive because they are in charge of the execution of
the policies of the government. By executive we usually mean the
government.

 Political and Permanent Executive

 In a democratic country, two categories make up the executive. They are

Political executive and Permanent executive.

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 Political Executive They are elected by the people for a specific period.
They take major decisions. Political leaders fall in these categories.

 Permanent Executive They are appointed on a long-term basis. They are

also known as civil servants.
 They remain in office even when the ruling party changes. They work under
the political executive and assist them for carrying out daily administration.

6. Powers of Permanent and Political Executive

The political executive has more power than the permanent executive. This
is because the political executive is elected by the people and in a
democracy will of people is supreme.
 The political executive exercise the will of the people on their behalf. They
are answerable to the people for all consequences of their decisions.

250
  Permanent executive are more educated and-have expertise on the
subject of ministry. For instance, advisor of the finance ministry know
more about economics than the finance minister.

 But still decision of the finance minister will be the final. Political executive
call take advice of the permanent executive arid then decide the overall
framework and objectives of the policy to be implemented.

7. Prime Minister
 The Prime Minister is the head of the government and actually exercises all
the government powers. He is the most important political institution in
the country.

 Appointment of Prime Minister

 There is no direct election to the post of the Prime Minister.

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  The President appoints the leader of the majority party or the coalition of
parties that commands a majority in the LokSabha as a Prime Minister.

 In case, no single party gets a majority, the President appoints the person
most likely to secure majority support.

 Collective Responsibility For any decision or action of the Cabinet, the

Council of Ministers is collectively responsible.

 If any of the Cabinet decisions is not approved by the Parliament, the

entire Council of Ministers has to resign.

8. Powers of the Prime Minister

The Prime Minister has wide-ranging powers.These are

 On the advice of the Prime Minister, the President appoints other

ministers.
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  The Prime Minister is free to choose ministers, as long as they are
members of Parliament.
 He chairs and takes most of the decisions in the Cabinet meetings.
 He coordinates the work of different departments and his decisions are
final in case disagreements arise between departments.

 He exercises general supervision of different ministries and all ministers

work under his leadership.

 He distributes and redistributes work to the ministers.

 He also has the power to dismiss ministers. When Prime Minister quits, the
entire ministry quits.

9. Council of Ministers

It is the official name for the body that includes all the ministers. It usually has

253
60 to 80 ministers of different ranks. The Council of Ministers has collective
responsibility.

The Council of Ministers comprise

 Cabinet Ministers are usually top-level leaders of the ruling party or parties
who are in charge of the major ministries.

 They meet to take decisions in the name of the Council of Ministers. The
cabinet is the inner ring of the Council of Ministers. It comprises about 20
ministers.

 Ministers of State with independent charge are usually in charge of smaller

ministries.

 They participate in the Cabinet meetings only when specially invited.

 Ministers of State are attached to and required to assist Cabinet Ministers.

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10. Appointment of Council of Ministers

After the appointment of the Prime Minister, the President appoints the
Council of Minister on the advice of Prime Minister.

 They are usually from the party or coalition that has the majority in
LokSabha. Some times, a person who is not a member of Parliament can
also become a minister.

 But such a person has to get elected to one of the Houses of Parliament
within 6 months of his appointment.

11. The President

The President is the head of the state. In our political system, the head of
the state exercises only nominal powers.

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  Thus, the President is like the Queen of Britain, whose functions are to a
large extent ceremonial.
 The President supervises the overall functioning of all the political
institutions in the country, so that they operate in harmony to achieve the
objectives of the state.

12. The Presidential System

Presidents all over the world are not always nominal executives like the
President of India.

 The US President is directly elected by the people. He personally chooses

and appoints all ministers.

 The lawmaking is still done by the Legislature (called the Congress in the
US), but the President can veto any law.

256
  Most importantly the US President does not need the support of the
majority of members in the Congress and neither is. he answerable to them.

 The President has a fixed tenure of 4 years and completes it even if his party
does not have a majority in Congress.

 This model is followed in most, of the countries of Latin America and many
of the ex-Soviet Union countries. Given the centrality of the President, this
system of government is called the Presidential form of government.

13. Powers of the President

The President enjoys the following powers
 All governmental activities take place in the name of the President. All laws and
major policy decisions of die government are issued in her name.
 All major appointments are made in the name of the President. These include
the appointment of the Chief Justice of India, the Judges of the Supreme Court
and the High Courts of the states, the Governors of the states, the Election

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 Commissioners, Ambassadors to other countries, etc.
 Electoral College A specially constituted elected body’to elect the President and
Vice-President of India.

 All international treaties and agreements are made in the name of the
President. The President is the supreme commander of the defence forces of
India.

 The President has emergency powers i.e. powers to deal with an unexpected
and critical situation, e.g. power to declare emergency or President’s rule and
issuing an ordinance.

 Power to Appoint Prime Minister

President appoints Prime Minister. The leader of the party or coalition of
parties who secures a clear majority in the LokSabha elections is appointed as
Prime Minister.

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  When no party or coalition gets a majority in the LokSabha, the President
exercises her discretion and*appoints a leader who in her opinion can muster
majority support in the LokSabha.

14. The Judiciary

 Judiciary refers to an institution empowered to administer justice and
provide a mechanism for the resolution of legal disputes.

 All the courts at different levels in a country put together are called the
judiciary.

 The Indian judiciary consists of a Supreme Court for the entire nation, High
Courts and Subordinate Courts in the states, District Courts and the courts at
the local level and LokAdalats.

 India has an integrated or unified judiciary. It means that the Supreme Court
controls the judicial administration in the country. Its decisions are binding
on all other courts of the country.
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 .
15. Court Powers of the Supreme
 The Supreme Court can take up any dispute

 between citizens of the country

 between citizens and government

 between two or more State Governmentsbetween governments at the

union and state level

16. Role of the Supreme Court and the High Courts

 The Supreme Court and the High Courts have the power to interpret the
constitution of the country.

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  They can declare invalid any law of the legislature or the actions of the
executive, whether at the union level or state level if they find such law or
action is against the Constitution.

 They can determine the constitutional validity of any legislation or action of

the executive in the country when it is challenged before them. This is
known as the judicial review.
 The Supreme Court of India was also ruled that the core or basic principles
of the. The constitution cannot be changed by Parliament.

17. Judiciary as the Highest Authority

 The powers and the independence of the Indian judiciary allow it to act as
the guardian of the Fundamental Rights.

 Anyone can approach the courts if the public interest is hurt by the actions
of the government. This is called Public Interest Litigation (PIL).

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 The courts intervene to prevent the misuse erf the government’s power to
make decisions. They check malpractices on the part of public officials. That
is why, the judiciary enjoys a high level of confidence among the people.

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 Chapter 5
Democratic Rights

1. Meaning of Rights

Rights ate reasonable claims of persons recognised in society and sanctioned

by law. When fellow Citizens or the government do not respect their rights,
we call it violation of our rights. In such situations, citizen can approach
courts to protect their rights.

2. Need of Rights

 Rights are necessary for the very sustenance of a democracy. In a

democracy, every citizen has to have the Right to Vote and the Right to
be Elected to government.

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  Rights protect minorities from the oppression of majority. They ensure
that majority cannot do whatever it wishes to do.

 Rights are like guarantees which can be used when things go wrong.
Specially when some citizens may wish to take away the rights of others.

 In most democracies, the basic rights of the citizen are written down in
the Constitution.

3. Rights In The India Constitution

Some rights which are fundamental to our life are given a special status
in Indian Constitution. They are called Fundamental Rights.

 These are the basic human rights, which are given to every citizen in a
democracy for the development of his/her personality. These rights are
guaranted by the Constitution.

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  They promise to secure for all its citizens equality, liberty and justice.
Hence, they are an important basic feature of India’s Constitution.

4. The six Fundamental Rights recognised by the Constitution are

 Right to Equality

 Right to Freedom
 Right against Exploitation
 Right to Freedom of Religion
 Cultural and Educational Rights
 Right to Constitutional Remedies
 Right to Equality
The Constitution says that the government shall not deny the equality
before the law or the equal protection of the laws to any person in India.

 It means that the laws apply in the same manner to all, regardless of a
person’s status. This is called the rule of law.
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 Right to Equality is the foundation of any democracy. It means that no
person is above the law. The government shall not discriminate against
any citizen on grounds only of religion, race, caste, sex or place of birth.
 Every citizen shall have access to public places like shops, restaurants,
hotels and cinema halls. Similarly, there shall be no restrictions with regard
to the use of wells, tanks, bathing ghats: roads, playgrounds and places of
public resorts maintained by government or dedicated to the use of
general public.

 Reservations
The Government of India has provided reservation for Scheduled Castes
(SCs), Scheduled Tribes (STs) and Other Backward Classes (OBCs). But
these reservations are not against the Right to Equality.

 Equality does not mean giving everyone the same treatment, no matter
what they need. Rather it means giving everyone an equal opportunity to
achieve, whatever one is capable of.
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  Sometimes, it is necessary to give special. treatment to someone in order
to ensure equal opportunity. Thus, the reservations of this kind are not a
violation of the Right to Equality.

 Untouchability, The principle of non-discrimination extends to social life as

well. The Constitution directs the government to put an end to the
practice of untouchability. It is the extreme form of social discrimination.

 untouchability does not mean refusal to touch people belonging to certain

castes. Rather it refers to any belief or social practice which looks down
upon people account of their birth with certain caste labels.

 Such practice denies their interaction with others or access to public

places as equal citizens. That’s why the Constitution made untouchability a
punishable offence.

5. Right to Freedom

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 Freedom means the absence of constraint (restrictions). In practical life, it
means the absence of interference in our affairs by others—be it other
individuals or the government. Under the Indian Constitution, all citizens
have the right to

 Freedom of speech and expression

 Assembly in a peaceful manner

 Form associations, unions and cooperative societies

 Move freely throughout the country

 Reside in any part of the country

 Practice any profession or to Carry on any occupation, trade or business.

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 One cannot exercise his freedom in such a manner that violates others’
Right to Freedom.

 A person is free to do everything which injures or harms no one else.

Freedom is not an unlimited license to do what one wants.

 The government can impose certain reasonable restrictions on our freedom

in the larger interests of society.

 Freedom of Speech and Expression

 It is one of the essential features of any democracy. Even if a hundred
people think in one way, you should have the freedom to think differently
and express your views as you wish.

 You may express your views through pamphlets, magazines, newspapers,

paintings, poetry or songs. However, you cannot use this freedom to
stimulate violence against others and excite people to rebel against the
government.
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 Neither can we use it to defame others by saying false and mean things that
cause damage to a person’s reputation?

 Assembly in a Peaceful
 Manner/Form Associations
Citizens have the freedom to hold meetings, processions, rallies and
demonstrations on any issue. But such meetings should be peaceful and
people participating in these should not carry weapons.

 Citizens also can form associations to promote their interests.

 Freedom to Travel/Choice of Occupations

 The citizen have the freedom to travel to any part of the country and are
free to reside or settle in any part of the territory of India.

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 This right allows lakhs of people to migrate from villages to towns and from
poorer regions of the country to prosperous regions and big Cities.

 The same freedom extends to choice of occupations. No one can force you
to do or not do a certain job (especially women). Even people from deprived
caste cannot be forced to keep their traditional occupations.

 Personal Liberty
The Constitution says that no person can be deprived of his life or personal
liberty except according to the procedure established by law.

 It means that no person can be killed unless the court has ordered a death
sentence. It also means that a government or police officer cannot arrest or
detain any citizen unless he has proper legal justification.
 Even when police arrests someone, they have to follow some procedures
like.

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 A person who is arrested and detained in custody will have to be informed
of the reasons for such arrest and detention.

 Such as person shall be produced before the nearest magistrate within a

period of 24 hours of arrest.

 Such a person has the right to consult a lawyer or engage a lawyer for his
own defence.

6. Right Against Exploitation

The Constitution mentions three specific evils and declares these illegal.

 First, the Constitution prohibits ‘traffic’ in human beings. Traffic here means
selling and buying of human beings, usually, women or children, for immoral
purposes.

 Second, our Constitution also prohibits forced labour or Begar in any form.
Begar is a practice where the worker is forced to render service to the
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 master free of charge or at a nominal remuneration. When this practice
takes place on a life long basis, it is called the practice of bonded labour.

 Finally, the Constitution prohibits child labour. No one can employ a child
below the age of 14 to work in any factory or mine or any other hazardous
work, such as railways and ports.

 Using child labour as a basis, many laws have been made to prohibit children
from working in industries such as beed making, fire crackers and matches,
printing and dyeing, etc.

7. Right to Freedom of Religion

 Every person has a right to profess, practice and propagate the religion he or
she believes in.

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 Every religious group or sect is free to manage its religious affairs. Freedom
to propagate one’s religion, does not mean that a person has right to
compel another person to convert into his religion by means of force, fraud,
inducement or allurement.

 However, a person is free to change religion on his or her own will. Freedom
to practice religion does not mean that a person can do whatever he wants
in the name of religion.
 India is a secular state. A secular state is one that does not establish any one
religion as official religion. In India no privilege or favour is provided to any
particular religion.

8. . Cultural and Educational Rights

The following cultural and educational rights for minorities are specified by
our Constitution
 Any section of citizens with a distinct language or culture have a right to
conserve it.
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  Admission to any educational institution maintained by the government or
receiving- government aid cannot be denied to any citizen on the grounds of
religion or language.

 All minorities have the right to establish and administer educational

institutions of their choice.

9. Right to Constitutional Remedies

 The Fundamental Rights in the Constitution are important because they are
enforceable.

 We have a right to seek the enforcement of these mentioned rights. This is

called the Right to Constitutional Remedies. This right makes other rights
effective.

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 When any of the Fundamental Rights are violated, then citizens can directly
approach the Supreme Court or the High Court.

 Both courts have the power to writs (Habeas corpus, Manclamus, prohibition,
Quo warranto and Certiorari) for the. enforcement of the rights.

 That’s why DrAmbedkar called the Right to Constitutional Remedies the heart
and soul of our Constitution.

10. Right to Education

The Article 21-A says that state shall provide free and compulsory education
to all children of the age of six to fourteen years. Thus, this provision makes
elementary education a Fundamental Right.

11. National Human Rights Commission (NHRC)

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 It is an independent commission established in 1993. The Commission is
appointed by the President.

 The Commission focuses on helping the victims to secure their human rights.
These include all the rights granted to the citizens by the Constitution.

 The Commission also considers the Human Rights mentioned in the UN

sponsored international treaties that India has signed. The NHRC makes an
independent and credible inquiry into any case of violation of human rights

 . The Commission presents its findings and recommendations to the

government.

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