Theme 1a: A changing political landscape

A changing political landscape: changing party

fortunes, 1918-31; Conservative dominance –
the Conservative Government, 1924-1929

Between 1924 and 1929 Stanley Baldwin’s Conservative Party dominated British
politics.

Lesson learning aims

 Have an overview of the political situation from 1923-29

 The post-war boom
 The extent and nature of social welfare provision
 Understand the reasons for and consequences of industrial unrest, in
particular the General Strike 1926
 Understand the key social changes brought about by the impact of war
(votes for all at 21)
 Have an overview of the political situation in 1918
 Understand the key social changes brought about by the impact of war
 The changing role and status of women in their right to vote
 Understand the reasons for and consequences of industrial unrest 1919-22

Baldwin in power during the 1920s

The main reason for the Conservatives bringing down the wartime coalition was
because they no longer needed Lloyd George. They felt strong enough to win
elections and govern on their own.

Impact of the 1922 election

The election of November 1922 saw the Conservatives win an overall majority.
However, it was the other two major parties for which the results were significant.

Labour Party
The Labour Party won 142 seats and supplanted the Liberals as the official
opposition. The party indeed was to form two governments in the period 1924 to
1931 and show their fitness to govern.

1
Theme 1a: A changing political landscape

Liberals
The 1920s saw a dramatic decline in the fortunes of the Liberal Party, which never
again took power and was effectively marginalised in British politics. The Liberals
became a ‘third party’ trapped in a two-party system. It lacked distinctive policies to
differentiate itself from the Conservatives or Labour. Historians have argued that
the decline pre-dated the First World War. However, there are various reasons for its
collapse:

 It was supplanted by the Labour Party as the voice of the working classes,
particularly after the 1918 Representation of the People Act.

 It did not recover from the split as a result of the wartime coalition. For much
of the 1920s the Liberal Party continued to be plagued by internal divisions.
During the 1920s its MPs were always divided into those supporting Lloyd
George or Asquith and his successors. Asquith did not provide strong
leadership and Lloyd George was a force for division rather than unity.

Conservatives
The Conservatives saw themselves as the natural party of government, adjusting to
changing circumstances and embracing all groups. During the 1920s, their motto
was ‘Safety First’, as exemplified by their leader Stanley Baldwin, who offered a
reassuring presence and gave an aura of confidence, for example during the 1926
General Strike (strike of key workers who could bring the country to a halt).

Period in office Prime Minister Party/parties in Reason for fall

office
December 1918 – David Lloyd Liberal- Conservatives
October 1922 George Conservative ended coalition
Coalition
October 1922 – Andrew Bonar Conservative Ill health
May 1923 Law

May 1923 – Conservative Lost vote of

January 1924 Stanley Baldwin confidence
January 1924 – Ramsay Labour Lost election
November 1924 MacDonald
November 1924 – Stanley Baldwin Conservative Lost election
June 1929
June 1929 – Ramsay Labour Party division over
August 1931 MacDonald policies to cope
with the Great
Depression

2
Theme 1a: A changing political landscape

Baldwin was a member of a wealthy manufacturing family who became Conservative MP for
Bewdley in 1908. He rose to become Prime Minister in 1924-29 and again in 1935 until his retirement
in 1937. Baldwin was the dominant personality in the National Government, which governed Britain
for much of the Depression. He was admired as a calm, orderly leader.

Background
Stanley Baldwin was born in Bewdley in the Midlands on 3 rd August 1867. After
being educated at Harrow and Trinity College, Cambridge, he joined the family iron
and steel business, a reflection of how Britain’s ruling elite was changing from the
aristocracy to the businessmen of the wealthy middle classes.

In the 1906 general election, Baldwin was elected as Conservative MP for Bewdley.
In December 1916, he became Private Parliamentary Secretary to Andrew Bonar
Law, the Chancellor of the Exchequer. In the wartime government led by David
Lloyd George from December 1916 onwards, Baldwin served as Junior Lord of the
Treasury, Financial Secretary to the Treasury and President of the Board of Trade.

In October 1922 Baldwin organised the plot and was a key speaker at the meeting of
Conservative MPs at the Carlton Club, which led to the ousting of David Lloyd
George as Prime Minister of the coalition government. His memorable speech
calling for Lloyd George to be removed included the following lines:

The Prime Minister (Lloyd George) is a dynamic force…A dynamic force is a

terrible thing. It is owing to this dynamic force that the Liberal Party, to which
the Prime Minister belonged, has been smashed to pieces; and it is my firm
conviction that, in time, the same thing will happen to our party.

Subsequently, Lloyd George was removed by the votes of Conservative MPs (by a
margin of 187-87), and Baldwin’s prominent role in removing Lloyd George sparked
a rift and hostility between the men that would last for many years. The new Prime

3
Theme 1a: A changing political landscape

Minister, Andrew Bonar Law, appointed Stanley Baldwin Chancellor of the

Exchequer in October 1922. However, when ill health forced Bonar Law to resign in
May 1923, Baldwin became the new prime minister.

Baldwin was arguably the dominant political figure in Britain in the 1920s and 30s,
being prime minister on three different occasions (1923-1924, 1924-1929 and 1935-
1937) and having to deal with crises such as the General Strike (1926) and the
abdication crisis (1936). Baldwin was seen as a figure of stability during difficult
times, and despite the hostility and division of the General Strike, he appeared to
favour a calm and consensual approach to politics, cultivating a reputation as a
paternalistic ‘Uncle Stanley’. A reflection of his ‘national’ image was evident in the
fact that his own son became a Labour MP.

Baldwin represented with singular accuracy the mood of a nation wearied by

the sufferings of war and its aftermath…Pipe-smoking, phlegmatic, honest,
kind, commonsensical, fond of pigs, the classics and the country, he
represented to Englishmen and (should be an) idealized and enlarged version of
themselves.

Robert Blake, The Conservative Party from Peel to Thatcher (1985), Ch. 7, p. 216.

Summary of the two Baldwin governments (1923-24 and 1924-29)

 Leadership – Baldwin inherited leadership from the ailing Bonar Law in May
1923. Baldwin’s status had been enhanced by his role in the removal of Lloyd
George at the Carlton Club in October 1922. He also had the advantage that
his closest rival for the leadership, Lord Curzon, was a peer based in the
House of Lords, and such a background was not considered suitable in these
more democratic times.
 Election error – Baldwin was initially viewed as quite inexperienced and
made a big error when, following a keynote speech at Plymouth, he called an
early general election on the issue of tariff reform in December 1923.
Baldwin genuinely believed it was the answer to the country’s post-war
economic problems (notably unemployment), but he somewhat naively
failed to foresee the political consequences of such a policy, as free trade
remained popular. Consequently, the Conservatives lost almost 100 MPs and
a Labour minority government ruled for 10 months.
 By the time of the October 1924 election Baldwin had healed the rifts in the
Conservative Party. Tariff (a tax or customs duty imposed by government,
usually on imported goods, to protect domestic industries and business from
foreign competition and to raise money) reform was dropped, unity was
restored by the return of the former Coalitionists and his brand of moderate
‘New Conservatism’ had broad appeal. The Conservatives, with 412 MPs,
secured a landslide (in this context, an election victory by an overwhelming
majority) victory.

4
Theme 1a: A changing political landscape

 Cabinet – Back in power in 1924, Baldwin was shrewd in appointing a

talented and experienced Cabinet, including Austen Chamberlain (Foreign
Secretary), Winston Churchill (Chancellor of the Exchequer) and Neville
Chamberlain (Minister of Health).

 Economic policy – While in office broadly pursued orthodox economic

policies and aimed for a balanced budget. During Churchill’s spell as
chancellor, key decisions made had long-term economic implications.
Income tax was cut in the 1925 budget, which was aimed at regenerating the
economy and consumer spending. Britain rejoined the Gold Standard in 1925
at an overvalued level, and this decision would have long-term negative
implications, as it was good for national prestige but bad for trade and
exports.

Social welfare provision – Though its economic achievements were limited, the
Government made important contributions to social reform through the work of
Neville Chamberlain at the Ministry of Health. Significant and progressive social
reforms were passed by Neville Chamberlain as Minister of Health to appeal to the
enlarged electorate.

 The Widows, Orphans and Old Age Pension Act (1925) (an insurance or
pension scheme paid partly by the employer or the state and partly by the
employee) financially benefited all three groups within its title, providing
benefits for dependents of deceased workers, and perhaps most
significantly, lowered the age for receiving the old age pension from 70 to 65.

 Local government was modernised (1929) – The Local Government Act,

1929, swept away the old Poor Law (the system of social security in
operation in England and Wales from the 16 th century until the establishment
of the welfare state in the 20 th century) and transferred its duties to new
Public Assistance Committees. It also exempted all farms and a quarter of
factories from paying rates (a tax on property which was used to fund local
government services such as education; in Britain today, the rates have been
replaced by the Council Tax) in order to stimulate business.

 Chamberlain’s Housing Act (1923) consolidated earlier efforts to improve

post-war housing conditions, social insurance was extended in 1925 and
unemployment benefit was improved (1927). Various educational
improvements at both primary and secondary level stemmed from the
Hadow Reports (1923-33).

 Overall, Chamberlain enacted 21 Bills (a draft of a proposed law presented

for discussion, amendment and approval in parliament), doing more for the
development of a welfare state (a social system in which a government
takes primary responsibility for ensuring that all of its citizens are provided

5
Theme 1a: A changing political landscape

with good quality public services in matters such as health and education,
and that they are adequately provided for in times of need, such as when
unemployed and in old age) than any other interwar minister.

Other achievements included:

 The Electricity Supply Act, 1926, which set up the Central Electricity Board
(the start of the National Grid).

 Public corporations were introduced, e.g. the British Broadcasting

Corporation (BBC) became the UK’s public broadcaster in 1926.

 The Equal Franchise Act, 1928, which granted the vote to women on the
same basis as men – Of particular significance was that despite their sterling
wartime efforts, many women were excluded from the right to vote under
the Representation of the People Act of 1918. This Act applied only to
women over 30, despite men being granted the vote at 21, and younger
women who had contributed greatly to the war effort did not receive the
vote after the war on the same terms as men. The right to vote on equal
terms as men was amended in 1928 by an ‘Equal Franchise Act’ passed by
Baldwin’s government, representing a major achievement in terms of
women’s social and political equality. It was felt that the Conservatives
benefited most in terms of electoral support by the equalising of the vote for
women (gaining support from the so-called ‘flapper vote’).

 Industrial unrest – Baldwin faced growing trade union demands and

militancy which culminated in the General Strike of May 1926, which saw his
government defeat the trade union movement in a divisive industrial
episode.

 Downfall – Between 1924 and 1929, Baldwin failed to cut unemployment or

stop industrial decline. He subsequently ran for re-election on the uninspiring
message of ‘Safety First’ in 1929, amidst significant economic problems. He
had alienated the trade unions and elements of the working class following
the General Strike and the Trade Disputes Act that followed, and this was a
factor in his losing the 1929 general election. In hindsight this was a lucky
development as the minority Labour government had to deal with the 1929
Wall Street Crash and its economic consequences.

6
Theme 1a: A changing political landscape

Summary diagram: Baldwin’s government 1924-29

The path to the General Strike

Development TUC action Government

action
July 1925 Mine owners Backed miners’ Offered miners a
reduced wages. strike threat. wage subsidy. Set
Miners agreed to up Samuel
await Samuel Commission.
Report. Made
preparations to
meet a strike.
March 1926 Samuel Gave Federation
Commission urged uncertain backing.
miners to accept
wage cuts. Miners’
Federation called
strike for 30 April.
April-May 1926 Joined Hawks press for
Government in showdown.
talks which
seemed on verge
of success.
2 May Printers at Daily Denied knowledge Delivered
Mail refused to set of printers’ action. ultimatum to TUC.
editorial.
3 May TUC declared a Declared a state of
general strike. emergency.

Government’s chief measures, 1925-29:

1925 Pensions Act

Gold Standard restored

1926 National Grid established

1927 BBC established a national radio broadcasting system

Trades Disputes Act

1928 Granted the vote to women on same terms as men

1929 Local Government Act

7
Theme 1a: A changing political landscape

Make notes in this table of this era noting the key changes that happened in
each sector at the time. Separate the events of this era into political changes,
social change, changes in welfare, and industrial change (leave the industrial
change table field blank).

Political changes Social change

Changes in welfare Industrial change

8
Theme 1a: A changing political landscape

Turning statements into reasons

Explain why the Conservative Party dominated government in the

1920s.

Read the question and turn each of the statements into a relevant reason that could
be used in the answer.

Statement Reason
1. Baldwin was a conciliatory
leader…

2. The Conservatives abandoned

tariff reform…

3. The Conservative Government,

1924-1929, had a strong list of
achievements…

4. Baldwin promoted a policy of

‘New Conservatism’…

5. The Liberal Party was

disunited…

6. Many middle-class voters

remained suspicious of Labour’s
socialist origins…

General strike 1926 – summary of events

9
Theme 1a: A changing political landscape

Key fact
The General Strike involved over two million employed persons, and caused the loss
of about 162 million working days.

 Background – The potential for a ‘general strike’ had arguably been brewing
since the pre-war years and the plans for a ‘Triple Alliance’ – it did not just
suddenly occur – the climax of several years’ industrial unrest which had
plagued all governments of all parties in the 1920s. Industrial unrest resulted
in ‘Red Friday’ in June 1925, and the government established the 1925
Samuel Commission, whose findings were indecisive and arguably bought
the government time. The Commission’s findings of March 1926 called for
wage cuts in the mining industry and triggered the events leading up to the
General Strike. The failure to successfully modernise this key industry by
either private or public ownership was at the root of the problem.

 Outbreak – (4-12 May 1926) – Key industry of coal mining faced a major
crisis – namely falling demand and foreign competition (post-war slump).
Mine owners wanted pay cuts and longer hours, while miners wanted same
conditions and nationalisation – slogan: ‘Not a penny off the pay, not a
minute on the day.’ Conflict between miners’ leaders and mine owners
reached breaking point when miners were locked out of work by owners on
3rd May 1926.

 Sympathy strikes – Miners’ leader A J Cook tried to secure sympathetic

support for miners from other industries. The TUC, which had previously
been trying to negotiate a settlement, subsequently called out a wide range
of industries in support of the miners.

Analysis and comment:

But I will not surrender the safety and security of the British Constitution.
(Stanley Baldwin)

The General Strike is in operation, expressing in no uncertain terms a direct challenge

to ordered government. The strike is intended to be a direct hold up of the nation to
ransom.
(The British Gazette)

The General Council does not challenge the Constitution…The sole aim of the council is
to secure for the miners a decent standard of life.
(The British Worker)

10
Theme 1a: A changing political landscape

 Role of Baldwin – There has been much historical debate over the role of
Baldwin as prime minister in this major incident. His hostile and
confrontational stance seemed out of character given his preference for class
harmony. He made effective use of radio broadcasts during this period, as he
did for much of his premiership, and also endorsed Churchill’s promotion of
the government propaganda newspaper The British Gazette. He also
stockpiled resources and organised teams of volunteers to do some of the
jobs that the striking workers would usually do, e.g. drive key transport
vehicles and move goods around. This body was known as the Organisation
for the Maintenance of Supplies (OMS). Baldwin established the 1925
Samuel Commission and then ignored its key findings, while he also
overlooked the possibility of last-minute negotiations with trade union
leaders. Did he do all he could to prevent a strike, or did he plan for and want
a general strike in order to defeat the unions and cement his position at the
head of the Conservative Party?

 Interpretations and consequences of the general strike – Was the General

Strike a revolutionary attempt to overthrow the existing order (as argued by
Conservative MPs and historians) or merely a genuine struggle to improve
the working conditions of ordinary people (as argued by some trade
unionists)? Government always had the upper hand and was better prepared
than trade unions – who were not completely united behind the strike. Only
the miners stayed out after the major part of the strike was over – but a
legacy of bitterness remained on all sides. Baldwin passed the Trade
Disputes Act of 1927 that outlawed future general strikes (until being
overturned in 1946).

Once the strike was over Baldwin said:

Our business is not to triumph over those who have failed in a mistaken
attempt.

It would be possible to say without exaggeration that the miners’ leaders were
the stupidest men in England if we had not on frequent occasions to meet the
owners.
(Lord Birkenhead, Conservative Government Minister, 1920s)
11
Theme 1a: A changing political landscape

Who was to blame for the 1926 general strike?

Summary – why was there a general strike in 1926?

1. Years of built-up industrial tension came to a head

2. The Conservative government saw an opportunity to crush the trade
unions
3. Post-war privatisation of the mines had led to underinvestment, failure to
modernise and poor pay and conditions
4. Militancy and ideological extremism of some union leaders, e.g. A J Cook
5. Trade unions had grown more powerful after their role in World War I
6. Baldwin needed to prove himself to consolidate his position at the helm of
the Conservative Party

12
Theme 1a: A changing political landscape

Fill in the gaps

13
Theme 1a: A changing political landscape

Revision flow chart on the General Strike

14
Theme 1a: A changing political landscape

General strike revision exercise

15
Theme 1a: A changing political landscape

Provide definitions for the following key people, events and issues relating to
the 1926 General Strike:

The ‘Triple Alliance’:

Class tension:

Nationalisation vs privatisation:

The Samuel Commission:

Trade Disputes Act 1927:

The British Gazette:

Revision questions on the General Strike

16
Theme 1a: A changing political landscape

1. Who were the key government figures during the General Strike? (2)

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

2. Who was the key trade union leader with alleged communist sympathies? (2)

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

3. What do some people believe was the purpose of the 1925 Samuel
Commission? (2)

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

4. What could Baldwin have gained from a general strike? (2)

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………....

5. What kind of political and social atmosphere was created in Britain by the
General Strike? (2)

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

Total /10

Once the strike was over Baldwin said:

Our business is not to triumph over those who have failed in a mistaken
attempt.

Key fact
The General Strike involved over two million employed persons, and caused the loss of about 162 million
working days.

17