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ARM 205 Digitized
ARM 205 Digitized
UNIT CODE: ARM 205 UNIT NAME: Natural Resources and Management
Email: Pngila@seku.ac.ke
AUGUST 2020
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ARM 205: Natural Resources and Management
Course Purpose
The main purpose of this course is to provide students with the need to know
sustainable management of the Earth’s depleting natural resources such as clean
water, energy, minerals and biological resources, in relation to the growth of human
population.
Course Description
Definitions of terms and concepts related to natural resources; Categories and classification of
natural resources, renewable, non-renewable, perpetual/inexhaustible resources. Overview of
principles and philosophies related to natural resources. Natural resource limitations/scarcity;
resource degradation/depletion. Common local/global issues/concerns. Pollution of
environmental and resource base. Initiatives for pollution control; Land/agriculture and food
resources and man; Positive and negative impacts of agricultural, Industry/trade/commercial
activities, Water resources and man; Forests, rangelands, ecological and economic roles.
Challenges, issues, threats and opportunities for sustainable forests use/management and
development of biotic resources (fauna and flora). Environmental effects of different energy
sources / perspectives and imperatives in resource use/conservation, institutional needs and
arrangements.
Teaching Methodologies
Instructional Material/Equipment
Course Assessment
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ARM 205: Natural Resources and Management
Natural Resource
A natural resource is anything people can use which comes from nature. People do not make
natural resources, but gather them from the earth. Examples of natural resources are air, water,
wood, crude oil, solar energy, wind energy, hydro-electric energy, and coal. Refined oil is not a
natural resource, for example, because people make it.
Natural resources occur naturally within environments that exist relatively undisturbed by
mankind, in a natural form. A natural resource is often characterized by amounts of biodiversity
existent in various ecosystems. Natural resources are derived from the environment. Many of
them are essential for our survival while others are used for satisfying our wants. Natural
resources may be further classified in different ways.
Biotic – Biotic resources are obtained from the biosphere, such as forests and their products,
animals, birds and their products, fish and other marine organisms. Mineral fuels such as coal and
petroleum are also included in this category because they are formed from decayed organic
matter.
Abiotic – Abiotic resources include non-living things. Examples include land, water, air and ores
such as gold, iron, copper, silver etc.
Potential Resources – Potential resources are those that exist in a region and may be used in the
future. For example, petroleum may exist in many parts of India, having sedimentary rocks but
until the time it is actually drilled out and put into use, it remains a potential resource.
Actual Resources are those that have been surveyed, their quantity and quality determined and are
being used in present times. The development of an actual resource, such as wood processing
depends upon the technology available and the cost involved. That part of the actual resource that
can be developed profitably with available technology is called a reserve.
On the basis of status of development, they can be classified into potential resources, developed
resources, stock and reserves.
Renewable resources are ones that can be replenished or reproduced easily. A renewable resource
grows again or comes back again after we use it. For example, sunlight, air, wind, water, and trees
are renewable resources. Some of them, like sunlight, air, wind, etc., are continuously available
and their quantity is not affected by human consumption. Many renewable resources can be
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depleted by human use, but may also be replenished, thus maintaining a flow. Some of these, like
agricultural crops, take a short time for renewal; others, like water, take a comparatively longer
time, while still others, like forests, take even longer.
Non-renewable resources are formed over very long geological periods. Minerals and fossil fuels
are included in this category. Since their rate of formation is extremely slow, they cannot be
replenished once they get depleted. Of these, the metallic minerals can be re-used by recycling
them.[1] But coal and petroleum cannot be recycled.[2]
Inexhaustible natural resources- Those resources which are present in unlimited quantity in nature
and are not likely to be exhausted easily by human activity are inexhaustible natural resources
(sunlight, air etc.)
Exhaustible natural resources- The amount of these resources are limited. They can be exhausted
by human activity in the long run (coal, petroleum, natural gas, etc.)
Natural resource management is a discipline in the management of natural resources such as land,
water, soil, plants and animals, with a particular focus on how management affects the quality of
life for both present and future generations. Natural resource management is interrelated with the
concept of sustainable development, a principle that forms a basis for land management and
environmental governance throughout the world.
In contrast to the policy emphases of urban planning and the broader concept of environmental
management, Natural resource management specifically focuses on a scientific and technical
understanding of resources and ecology and the life-supporting capacity of those resources.
Depletion
In recent years, the depletion of natural resources and attempts to move to [sustainable
development] has been a major focus of [development agencies]. This is a particular concern in
[rain forest] regions, which hold most of the Earth's natural biodiversity - irreplaceable genetic
natural capital[energy conservation Conservation] of natural resources is the major focus of
natural capitalism, environmentalism, the ecology movement, and green politics. Some view this
depletion as a major source of social unrest and conflicts in developing nations.
Mining, petroleum extraction, fishing, hunting, and forestry are generally considered natural-
resource industries. Agriculture is considered a man-made resource. Theodore Roosevelt, a well-
known conservationist and former United States president, was opposed to unregulated natural
resource extraction. The term is defined by the United States Geological Survey as "The Nation's
natural resources include its minerals, energy, land, water, and biota."[4]
Protection
The conservation of natural resources is the fundamental problem. Unless we solve that problem,
it will avail us little to solve all others.
Conservation biology is the scientific study of the nature and status of Earth's biodiversity with
the aim of protecting species, their habitats, and ecosystems from excessive rates of extinction. It
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Habitat conservation is a land management practice that seeks to conserve, protect and restore,
habitat areas for wild plants and animals, especially conservation reliant species, and prevent their
extinction, fragmentation or reduction in range
Natural Resource Management refers to the management of natural resources such as land, water,
soil, plants and animals, with a particular focus on how management affects the quality of life for
both present and future generations.
Stakeholders/ownership: According to the kind and right of stakeholders, natural resources are
divided into following categories:
Ownership and control over the use of resources is in hands of the state. Individuals or groups
may be able to make use of the resources, but only at the permission of the state. National forest,
National parks and military reservations are some examples.
Any property owned by a defined individual or corporate entity. Both the benefit and duties to the
resources fall to the owner(s).
It is a private property of a group. The group may vary in size, nature and internal structure e.g.
indigenous tribe, neighbours of village. Some examples of common property are community
forests and water resources.
There is no definite owner of these properties. Each potential user has equal ability to use it as
they wish. These areas are the most exploited. It is said that "Everybody's property is nobody’s
property". An example is a lake fishery.
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NRM issues are inherently complex as they involve the ecological cycles, hydrological cycles,
climate, animals, plants and geography etc. All these are dynamic and inter-related. A change in
one of them may have far reaching and/or long term impacts which may even be irreversible. In
addition to the natural systems, NRM also has to manage various stakeholders and their interests,
policies, politics, geographical boundaries, economic implications and the list goes on. It is very
difficult to satisfy all aspects at the same time. This results in conflicting situations.
After the United Nations Conference for the Environment and Development(UNCED) held in Rio
de Janeiro in 1992, most nations subscribed to new principles for the integrated management of
land, water, and forests. Although program names vary from nation to nation, all express similar
aims.
A process of managing natural resources in a systematic way, which includes multiple aspects of
natural resource use (biophysical, socio-political, and economic) meet production goals of
producers and other direct users (e.g., food security, profitability, risk aversion) as well as goals
of the wider community (e.g., poverty alleviation, welfare of future generations, environmental
conservation). It is focuses on sustainability and at the same time it tried to incorporate all
possible stake holders from the planning level itself, reducing the possible conflicts in future. The
conceptual basis of INRM has evolved in recent years through the convergence of research in
diverse areas such as sustainable land use, participatory planning, integrated watershed
management, and adaptive management.[5][6][7] INRM is being used extensively and been
successful in community based natural management.
There are various frameworks and computer modelling developed for NRM.
GIS is a powerful analytical tool as it is capable of overlaying datasets to identify links. A bush
regeneration scheme can be informed by the overlay of rainfall, cleared land and erosion. [8] In
Australia, Metadata Directories such as NDAR provide data on Australian natural resources such
as vegetation, fisheries, soils and water.[9] These are limited by the potential for subjective input
and data manipulation.
The CBNRM approach combines conservation objectives with the generation of economic
benefits for rural communities. The three key assumptions being that; locals are better placed to
conserve natural resources, people will conserve a resource only if benefits exceed the costs of
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conservation and people will conserve a resource that is linked directly to their quality of life. [10]
When a local people’s quality of life is enhanced, their efforts and commitment to ensure the
future well-being of the resource is also enhanced [11]
The United Nations advocates CBNRM in the Convention on Biodiversity and the Convention to
Combat Desertification. Unless clearly defined, decentralised NRM can result an ambiguous
socio-legal environment with local communities racing to exploit natural resources while they can
e.g. forest communities in central Kalimantan (Indonesia).[12]
The capacity of indigenous communities to conserve natural resources has been acknowledged by
the Australian Government with the Caring for Country [19] Program. Caring for our Country is an
Australian Government initiative jointly administered by the Australian Government Department
of Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry and the Department of the Environment, Water, Heritage
and the Arts. These Departments share responsibility for delivery of the Australian Government’s
environment and sustainable agriculture programs, which have traditionally been broadly referred
to under the banner of ‘natural resource management’.
Biodiversity Conservation
The "threats" wreaking havoc on biodiversity include; habitat fragmentation, putting a strain on
the already stretched biological resources; forest deterioration and deforestation; the invasion of
"alien species" and "climate change"[22]( p. 2). Since these threats have received increasing
attention from environmentalists and the public, the precautionary management of biodiversity
becomes an important part of natural resources management. According to Cooney, there are
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Cooney claims that the policy making is dependent on "evidences", relating to "high standard of
proof", the forbidding of special "activities" and "information and monitoring requirements".
Before making the policy of precaution, categorical evidence is needed. When the potential
menace of "activities" is regarded as a critical and "irreversible" endangerment, these "activities"
should be forbidden. For example, since explosives and toxicants will have serious consequences
to endanger human and natural environment, the South Africa Marine Living Resources Act
promulgated a series of policies on completely forbidding to "catch fish" by using explosives and
toxicants.
According to Cooney, there are 4 methods to manage the precaution of biodiversity in natural
resources management; 1."Ecosystem based Management" including "more risk-averse and
precautionary management" ,where "given prevailing uncertainty regarding ecosystem structure,
function, and inter-specific interactions, precaution demands an ecosystem rather than single-
species approach to management". 2."Adaptive management" is "a management approach that
expressly tackles the uncertainty and dynamism of complex systems". 3."Environmental impact
assessment" and exposure ratings decrease the "uncertainties" of precaution, even though it has
deficiencies, and 4."Protectionist approaches", which "most frequently links to" biodiversity
conservation in natural resources management.
Land management
Cooperation between scientists that have knowledge and resources and local people that have
knowledge and skills
Dale et al. (2000)[24] study has shown that there are five fundamental and helpful ecological
principles for the land manager and people who need them. The ecological principles relate to
time, place, species, disturbance and the landscape and they interact in many ways.It is suggested
that land managers could follow these guidelines:
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responsibility, as recognised by the Charter of the United Nations and the Millennium
Declaration of the United Nations, to assist States in achieving this objective.
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During the past 60 years, people have impacted the environment more extensively
than in any other period in human history. Increasing natural resource exploitation is
encouraged by a continuous need for growth which is determined by the current
economic system. This phenomenon cannot continue forever within a finite system
like the Earth, which already exceeded its carrying capacity in the seventies. Since
that time humanity has been living in a state of overshoot, in which people are
consuming natural resources faster than they can be regenerated. In other words, we
are using up resources which were meant to serve future generations.
The best way to tackle the problem - cap our resource use
Members of the Resource Cap Coalition are convinced that effective and long-term
solutions to today's many inter-related issues are only possible if we look at the root
of the problem and are prepared to tackle it. Bearing in mind the importance of
applying holistic approaches instead of sectoral ones, it is crucial to look beyond the
pressures and consider the driving forces behind them. These driving forces are
threefold:
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Structural drivers
include production and
consumption patterns as
well as urban and spatial
structures leading to
environmental pressures
such as pollution, habitat
degradation or the
exploitation of natural
resources. Besides
creating environmental
pressures, resource
intensive production
processes also require
less human labour and
thus increase
unemployment.
Institutional
drivers determine the
structural ones. These
are, inter alia, the current
legislative and economic
regulatory frameworks,
which enable energy
intensive products and
services to flourish due
to unlimited access to
cheap natural resources.
Consequently, the loss of
natural heritage is able to
continue without any
compensation.
Cultural drivers provide the basis for the two above. These include our history,
common believes, customs, behaviour, etc. All of them are determined by societal
values, of which by far the most dominant is the value placed on material wealth and
the continuous growth of GDP. This is often at the expense of other values such as a
healthy environment, strong family, community relationships or security. According
to recent indices the more balanced people's values are (i.e. when values are taken into
account equally), the happier they are . Societies with more balanced values would
contribute to achieving a fair distribution of resources, which in turn would lead to
greater global environmental and social equity. Ecological justice would also have a
positive effect by cutting the ecological debt from the "north" to the "south", caused
by centuries of social and economic exploitation.
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different sectors such as agriculture, forestry or fishery. Moreover, people would start
consuming less, appreciate more ecosystems, which deliver indispensable services for
them, and thus material wealth would become relatively less important in their set of
values.
The time is ripe to kick off the coalition on capping resource use
Firstly, resource efficiency is currently high on the political agenda in the framework
of the Kenyan Vision 2030. Using this momentum, stakeholders emphasizes on
avoiding Jevons' Paradox. This paradox shows that the more efficient use of a
resource could lead to the increased use of the same resource rather than to its
reduction. That is why efforts to become resource efficient have to be carefully
designed so that they are not negated by parallel growing demand in other regions.
the Jevons paradox, sometimes called the Jevons effect, is the proposition
that technological progress that increases the efficiency with which a resource is used
tends to increase (rather than decrease) the rate of consumption of that resource.
Non-renewable natural resources, such as aluminium and crude oil, exist only in fixed
amounts on Earth. Consequently, some observers are concerned that natural resource
scarcity will eventually limit future economic growth and human well-being. Others
remain optimistic that technological change will overcome geophysical scarcity.
Brown and Wolk examine the evidence for natural resource scarcity and find that over
the past century reliance on free markets has promoted sufficient technological
change to overcome geophysical scarcity for most non-renewable natural resources.
Rather than rising--as would result from increased scarcity--the relevant real prices of
most non-renewable natural resources have fallen. Although declines in real prices
have moderated since World War II, the authors find little evidence of increased
scarcity in the postwar era. Increased reliance on markets during the closing decades
of the twentieth century is cause for optimism that these trends will continue in the
twenty-first.
Whether economic growth can be sustained in a finite natural world is one of the
earliest and most enduring questions in economic literature. Even with unprecedented
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growth in human population and resource consumption, humans have been quite
adept (skilful) at finding solutions to the problem of scarce natural resources,
particularly in response to signals of increased scarcity. Because environmental
resources are not generally traded on markets, however, scarcity signals for these
resources may be inadequate, and appropriate policy responses are difficult to
implement and manage. In the debate over the economic scarcity of natural resources,
one significant change in recent years has been a greater focus on the ecosystem
services and the resource amenities yielded by natural environments. The general
conclusion of this paper is that technological progress has ameliorated the scarcity of
natural resource commodities; but resource amenities have become more scarce, and
it is unlikely that technology alone can remedy that.
RESOURCE DEGRADATION/DEPLETION
Resource depletion is an economic term referring to the exhaustion of raw materials
within a region. Use of either of these forms of resources beyond their rate of
replacement is considered to be resource depletion.
Sub-national and local – and all sectors of society should implement the integration
principle, which is essential to the achievement of sustainable development. States
should strive to resolve apparent conflicts between competing economic, financial,
social and environmental considerations, whether through existing institutions or
through
the establishment of appropriate new ones.
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Human population
Deforestation
Trade and markets
Environmental factors (Climate change, desertification etc)
Intellectual property rights
Land transformation (use and tenure systems)
Financial resources
Stakeholder participation
Assignment
Discuss some of the global/local issues or concerns with regards to natural resource
management (10 marks)
“Pollution is the introduction of contaminants into the environment that cause harm
or discomfort to humans or other living organisms, or that damage the environment”
which can come “in the form of chemical substances, or energy such as noise, heat or
light”. “Pollutants can be naturally occurring substances or energies, but are
considered contaminants when in excess of natural levels.
FORMS OF POLLUTION
There are three major types of environmental pollution:
a) Air pollution, the release of chemicals and particulates into the atmosphere.
Common gaseous pollutants include carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide,
chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and nitrogen oxides produced by industry and motor
vehicles. Photochemical ozone and smog are created as nitrogen oxides and
hydrocarbons react to sunlight. Particulate matter, or fine dust is characterized by their
micrometre size.
- The most important air pollutants are sulfur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide, carbon
monoxide, ozone, volatile organic compounds (VOCs) and airborne particles, with
radioactive pollutants probably among the most destructive ones (specifically when
produced by nuclear explosions). Some soil pollutants are: hydrocarbons, solvents
and heavy metals.
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POLLUTANTS
Pollutant is a waste material that pollutes air, water or soil. Three factors determine
the severity of a pollutant: its chemical nature, the concentration and the persistence.
Sources and causes
Air pollution produced by ships may alter clouds, affecting global temperatures. Air
pollution comes from both natural and man-made sources. Though globally man made
pollutants from combustion, construction, mining, agriculture and warfare are
increasingly significant in the air pollution equation.
Motor vehicle emissions are one of the leading causes of air pollution. China, United
States, Russia, Mexico, and Japan are the world leaders in air pollution emissions.
Principal stationary pollution sources include chemical plants, coal-fired power
plants, oil refineries, petrochemical plants, nuclear waste disposal activity,
incinerators, large livestock farms (dairy cows, pigs, poultry, etc.), PVC factories,
metals production factories, plastics factories, and other heavy industry. Agricultural
air pollution comes from contemporary practices which include clear felling and
burning of natural vegetation as well as spraying of pesticides and herbicides. About
400 million metric tons of hazardous wastes are generated each year. The United
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States alone produces about 250 million metric tons. Americans constitute less than
5% of the world's population, but produce roughly 25% of the world’s CO2, and
generate approximately 30% of world’s waste. In 2007, China has overtaken the
United States as the world's biggest producer of CO2.
Some of the more common soil contaminants are chlorinated hydrocarbons (CFH),
heavy metals (such as chromium, cadmium–found in rechargeable batteries, and lead–
found in lead paint, aviation fuel and still in some countries, gasoline), MTBE, zinc,
arsenic and benzene. In 2001 a series of press reports culminating in a book called
Fateful Harvest unveiled a widespread practice of recycling industrial byproducts into
fertilizer, resulting in the contamination of the soil with various metals. Ordinary
municipal landfills are the source of many chemical substances entering the soil
environment (and often groundwater), emanating from the wide variety of refuse
accepted, especially substances illegally discarded there, or from pre-1970 landfills
that may have been subject to little control in the U.S. or EU. There have also been
some unusual releases of polychlorinated dibenzodioxins, commonly called dioxins
for simplicity, such as TCDD.
Pollution can also be the consequence of a natural disaster. For example, hurricanes
often involve water contamination from sewage, and petrochemical spills from
ruptured boats or automobiles. Larger scale and environmental damage is not
uncommon when coastal oil rigs or refineries are involved. Some sources of pollution,
such as nuclear power plants or oil tankers, can produce widespread and potentially
hazardous releases when accidents occur.
In the case of noise pollution the dominant source class is the motor vehicle,
producing about ninety percent of all unwanted noise worldwide
Effects of pollution
a) Human health
Overview of main health effects on humans from some common types of pollution
includes:
Environmental Pollution Effects on Humans
We know that pollution causes not only physical disabilities but also psychological
and behavioral disorders in people.
Air pollution
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Typhoid
Amoebiasis
Giardiasis
Ascariasis
Hookworm
Waterborne diseases caused by polluted beach water:
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Water pollution may also result from interactions between water and
contaminated soil, as well as from deposition of air contaminants (such as acid
rain)
Damage to people may be caused by fish foods coming from polluted water (a
well known example is high mercury levels in fish)
Damage to people may be caused by vegetable crops grown / washed with
polluted water (author’s own conclusion)
Soil contamination
Contact with contaminated soil may be direct (from using parks, schools etc)
or indirect (by inhaling soil contaminants which have vaporized)
Soil contamination may also result from secondary contamination of water
supplies and from deposition of air contaminants (for example, via acid rain)
Contamination of crops grown in polluted soil brings up problems with food
security
Since it is closely linked to water pollution, many effects of soil contamination
appear to be similar to the ones caused by water contamination
Environmental Pollution Effects on Animals
Air Pollution
Acid rain (formed in the air) destroys fish life in lakes and streams
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Excessive ultraviolet radiation coming from the sun through the ozone layer in
the upper atmosphere which is eroded by some air pollutants, may cause skin
cancer in wildlife
Ozone in the lower atmosphere may damage lung tissues of animals
Water Pollution
We also assume that some higher forms of non-aquatic animals may have
similar effects from water pollution as those experienced by humans, as
described above (author’s own conclusion)
Soil Contamination
Acid rain can kill trees, destroy the leaves of plants, can infiltrate soil by
making it unsuitable for purposes of nutrition and habitation
Ozone holes in the upper atmosphere can allow excessive ultraviolet radiation
from the sun to enter the Earth causing damage to trees and plants
Ozone in the lower atmosphere can prevent plant respiration by blocking
stomata (openings in leaves) and negatively affecting plants’ photosynthesis
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rates which will stunt plant growth; ozone can also decay plant cells directly
by entering stomata
Water Pollution
Apart from destroying the aquatic life in lakes and streams, acid rain can also corrode
metals, damage surfaces of buildings and monuments, and cause soil acidification.
Pollution of water may cause oxygen depletion in marine environments and severely
affect the health of whole ecosystems.
Conclusion
Environmental pollution is causing a lot of distress not only to humans but also
animals, driving many animal species to endangerment and even extinction.
It’s widely recognised that we are hugely overspending our current budget of natural
resources – at the existing rates of its exploitation, there is no way for the environment
to recover in good time and continue “performing” well in the future.
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Perhaps we should adopt a holistic view of nature – it is not an entity that exists
separately from us; the nature is us, we are an inalienable part of it, and we should
care for it in the most appropriate manner. Only then can we possibly solve the
problem of environmental pollution.
2. Activated Carbon
Activated Carbon is a popular air pollution control method. One of the most common
forms of carbon treatment in air pollution control is carbon adsorption. This method
sees the use of dry chemical scrubbing media such as carbon filters for the adsorption
of fumes from the air.
The fact is that human activities contribute the most to air pollution. Considering the
harmful effects of air pollution, now it is very essential that everyone should
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contribute a bit to prevent air pollution. There are certain ways that one can help to
reduce the emission of air pollutants in the atmosphere. Following are some tips for
preventing air pollution:
Car Pool: Forming and implementing a car pool will reduce the number of cars,
thereby, preventing air pollution by cutting down the use of fossil fuels. This way, it
will help in the sustainable use of fossil fuel and its conservation for the future
generations.
Vehicle Care: Timely servicing of the car helps to keep it in a good condition and
also minimizes fuel exhaust. Driving the car at an average speed and turning off in
traffic is a key to save fuel. Make sure to use unleaded petrol and opt for regular
pollution checking of your car.
Public Transport: Whenever possible, try to travel by public transports. This helps in
two ways; prevents air pollution and increases public income. If you are going to a
nearby place, go by walking or use bicycle, instead of using your vehicle. The
objective is to minimize the use of fuels, as far as possible.
Alternative Energy Source: Another effective way to prevent air pollution is to use
alternative energy sources such as solar energy, hydroelectric energy and wind
energy. Nowadays, sophisticated technologies such as wind turbine, solar water
heaters are introduced to generate electricity and other energy forms for the household
use.
Saving Energy: Saving energy will, of course, help to prevent air pollution. Switch
off the lights, fans, air conditioners, televisions, and other appliances, when not in use.
You can also share a room with others when the air conditioner or fan is on, instead of
switching them on in every room.
Social awareness about air pollution is the most essential step to be taken for the
prevention of air pollution. Awareness programs and/or advertisements should be
encouraged, so that people understand the potential health hazards of air pollution.
Improvement of transport facilities and proper use of land for the sake of social
benefits are equally important for controlling air pollution.
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Agricultural land (also agricultural area) denotes the land suitable for agricultural
production, both crops and livestock. It is one of the main resources in agriculture.
The standard classification (used, e.g., by FAO — Food and Agriculture Organization
of the United Nations) divides agricultural land into the following components:
Arable land — land under annual crops, such as cereals, cotton, other technical
crops, potatoes, vegetables, and melons; also includes land left temporarily
fallow.
Orchards and vineyards — land under permanent crops (e.g., fruit plantations).
Meadows and pastures — areas for natural grasses and grazing of livestock.
The first two components — arable land and land in permanent crops — constitute the
cultivable land. The part of arable land actually under crops is called sown land or
cropped land. The term farmland is ambiguous in the sense that it may refer, on the
one hand, to agricultural land and, on the other hand, to cultivable or even only arable
land.
Depending on the use of artificial irrigation, agricultural land is divided into irrigated
and non-irrigated land. In arid and semi-arid countries agriculture is often confined to
irrigated land, with very little farming possible in non-irrigated or rainfed areas.
Physical, chemical and biological inputs are essential to agricultural systems, and are
ultimately supplied by the soil, moisture, the sun (in the forms of light and heat
energy), plants, animals and biological agents. In productive agricultural systems
these inputs are necessarily controlled, to the extent possible, through appropriate
agricultural practices. The more capably the land base provides and sustains these
inputs, the more capable and productive the land is as agricultural land.
Not all agricultural land is capable or suitable for producing all agricultural products,
regardless of the level of management applied. The main limiting factors in
agricultural production are climate and topography. Climate determines the heat
energy and moisture inputs required for agricultural production. Topographic
limitations mostly restrict the ability to use cultivation equipment. Soils with all their
variability are also a key limiting factor. Depending upon their properties and
characteristics they may be appropriate for sustaining the production of certain
agricultural products, but not others.
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Agriculture in Kenya
Agriculture is the leading sector of the national economy, employing about 80 percent
of the population and accounting for 26 percent of Kenya’s GDP. However, Kenya
has not yet put its available land resources to full use. Out of 9.4 million ha of
potentially cultivable land, only 2.8
million ha are devoted to agriculture, which heavily relies on rainfed production with
very little irrigation. The irrigation potential for the country is estimated at
approximately 550,000 ha, but only about 109,000 ha has been put to use. Irrigation is
the only way to ensure food security considering the variation in rainfall patterns and
recurring droughts. Kenya has been struggling to achieve food security for the last
two decades; however, recent surveys reveal that the situation is getting worse. For
example in 2004, the ‘food poor’, those who cannot meet the daily necessary
minimum of 2,250 kilocalories, stood at 15 million people, up from 7.3 million in
1973. Of these, 3 million are in constant need of relief, and the number of
malnourished children is also mounting.
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On the other hand, chemical inputs are widely perceived to benefit agricultural
production. But some studies question the value of indiscriminate use of
agrochemicals. For example, in a study of rice production in the Philippines, Antle
and Pingali (1994) concluded that reduced use of insecticides would have a small
overall effect on productivity because crop losses from reduced pest control would be
offset by labor productivity improvements from the better health of farmers.
4. Pollution
b) Positive
Ecoagriculture and Organics
Ecoagriculture refers to the management of landscape for food production while
conserving the ecosystem, particularly the wild biodiversity.
Agriculture, Forestry and Other Land Use (AFOLU)
The role of Agriculture, Forestry and Other Land Use (AFOLU) in reducing
emissions targets was defined in the Copenhagen. The Conference of Parties 15
(COP15) focused on inclusion of a concrete policy concerning AFOLU issues in the
Kyoto Protocol (AWG-KP) and the Long-term Cooperative Action post-2012 (AWG-
LCA).The LULUCF sector (Land Use, Land-Use Change and Forestry) has a great
potential for carbon sequestration from afforestation / reforestation, agriculture-
related techniques such as no tillage, drip irrigation, improved nutrient management,
agroforestry and modified livestock management. Despite this, the AFOLU sector is
currently not included in the Nationally Appropriate Mitigation Commitments.
Therefore, Annex I countries have no obligation to limit the Green House Gases
(GHG) generated by deforestation or agricultural practices, such as carbon dioxide
(CO2) emissions from deforestation, methane (CH4) emissions from cattle and rice,
and nitrous oxide (N2O) emissions from fertilization, among others (e.g. emissions
from fossil fuels, loss of soil carbon, etc). Agriculture being responsible for 14% of
global GHG emissions, such non-inclusion is expected to change, depending on the
climate negotiations. Deforestation accounts for about 17% of the global GHG
emissions. Therefore the discussions about the Reduced Emissions through
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The tension between rising demand for natural resources and their scarcity is one of
the challenges that most modern societies must address. Indeed, the resulting tensions
seem likely to increase, especially as the global economy recovers from recession.
Fears of insufficient access to supplies in resource-scarce countries and of
inappropriate exploitation in resource-rich regions could lead to trade conflict or
worse. All this raises an important question: how to adequately design rules that can
promote mutual gains from resources trade?
According to WTO (2010), the three areas in particular may require intensified
cooperation on trade regulation.
Export policy: A large country can improve its terms of trade and shift rents
internationally by imposing export taxes. As such policies lower the welfare of
trading partners they are likely to induce some form of retaliation.
Commitments on export taxes could be exchanged either among exporters or
for concessions on import tariffs in downstream sectors, that is to reduce tariff
escalation.
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Compliance Costs
The costs of compliance with environmental measures—particularly with the
standards applied in export markets—is an issue of concern for developing countries,
because compliance costs may be higher for them than for developed countries,
placing them at a competitive disadvantage. The costs of compliance with the
standards applied in export markets will reflect the degree to which these standards
differ from those that prevail in the supplier’s market. Because many developing
countries apply lower technical standards than developed countries, they may face
higher compliance costs in meeting the standards applied in developed-country export
markets, even when such standards are strictly non-discriminatory. Furthermore,
research has shown that environmental standards can be effective strategic policy
instruments because they can be set such that the low cost producer optimally chooses
not to comply, allowing the high cost producer to monopolise the standardised
segment of the market. Thus, it is important for policymakers to consider how much
scope there should be for the imposition of unilaterally determined standards—which
could impact negatively on trading partners even when they are non-discriminatory—
rather than internationally negotiated standards.
With respect to product-unrelated PPMs, the main problem in trade policy arises
when an importing country wishes to impose PPM requirements on a production
process that occurs outside its jurisdiction. Some countries may wish to impose PPM
requirements on foreign producers either to "level the playing field" for their domestic
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producers who are required to comply with the PPM measures, or because they feel
that this is the "right" policy to be pursued on environmental grounds. The key issue,
from the perspective of the WTO, is whether one Member can use trade measures to
enforce its own environmental preferences or requirements on others.
The developed countries (OECD) has published a "checklist for assessing PPM-based
trade measures and alternatives," to ascertain whether they are "necessary" to meet
"legitimate" objectives. The checklist includes:
Eco-labelling
Labelling and certification of products according to consumers’ preferences –
voluntary environmental, social, health and agro-ecological labels – are now
commonplace, but are an issue of concern to developing countries. Eco-labelling
involves the use of special labels to indicate that a product conforms to certain
environmental standards. Some national governments or regional groups operate eco-
labelling systems, such as the Japanese Eco-Mark, the Canadian Environmental
Choice and the Nordic Swan, while consumer groups, industry associations or non-
governmental groups operate others. The important issues for developing countries
are whether such systems incorporate unrelated PPMs and whether they conform fully
to the WTO principles of non-discrimination and transparency.
Harmonisation
Harmonisation of environmental standards at the regional or global level may be
appropriate, especially when the environmental problem being addressed has
transboundary or global effects. Harmonisation as implemented by the WTO
encourages governments to adapt national standards to those set by designated
international experts. Critics make the case that these experts often lack diversity in
their expertise—diversity across professional disciplines and diversity across political
jurisdictions. Some observers regard a country’s environmental regulatory system as
an integral part of its comparative advantage and thus consider harmonisation
undesirable, particularly when there are no transboundary environmental effects
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associated with the issue being regulated. Developing countries are concerned that
harmonisation may adversely affect their competitiveness in global markets.
First, the need for poverty alleviation is fundamental. Sustainable development and
environmental protection cannot be achieved worldwide while massive poverty
persists. Poverty alleviation is a central objective of development and a key concern
for environmental policies. Wealth created by trade is an essential means to achieving
this end. Economic growth, continued economic reforms, and a substantial increase in
the transfer of financial resources and technology from rich to poor countries are vital
for achieving poverty alleviation.
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policies should be adopted when this is more effective than policy action by
individual countries or jurisdictions within countries. In the context of trade
and sustainable development, where issues of a global dimension have
significant and varied effects at the local level, subsidiarity may provide a
mechanism that equitably accommodates legitimate differences among
countries.
Openness comprises two basic elements: first, timely, easy and full access to
information for all those affected; and second, public participation in the
decision-making process. Experience has confirmed that openness is an
essential ingredient in formulating and implementing effective policies.
Openness is important in minimising the risk of "protectionist capture", that is,
that trade policies will be manipulated in favour of inefficient producers at the
expense of others. While structures for openness are increasingly evident in
dealing with problems at the national level, there has not been a comparable
development for issues of an international nature. As people worldwide devote
increasing attention to such issues, there is a need to find forms of
participation appropriate to the different international organisations and
negotiations.
International cooperation. Sustainable development requires strengthening
international systems of cooperation at all levels, encompassing environment,
development and trade policies. The need for such cooperation is driven by the
international character of many forms of environmental damage. The need for
rules-based cooperative systems of trade is intensified by advances in
information technology that make possible a more global economy. In the end,
the competition implied by more open markets and liberalisation cannot
succeed without cooperation.
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The water cycle, also known as the hydrologic cycle refers to the continuous
movement of water on, above and below the surface of the Earth. Water can change
states among liquid, vapor, and ice at various places in the water cycle. Although the
balance of water on Earth remains fairly constant over time, individual water
molecules can come and go, in and out of the atmosphere. The water moves from one
reservoir to another, such as from river to ocean, or from the ocean to the atmosphere,
by the physical processes of evaporation, condensation, precipitation, infiltration,
runoff, and subsurface flow. In so doing, the water goes through different phases:
liquid, solid, and gas.
The hydrologic cycle involves the exchange of heat energy, which leads to
temperature changes. For instance, in the process of evaporation, water takes up
energy from the surroundings and cools the environment. Conversely, in the process
of condensation, water releases energy to its surroundings, warming the environment.
The water cycle figures significantly in the maintenance of life and ecosystems on
Earth. Even as water in each reservoir plays an important role, the water cycle brings
added significance to the presence of water on our planet. By transferring water from
one reservoir to another, the water cycle purifies water, replenishes the land with
freshwater, and transports minerals to different parts of the globe. It is also involved
in reshaping the geological features of the Earth, through such processes as erosion
and sedimentation. In addition, as the water cycle also involves heat exchange, it
exerts an influence on climate as well.
The sun, which drives the water cycle, heats water in oceans and seas. Water
evaporates as water vapor into the air. Ice and snow can sublimate directly into water
vapor. Evapotranspiration is water transpired from plants and evaporated from the
soil. Rising air currents take the vapor up into the atmosphere where cooler
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temperatures cause it to condense into clouds. Air currents move water vapor around
the globe, cloud particles collide, grow, and fall out of the sky as precipitation. Some
precipitation falls as snow or hail, and can accumulate as ice caps and glaciers, which
can store frozen water for thousands of years. Snowpacks can thaw and melt, and the
melted water flows over land as snowmelt. Most water falls back into the oceans or
onto land as rain, where the water flows over the ground as surface runoff. A portion
of runoff enters rivers in valleys in the landscape, with streamflow moving water
towards the oceans. Runoff and groundwater are stored as freshwater in lakes. Not all
runoff flows into rivers, much of it soaks into the ground as infiltration. Some water
infiltrates deep into the ground and replenishes aquifers, which store freshwater for
long periods of time. Some infiltration stays close to the land surface and can seep
back into surface-water bodies (and the ocean) as groundwater discharge. Some
groundwater finds openings in the land surface and comes out as freshwater springs.
Over time, the water returns to the ocean, where our water cycle started.
Precipitation: Condensed water vapor that falls to the Earth's surface. Most
precipitation occurs as rain, but also includes snow, hail, fog drip, graupel, and
sleet.
Canopy interception: The precipitation that is intercepted by plant foliage
and eventually evaporates back to the atmosphere rather than falling to the
ground.
Snowmelt: The runoff produced by melting snow.
Runoff: The variety of ways by which water moves across the land. This
includes both surface runoff and channel runoff. As it flows, the water may
seep into the ground, evaporate into the air, become stored in lakes or
reservoirs, or be extracted for agricultural or other human uses.
Infiltration: The flow of water from the ground surface into the ground. Once
infiltrated, the water becomes soil moisture or groundwater.
Subsurface Flow: The flow of water underground, in the vadose zone and
aquifers. Subsurface water may return to the surface (e.g. as a spring or by
being pumped) or eventually seep into the oceans. Water returns to the land
surface at lower elevation than where it infiltrated, under the force of gravity
or gravity induced pressures. Groundwater tends to move slowly, and is
replenished slowly, so it can remain in aquifers for thousands of years.
Evaporation: The transformation of water from liquid to gas phases as it
moves from the ground or bodies of water into the overlying atmosphere. [4]
The source of energy for evaporation is primarily solar radiation. Evaporation
often implicitly includes transpiration from plants, though together they are
specifically referred to as evapotranspiration.
Sublimation: The state change directly from solid water (snow or ice) to
water vapor.
Advection: The movement of water — in solid, liquid, or vapor states —
through the atmosphere. Without advection, water that evaporated over the
oceans could not precipitate over land.
Condensation: The transformation of water vapor to liquid water droplets in
the air, creating clouds and fog.
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Transpiration: The release of water vapor from plants and soil into the air.
Water vapor is a gas that cannot be seen
Overall responsibility for water management lies with the Ministry of Water
Resources Management and Development (MWRMD), granted through the Water
Act 2002. The ministry’s current policy (1999) focuses on decentralization,
privatization, commercialization, and stakeholder participation. The Water Act 2002
has provided the formation of a Water Resources Management Authority, responsible
for water pollution, and the management of lakes, aquifers, and rivers, and the
establishment of a Water Services Regulatory Board, responsible for water supply
through licensed water services providers.
The policies and legislation for water management in agriculture are inadequate,
which is exemplified by the fact that the only existing legal framework is the
irrigation act of 1966 for the establishment of the NIB and management of tenant-
based irrigation schemes. A national irrigation policy and legal framework are under
formulation in order to comprehensively coordinate and regulate the irrigation sub-
sector.
In the absence of an irrigation policy, the Ministry of Agriculture, and later the
Ministry of Water Resources Management and Development, has developed
guidelines for the development, operation and management of smallholder farmer-
managed schemes. The IDD has developed some guidelines and manuals to direct the
development of smallholder irrigation and the process of community participation for
sustainable development.
Water is allocated by water apportionment boards that process water permits for
various users depending on the available water source. The water fees and the
duration of the permit are based on the category of use. The permit for irrigation water
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has to be renewed after 5 years and the permit fees are based on the surface area to be
irrigated. The permit holder should only use the flood flow for irrigation and will
construct a reservoir to store enough water to irrigate the area specified in the permit
for 90 days. These two conditions are rarely adhered to since irrigation is most
required during the dry season and the cost for constructing a storage reservoir is
beyond the means of most farmers.
All Kenya’s major river drain from the central highlands, divided by the rift into those
flowing westwards into Lake Victoria and those flowing eastwards towards the Indian
Ocean. There are five major drainage basins: Lake Victoria, the Rift Valley, the Athi-
Galana-Sabaki River (and Coastal areas to its south), the Tana River and the northern
Ewaso Ng’iro. Kenya has only a small part of Lake Victoria’s water surface, but the
Kenya catchment contributes a disproportionate 33% of its surface inflow, some 470
million cubic meters a year. The rift valley contains several basins of internal
drainage, forming a chain of endorheic lakes from Lake Natron on the Tanzanian
border, through Lakes Magadi, Naivasha, Turkana, Elementaita, Nakuru, Bogoria and
Baringo.
These lakes vary in alkalinity; from fresh water Lake Naivasha to the intensely
alkaline Lake Magadi. Lake Turkana is notable as a major volume of (more or less)
fresh water in an otherwise arid and barren part of the county, while a number of
rivers, including the Turkwel, Kerio, Athi-Galana, Tana and Northern and Southern
Ewaso Ng’iro, flow for long distances through dry parts of the country.
The uneven distribution of rainfall in addition to temporal and spatial variations often
lead to recurring droughts in the north and east and flooding during rainy seasons.
More than 50 percent of annual water abstraction is used for domestic purposes and
livestock production, and the remainder is used for irrigated agriculture. The demand
management strategies are lacking, and water resources allocation decisions related to
surface and groundwater abstractions are made without adequate data. It is estimated
that more than 50 percent of water abstractions are illegal.
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Water metering systems are used in few projects; as a result, revenue collection is
very low and corresponds to just 55 percent of the total operation and maintenance
costs.
Major challenges: Poverty, access to safe water and sanitation, food and energy
Due to a steady decline in economic performance during the last two decades, the
level of poverty in Kenya is steadily increasing, especially in semi-arid and arid areas.
The welfare monitoring survey indicated that between 1994 and 1997 the poverty
level rose from 47 to 53 percent in rural areas and from 29 to 49 percent in urban
areas. As of 2005, approximately 42 percent of the population is below the national
poverty line (UNDP, 2005). The poverty line for urban settlements is about US $35
per adult per month and US $16 for rural settlements. In order to alleviate poverty
levels, the Kenyan Government proposed the Economic Recovery Strategy for Wealth
and Employment Creation (ERS), which charts the country’s economic course from
2003 to 2007 and asserts that past institutional arrangements were simply insufficient
to win the battle against poverty. The ERS promotes initiatives that would facilitate
the achievement of MDGs, recognizes water as a pivotal element in poverty reduction
and emphasizes the importance of providing services to the poor while ensuring
adequate water for competing demands. It suggests undertaking comprehensive
institutional reforms to facilitate ‘pro-poverty water and sanitation programmes’. In
this context, Kenya’s poverty reduction strategy programme, initiated in 2000,
commits the government to providing water and sanitation services to the majority of
the poor at a reasonable distance (less than 2 km). The proposed strategy is to involve
communities and local authorities more actively in the management of water and
sewerage systems and services. Over 70 percent of the population, about 24 million
people, live in rural areas. However, half of the urban population is settled in informal
settlements. The percentage of people with access to safe water is 68 percent in urban
areas and 49 percent in rural settlements, according to the most recent data from 2003.
In urban areas, almost 40 percent of water goes unaccounted for, lost through either
leakage or illegal connections. Access to sanitation in urban areas is at 65 percent
compared to 40 percent in rural areas. Accordingly, water-borne or sanitation-related
diseases make up the majority of Kenya’s morbidity rate and are responsible for over
60 percent of premature deaths. The most common
instances of disease in Kenya are malaria (32.6 percent), respiratory system infections
(24.6 percent) and diarrhoea and intestinal worms (17 percent).
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Food shortage,
Destruction of aquatic resources,
Low water use efficiency,
High water losses in urban supply networks, low water supply coverage etc.
International Water Issues: Currently, there is no existing framework between
the countries for the utilization and management of the shared water resources.
Kenya shares a number of rivers with other countries:
The Umba, Mara, and Pangani basins are shared with the United
Republic of Tanzania.
The Sio, Malaba, and Malakisi basins are shared with Uganda.
The Omo and Daua basins are shared with Ethiopia.
The Nile basin is shared with nine other countries.
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ECOLOGICAL ROLES
1. Benefits people get from ecosystems (goods and services)
Experts currently recognize four categories of ecosystem services. The following lists
represent samples of each:
B. Provisioning services
The products obtained from ecosystems, including, for example, genetic resources,
food and fiber, and fresh water.
• Food (including seafood and game), crops, wild foods, and spices
• Water
• Minerals (including diatomite)
• pharmaceuticals, biochemicals, and industrial products
• Energy (hydropower, biomass fuels)
C. Regulating services
The benefits obtained from the regulation of ecosystem processes, including, for
example, the regulation of climate, water, and some human diseases.
D. Supporting services
Ecosystem services that are necessary for the production of all other ecosystem
services. Some examples include biomass production, production of atmospheric
oxygen, soil formation and retention, nutrient cycling, water cycling, and provisioning
of habitat.
• Nutrient dispersal and cycling
• Seed dispersal
• Primary production
E. Cultural services
The non-material benefits people obtain from ecosystems through spiritual
enrichment, cognitive development, reflection, recreation, and aesthetic experience,
including, e.g., knowledge systems, social relations, and aesthetic values.
• Cultural, intellectual and spiritual inspiration
• Recreational experiences (including ecotourism)
• Scientific discovery
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ECONOMIC ROLES
- Easily accessible road access into tropical forest resources already exists and is
regularly used by local communities,
- High local immigration rates occur into localities where manageable forest resources
exist,
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This approach to forest management is sometimes called the "use it or lose it"
principle.
Forest legislation
Laws and regulations comprising forest legislation are the legal instruments which are
necessary to put into effect many of the objectives of a forest policy. Legislation
permits the translation of policy objectives into specific legal provisions affecting
both forest use and forest land and the way forest resources enter into the life and
development of communities and countries.
- Maintaining or enlarging the amount and regional distribution of forest cover needed
to secure a stable environment and to provide a basis for sound economic and social
forest development.
- Protecting in a network of protected areas representative examples of all natural
forest ecosystems in order to maintain an acceptable level of biological and landscape
diversity.
- Preparing management plans for all State forest land and for forest lands in non-
State tenure.
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- Two broad categories of forest land tenure, namely, private holdings (such as
corporations and communal ownership) and public land (such as central, provincial or
community government
).
- The rights and obligations of different categories of forest owners, including local
communities.
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- Seed sources of all tree species comprising the ecosystem should be retained,
- Soil disturbance over the entire production forest should be minimised.
Poaching
Rapidly accelerating deforestation,
Soil erosion,
Depletion of mineral resources,
Water pollution from urban and industrial waster; degradation of water quality
from increased use of pesticides and fertilizers,
Desertification/land degradation
Overexploitation during the past 30 years has reduced the country’s timber
resources by half, while in the past five years the output of forestry, fishing,
and mining industries has declined significantly.
Forests are being lost not only to provide wood fuel, but also because of
clearing for agriculture, construction, tourism and industrial activities. The
countries wide natural biodiversity is being rapidly reduced
Population (Human, wildlife, livestock)
Policy issues : land use policy, wildlife, ASAL policy)
Politics
Urbanization
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The subsequent stages in planning for conservation of indigenous flora and fauna
involves a dynamic situation where economic imperatives, engineering
methodologies, legislative constraints, and other extraneous influences such as visual
amenity/landscape themes are juxta-positioned to achieve the optimal built
environment configuration with consideration of conservation of existing biodiversity
elements, and recognising that various levels of impact from Anthropogenic
Perturbation already may be in evidence. If the biodiversity of a site is sufficiently
complex and therefore of high conservation value, and this indigenous flora and fauna
so defined (and which underpins the site level of biodiversity) cannot be conserved,
then the development of the site needs to be considered more closely, including the
‘no development’ option.
In larger allotment developments ie. > 2000m2, there is the opportunity to design
allotment layout so as to maximise distances between Building Location Envelopes
(BLEs), thus providing conservation areas contiguous over boundaries. Areas outside
of BLEs, and including Waste Water Disposal Areas (WWDAs) in unsewered
developments, can then be conserved under a site covenant thereby ensuring that
proportionately large continuous tracts of vegetation can be conserved across estates.
Such tracts of conserved and possibly remnant vegetation, if dedicated with
consideration of landform/gullies/waterways can become important and functional
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corridors) across estates linking with areas off-site. The mature development will have
a matrix of BLEs, roadways and conservation areas (Private and Public Open Space),
which when planned with consideration of animal movement pertinent to the fauna
utilising the site on a neighbourhood to regional basis, will provide Functional
Corridors which will support and enhance biodiversity.
In general, biodiversity for a zone with this configuration can be maintained with its
essential habitat elements, but there are other important management considerations
including restraining of domestic pets, noise and lighting. In estates with this
configuration, and augmented with appropriate ‘Streetscape’ and suggested plantings
within allotments, it is a consequence that the built environment does not dominate
the character of the estate.
Corridors
The conservation of linear landscapes, either joining large block habitats, or
unconnected to other significant habitats can be summarised thus:
Riparian corridor
Riparian corridors are stream side areas which support a wealth of biological diversity
and are ecologically important regardless of their role as corridors. Riparian zones are
an unusually diverse mosaic of landforms, communities, and environments within the
larger landscape.
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For this purpose, corridors (in gullies with either regrowth or where remnant
vegetation exists) need to be grouped with their boundary association with assessment
of contiguous/continuous habitat offsite. The assessment of corridors in this fashion
does not include the central riparian corridor for the reasons given above.
Open space
It is the interplay between the proposed built environment, the existing natural
environment, consideration of the history of the site, identification of targeted
rehabilitation programmes, and minimal disturbance to drainage lines and riparian
zones, which affords environmental planning opportunities which best manage the
whole-of-estate environs over the life of the project. Open space designation therefore
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can be both public and private open space where conservation of vegetation
communities and their associated habitats are protected in agreed covenants, which
are legally binding on the land for the life of the estate.
There are three principles which need to be addressed with regard specifically to the
pre-development property:
2. If corridors are proposed as linear landscapes facilitating fauna movement across the
estate, then -
What are the corridor linkages onsite and offsite?
What are the corridor expected chances of success ie. survival/mortality rates?
Are corridors of sufficient area and quality of habitat to be just considered as
additional habitat?
What opportunities are there to embed corridors in a functional matrix resultant
from rehabilitation of the landscape outside of the BLEs?
3. How do the corridors proposed, including the riparian corridor, relate to the
underlying models of theoretical ecology? ie. island biogeography and meta-
population models.
It is the planning of open space, both public and private which captures the best
outcomes for habitat matrix integration with the built environment. Owing to this
broad scale whole of estate, and regional setting, it is a consequence that not only
‘significant’ species are conserved but also biodiversity levels existing are, in some
part, conserved.
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SAMPLE QUESTIONS
1. Discuss some of the global/local issues or concerns with regards to natural resource
management (10 marks)
2. Highlight the different types of classifications of natural resources (10 marks)
3. Enumerate four (4) of the ecological services human beings obtain from the
environment (8 marks)
4. What are the main challenges/concerns faced by rangeland and forest resource
managers (10 marks)
5. Discuss the impacts (both positive and negative) that Agriculture has on Natural
resources (15 marks)
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REFERENCES
3. Kline, J. D., Mazzota, M. J., Spies, T. A., & Harmon, M. E. (2013). Applying the
ecosystem services concept to public land management. Agricultural and Resource
Economics Review. 42 (1): 139-158, 42(1), 139-158.
5. Nassauer, J. (Ed.). (2013). Placing nature: culture and landscape ecology. Island
Press.
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