MODEL - 1

Q # 1: MCQ's -------------- Solved in papers.

Q # 2: Why water molecules are amphoteric in nature?

A: Since water has the potential to act as both as an acid and as a base. So, water is an amphoteric
substance.

Q # 3: Enlist bio elements that make 98% of living system.

A: These six elements that share 98% of the mass of living organisms are carbon, hydrogen,
nitrogen, oxygen, Calcium, and phosphorus.

Q # 4: Why fats provide more energy than carbohydrates?

A: Because lipids include a high percentage of C-H bonds, which store chemical potential energy
more effectively than other molecules, that is why fats have a substantially higher energy than
carbohydrates.

Q # 5: Why enzymes are specific in nature?

A: Enzymes are specific in nature because different enzymes have differently shaped active sites.

Q # 6: Why enzyme activity is directly proportional to enzyme concentration?

A: Increasing enzyme concentration increases the activity because there are more active sites
present to attach to the substrates present. If there are more active sites present for substrates to
attach to, then more reactants will be converted to products in the same amount of time.

Q # 7: Why lysosome is called Suicidal Sacs?

A: When lysosomes burst, the digestive enzymes released start digesting its own cells. That is why
they are known as suicidal sacs.

Q # 8: Why plasma membrane is differentially permeable in nature?

A: The plasma membrane is called a differentially permeable membrane because it regulates the
movement of substances in and out of the cell. It means that the plasma membrane allows some
material to pass through it while at the same time it blocks other material from entering through it.

Q # 9: Why is the kingdom Protoctista considered to be an artificial taxon?

A: The Protista are a category of miscellaneous eukaryotes, not closely related to each other and
not sharing many characteristics, but not fitting any other kingdom of life. Hence, Protista is an
artificial grouping of organisms.
Q # 10: How cyclic photophosphorylation helpful in photosynthesis?

A: The photophosphorylation process which results in the movement of the electrons in a cyclic
manner for synthesizing ATP molecules is called cyclic photophosphorylation. In this process,
plant cells just accomplish the ADP to ATP for immediate energy for the cells.

Q # 11: Why flower is called reproductive parts of a plant?

A: Flowers in plants carry out the reproductive functions of plants. Male and female gametes are
fused to produce the seeds. These seeds bear the fruit which undergoes germination to produce
new plant structures. This process of reproduction takes place in the reproductive
parts of the flower.

Q #12: How life cycle of plants shows alternation of generation?

A: Plants alternate between the diploid sporophyte and haploid gametophyte, and between asexual
and sexual reproduction. Therefore, the life cycle of plants is known as alternation of generations.
The ability of the plants to reproduce sexually and asexually helps them to adapt to
different environments.

Q # 13: Describe the properties and role of starch, glycogen, cellulose, and chitin.

A:

a. Starch refers to the stored form of glucose in plant cells. It is stored in various parts of a plant,
including seeds. It is utilized by the plants to provide energy for the reactions carried out in the
cell, in case of low glucose or during the light-independent phase of the photosynthesis process.
b. Glycogen refers to the stored form of glucose in animal cells. It is stored in the liver. When the
body runs out of glucose, the cells can summon glycogen from the liver, convert it to glucose,
and perform cellular activities.
c. Cellulose is a component found in plants. It has various functions controlling and maintaining
the shape of the cell, preventing the possibility of desiccation of cells, and providing
mechanical support to the plant and plant cells.
d. Chitin is one of the most important biopolymers in nature. It is mainly produced by fungi,
arthropods, and nematodes. In insects, it functions as scaffold material, supporting the cuticles
of the epidermis and trachea as well as the peritrophic matrices lining the gut epithelium.

Q # 14: What are lipids? Explain acylglycerol and waxes?

A: Any class of organic compounds that are fatty acids or their derivatives and are insoluble in
water but soluble in organic solvents.

Acylglycerol

Acylglycerols are the predominant constituent in oils (liquid at room temperature) and fats (solid
at room temperature). This is since structural organization of fatty acids in food and in the body is
mainly determined by binding to glycerol by ester linkages. Glycerol can be esterified with one
(monoacylglycerol), two (diacylglycerol), or three (triacylglycerol or TAG) fatty acids, and the
individual fatty acids can be located on different carbons of glycerol. Mono and diacylglycerols
are partially soluble in water, while TAG fatty acids, which lack free hydroxyl groups, are
completely nonpolar. They are neutral lipids. They are more abundant, which constitutes about
98% of all dietary lipids.

Waxes

• Natural waxes are typically esters of fatty acids and long chain alcohols.
• Animal wax esters are derived from a variety of carboxylic acids and fatty alcohols.
• Plant waxes are derived from mixtures of long-chain hydrocarbons containing functional
groups.
• Because of their hydrophobic nature, waxes prevent water from sticking to plants and animals.
• Synthetic waxes are derived from petroleum or polyethylene and consist of long-chain
hydrocarbons that lack functional groups.
• Synthetic and waxes are used in adhesives, cosmetics, food, and many other
commercial products.

Q # 15: Describe the effects of temperature on the rate of enzyme action.

A: As with many chemical reactions, the rate of an enzyme-catalyzed reaction increases as the
temperature increases. However, at high temperatures the rate decreases again because the enzyme
becomes denatured and can no longer function.

As the temperature increases so does the rate of enzyme activity. An optimum activity is reached
at the enzyme's optimum temperature. A continued increase in temperature results in a sharp
decrease in activity as the enzyme's active site changes shape. It is now denatured.

Q # 16: Describe the structure of Mitochondria with suitable diagram.

A:
Q # 17: Write down general characteristics of Protoctista and diversity among Protoctista.

A: Characteristic features of Kingdom Protista are as follows:

• These are usually aquatic, present in the soil or in areas with moisture.
• Most protist species are unicellular organisms, however, there are a few multicellular protists
such as kelp. Some species of kelp grow so large that they exceed over 100 feet in height.
• Just like any other eukaryote, the cells of these species have a nucleus and membrane-bound
organelles.
• They may be autotrophic or heterotrophic in nature. An autotrophic organism can create its
own food and survive. A heterotrophic organism, on the other hand, must derive nutrition from
other organisms such as plants or animals to survive.
• Symbiosis is observed in the members of this class. For instance, kelp (seaweed) is a
multicellular protist that provides otters protection from predators amidst its thick kelp. In turn,
the otters eat sea urchins that tend to feed on kelp.
• Parasitism is also observed in protists. Species such as Trypanosoma protozoa can cause
sleeping sickness in humans.
• Protists exhibit locomotion through cilia and flagella. A few organisms belonging to the
kingdom Protista have pseudopodia that help them to move.
• Protista reproduces by asexual means. The sexual method of reproduction is extremely rare
and occurs only during times of stress.

Diversity:

MODEL - 2

Q # 1: MCQ's -------------- Solved in papers.

Q # 2: How monosaccharides are classified?

A: Monosaccharides are classified according to three different characteristics: the position of the
carbonyl group, the number of carbon atoms, and its chiral (Read as Ki-ral) handedness. The
monosaccharide is an aldose when the carbonyl group is an aldehyde (RCOH) but is a ketose when
the carbonyl group is a ketone (RCO).

Q # 3: Enlist bio elements that make up 98% of the living system.

A: Model-1 Q # 3.

Q # 4: Why enzymes are called temperature sensitive?

A: The proteins in enzymes are usually globular. The intra- and intermolecular bonds that hold
proteins in their secondary and tertiary structures are disrupted by changes in temperature and pH.
This affects shapes and so the catalytic activity of an enzyme is pH and temperature sensitive.

Q # 5: How do enzymes reduce the energy of activation?

A: Enzymes generally lower activation energy by reducing the energy needed for reactants to come
together and react. For example: Enzymes bring reactants together, so they don't have to expend
energy moving about until they collide at random.

Q # 6: What do you mean by Prosthetic Group?

A: A prosthetic group is the non-amino acid component that is part of the structure of the hetero-
proteins or conjugated proteins, being tightly linked to the apoprotein.

Q # 7: Differentiate between the activator and inhibitor.

A:

Q # 8: Why plant cell wall is rigid?

A: Secondary cell walls contain additional components, such as lignin, which is hard and occupies
the interstices between the other components, making the walls rigid and permanent.

Q # 9: How annual rings are formed?

A: Tree rings form in the trunk of a tree from new cells generated in the cambium, the meristem
(growing point) that lies just beneath the tree's bark. In the early part of the growing season when
the tree is emerging from dormancy and growing conditions are near perfect cells grow rapidly
and are less dense.

Q # 10: How osmotic adjustment is beneficial for plants?

A: Osmotic adjustment plays a key role in plant resistance to high salt and drought stress
conditions, especially when causing severe osmotic stress, through the accumulation of low
molecular weight solutes and inorganic ions that reduce the osmotic potential of the tissues.

Q # 11: Enlist bio elements that make up 98% of the living system.

A: Model-1 Q # 3.

Q # 12: What is nucleic acid? Describe structure of a mononucleotide (ATP) and a

Dinucleotide (NAD).

A: Nucleotide is a complex organic substance present in living cells, especially DNA or RNA,
whose molecules consist of many nucleotides linked in a long chain.

Structure Of ATP

ATP is a nucleotide that consists of three main structures: the nitrogenous base, adenine; the sugar,
ribose; and a chain of three phosphate groups bound to ribose. The phosphate tail of ATP is the
actual power source which the cell taps. Available energy is contained in the bonds between the
phosphates and is released when they are broken, which occurs through the addition of a water
molecule (a process called hydrolysis). Usually only the outer phosphate is removed from ATP to
yield energy; when this occurs, ATP is converted to adenosine diphosphate (ADP), the form of the
nucleotide having only two phosphates.

Structure Of NAD

Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (abbreviated NAD and sometimes called nadide) is a

biomolecule present in all living cells. As its name implies, it consists of two nucleotides, one with
an adenine base and the other with a nicotinamide base. The two are joined by their phosphate
groups.

Q # 13: List the physical and chemical methods to control bacteria.

A: Physical control includes such methods of control as high or low temperature, desiccation,
osmotic pressure, radiation, and filtration. Chemical control refers to the use of disinfectants,
antiseptics, antibiotics, and chemotherapeutic antimicrobial chemicals.

Q # 14: Explain the effect of substrate concentration on the rate of enzyme action.
A: Initially, an increase in substrate concentration leads to an increase in the rate of an enzyme-
catalyzed reaction. As the enzyme molecules become saturated with substrate, this increases in
reaction rate levels off. The rate of an enzyme-catalyzed reaction increases with an increase in the
concentration of an enzyme. At low temperatures, an increase in temperature increases the rate of
an enzyme-catalyzed reaction. At higher temperatures, the protein is denatured, and the rate of the
reaction dramatically decreases. An enzyme has an optimum pH range in which it exhibits
maximum activity.

Q # 15: Give an account of exchange of gases in plants.

A: Just like animals, plants also respire (take in oxygen and release out carbon dioxide). They use
oxygen for the breakdown of food and releases energy. It can be represented by an equation as:

Glucose (food) + Oxygen → Carbon dioxide + Water + Energy.

1. The intake of oxygen and release of carbon dioxide is through different routes in different parts
of the plants.
2. In leaves and stems, exchange of gases takes place through stomata (guarded pores).
3. In stems with bark, exchange of gases takes place through the lenticels.
4. Root cells take the air (through diffusion) in the soil spaces.
5. The oxygen in the air is then utilized for breaking down glucose to release energy and carbon
dioxide.
6. Respiration in most plants occurs under dark conditions (no light).

Q # 16: What are growth regulators? Name and discuss five in detail.

A: Plant growth regulators may be synthetic compounds, such as IBA and Cycocel, that mimic
naturally occurring plant hormones, or they may be natural hormones that were extracted from
plant tissue, such as IAA.

There are five groups of plant-growth-regulating compounds: auxin, gibberellin (GA), cytokinin,
ethylene, and abscisic acid (ABA).

Auxin

Auxin causes several responses in plants:

• Bending toward a light source (phototropism).

• Downward root growth in response to gravity (geotropism).
• Flower formation.
• Fruit set and growth.
• Formation of adventitious roots.

Auxin is the active ingredient in most rooting compounds in which cuttings are dipped during
vegetative propagation.

Gibberellins

Gibberellins stimulate cell division and elongation, break seed dormancy, and speed germination.
The seeds of some species are difficult to germinate; you can soak them in a GA solution to get
them started.

Cytokinins

Unlike other hormones, cytokinins are found in both plants and animals. They stimulate cell
division and often are included in the sterile media used for growing plants from tissue culture.

Ethylene

Ethylene is unique in that it is found only in the gaseous form. It induces ripening, causes leaves
to droop (epinasty) and drop (abscission), and promotes senescence. Plants often increase ethylene
production in response to stress, and ethylene often is found in high concentrations within cells at
the end of a plant's life.

Abscisic Acid

Abscisic acid (ABA) is a general plant-growth inhibitor. It induces dormancy and prevents seeds
from germinating; causes abscission of leaves, fruits, and flowers; and causes stomata to close.
High concentrations of ABA in guard cells during periods of drought stress probably play a role
in stomatal closure.

MODEL - 3

Q # 1: MCQ's -------------- Solved in papers.

Q # 2: Why amino acids are named so?

A: The common amino acids are known as α-amino acids because they have a primary amino
group(-NH2) and a carboxylic acid group(-COOH) as substitutes of the α-carbon atoms.

Q # 3: Why does fat provide more energy than carbohydrates?

A: Model-1 Q # 4.

Q # 4: Why enzymes are specific in nature?

A: Model-1 Q # 5.

Q # 5: Define structure of enzyme.

A: Enzymes are proteins comprised of amino acids linked together in one or more polypeptide
chains. This sequence of amino acids in a polypeptide chain is called the primary structure.

Q # 6: Why plant cell wall is rigid?

A: Model-2 Q # 8.

Q # 7: Explain the economic importance of bacteria.

A: ZOOLOGY Model-3 Q # 10.

Q # 8: How seeds are evolved?

A: After fertilization of the egg, the diploid zygote produces an embryo that will grow into the
sporophyte when the seed germinates. Storage tissue to sustain growth of the embryo and a
protective coat give seeds their superior evolutionary advantage.

Q # 9: Why mitochondria is called powerhouse of cell?

A: Mitochondria are the sites of respiration in the cell. Mitochondria forms energy in the form of
ATP (Adenosine triphosphate) during the process of respiration. Therefore, they are called the
powerhouse of the cell.

Q # 10: Why Calvin cycle is also called C3 cycle?

A: Since the first stable compound in Calvin cycle is a 3-carbon compound (3-phosphoglyceric
acid), so the cycle is also called C3 cycle.

Q # 11: Differentiate between gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria.

A:

Q # 12: Write an essay on the economic importance of Fungi?

A: Fungi include hundreds of species which are of tremendous economic importance to man. In
fact, our lives are intimately linked with those of fungi. Hardly a day passes when we are not
benefited or harmed directly or indirectly by these organisms.

They play an important role in medicine yielding antibiotics, in agriculture by maintaining the
fertility of the soil and causing crop and fruit diseases, forming the basis of many industries and
as important means of food. Some of the fungi are important research tools in the study of
fundamental biological processes.

Q # 13: Describe the properties and role of starch, glycogen, cellulose, and chitin.

A: Model-1 Q # 13.

Q # 14: What is enzyme? Explain characteristics of enzyme.

A: Enzyme:

• Enzymes are biopolymers that catalyze biochemical reactions.

• These substances are produced spontaneously in the bodies of animals and plants.
• Enzymes can be present in all the body's tissues and fluids.
• Intracellular enzymes catalyze all the reactions that take place in metabolic pathways.

Characteristics of Enzymes:

• They have high catalytic power and can quickly catalyze a chemical reaction with a tiny
quantity.
• They accelerate reactions while remaining unaltered during the process.
• Temperature, pH, and inhibitors can all have an impact on enzyme performance and function.
• Enzymes are often quite specialized, catalyzing only one type of substrate.

Q # 15: Explain the chemical composition and function of plasma membrane in regulating
cell's interactions with environment.

A: Chemical Composition of Plasma Membrane:

The membrane is mainly composed of lipids, proteins, and carbohydrates. Water makes up about
29% of total weight.

Lipids

The lipids identified in the plasma membrane consist of cholesterol, phospholipids and
galactolipids. The lipids identified in the plasma membrane consist of cholesterol, phospholipids
and galactolipids. The phospholipids are found to be associated with the outer protein shell in the
plasma membrane. Glycerol and fatty acid constitute lipid molecules.

Proteins

In the membrane it is present as enzyme protein, carrier protein and structural protein. The enzyme
proteins have catalytic activity. The carrier proteins help to transport materials in and out of the
cell across membrane. Structural proteins play an important role in forming the structure of
membrane.

Carbohydrates

They occur in the form of glycolipids and glycoproteins. Both forms are confined exclusively to
the external membrane surface.

Q # 16: Explain the lytic cycle of bacteriophage with labelled diagram.

A: Bacteriophages are viruses that infect bacteria. Bacteriophages may have a lytic cycle or a
lysogenic cycle, and a few viruses can carry out both.

Lytic Cycle

With lytic phages, bacterial cells are broken open (lysed) and destroyed after immediate replication
of the virion. As soon as the cell is destroyed, the phage progeny can find new hosts to infect. An
example of a lytic bacteriophage is T4, which infects E. coli found in the human intestinal tract.
Lytic phages are more suitable for phage therapy.

Some lytic phages undergo a phenomenon known as lysis inhibition, where completed phage
progeny will not immediately lyse out of the cell if extracellular phage concentrations are high.

Q # 17: Describe the classification of enzymes.

A:
 MODEL - 4

Q # 1: MCQ's -------------- Solved in papers.

Q # 2: How mitochondria is similar to bacteria?

A: Mitochondria and chloroplasts have striking similarities to bacteria cells. They have their own
DNA, which is separate from the DNA found in the nucleus of the cell. And both organelles use
their DNA to produce many proteins and enzymes required for their function.

Q # 3: Name various classes of protozoa and how each of their members move?

A: Protozoans are divided into four major groups.

1. Amoeboid protozoa or Sarcodinas

They move by a creeping form of locomotion called amoeboid motion.

2. Flagellated protozoa or zooflagellates.

Members of this class move about by using one or more whiplike flagella.

3. Ciliated protozoa or ciliates

Members of this class move by means of cilia.

4. Sporozoans

They don’t have any specialized organ for locomotion.

Q # 4: Why do we say that Ulva has isomorphic alternation of generation?

A:

Q # 5: Why do CAM plants close stomata in daytime?

A: In CAM plants, the stomata in the leaves remain shut during the day to reduce transpiration
through evaporation, but open at night to collect carbon dioxide (CO2).

Q # 6: Why ATP is called common energy currency of living system?

A: ATP is commonly referred to as the "energy currency" of the cell, as it provides readily
releasable energy in the bond between the second and third phosphate groups.

Q # 7: How seeds are evolved?

A: Model-3 Q # 8.

Q # 8: Why flower is called the reproductive part of a plant?

A: Model-1 Q # 11.

Q # 9: Why mineral nutrients are necessary for plants?

A: Plants also need mineral nutrients to produce chlorophyll and carry out photosynthesis.

Q # 10: What do you mean by bacterial growth? Describe its phases.

A: Bacterial growth is the increase in the number of bacterial cells rather than the increase in their
cell size.

There are four distinct phases of the growth curve: lag, exponential (log), stationary, and death.
• The initial phase is the lag phase where bacteria are metabolically active but not dividing.
• The exponential or log phase is a time of exponential growth.
• In the stationary phase, growth reaches a plateau as the number of dying cells equals the
number of dividing cells.
• The death phase is characterized by an exponential decrease in the number of living cells.
Q # 11: Write a short note on Cellular Respiration.

A: Cellular respiration is a series of chemical reactions that break down glucose to produce ATP,
which may be used as energy to power many reactions throughout the body. There are three main
steps of cellular respiration: glycolysis, the citric acid cycle, and oxidative phosphorylation.
Glycolysis takes place in the cytosol, the citric acid cycle occurs in the mitochondrial matrix, and
oxidative phosphorylation occurs on the inner mitochondrial membrane. The starting reactants of
cellular respiration include glucose, ATP, and NAD+; and the final products include ATP and H2O.
The rate-determining enzymes for cellular respiration include phosphofructokinase-1, pyruvate
dehydrogenase, and isocitrate dehydrogenase. Diseases that affect cellular respiration typically
disrupt one or more enzymes involved in the process, such as pyruvate kinase or succinyl-CoA-
synthase.

Q # 12: Describe the types of structure composition and function of cytoskeleton.

A: The cytoskeleton is the network of fibers forming the eukaryotic cells, prokaryotic cells, and
Archaean’s.

Cytoskeleton Structure

A cytoskeleton structure comprises the following types of fibers:

Microtubules

Microtubules appear like small, hollow, round tubes with a diameter of about 24 nanometers. They
are made up of a protein, tubulin. Thirteen tubulins link to form a single tube. Microtubules are
very dynamic structures, which reveal that they can change quickly. These help in transporting
cellular materials and dividing chromosomes during cell division.

Microfilaments

Microfilaments are thread-like protein fibers, 3-6 nano meters in diameter. They are particularly
found in muscle cells. They consist of the protein actin, responsible for muscle contraction.

Intermediate Filaments

The intermediate filaments are about 10 nano meters in diameter and provide tensile strength to
the cell. They facilitate the formation of keratins and neuro filaments.

The cytoskeleton is also made up of certain motor proteins. These include:

Kinesin

These proteins move along the microtubules carrying the cellular components. They pull the
organelles along the cell membrane.
Dyneins

These pull the cell organelles towards the nucleus.

Myosin

These interact with actin protein and are responsible for muscle contractions. They also perform
cytokinesis, exocytosis, and endocytosis.

Cytoskeleton Functions

The important cytoskeleton functions are mentioned below:

• It provides shape and support to the cell.

• It helps in the formation of vacuoles.
• It holds different cell organelles in place.
• It assists in cell signaling.
• It supports intracellular movements like the migration of cell organelles, transportation of
vesicles in and out of the cell, etc.

Q # 13: Explain in detail the light independent phase of photosynthesis.

A: The goal of the light-independent reactions (or Calvin cycle) is to assemble a molecule of
glucose. This is the part of photosynthesis that requires the CO2, the plant gets from the air.

Essentially, the plant needs the carbon from the CO2 to create the building blocks for glucose. An
enzyme in the stroma called ruBisCo combines a five-carbon molecule of RubP (ribulose
biphosphate) with a molecule of carbon dioxide. This creates a six-carbon molecule that is broken
down into two three-carbon molecules (3-phosphoglycerate). This part of the light-independent
reactions is referred to as carbon fixation.

Then, the energy carriers from the light-dependent reactions make their contribution. ATP and
NADPH give each 3-phosphoglycerate a hydrogen atom, creating two molecules of the simple
sugar G3P (glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate). Ultimately, these two molecules of G3P are used to
build one molecule of glucose. This part of the light-independent reactions is typically referred to
as reduction (or reducing the sugar) because electrons are added.

It is important to note that the Calvin cycle typically uses six molecules of carbon dioxide at a
time. This means that twelve molecules of G3P are generated. However, only two of them are used
to produce a molecule of glucose—the rest are recycled back into RubP so that the cycle
can keep running.

Q # 14: Write down general characteristics of Protoctista and diversity among Protoctista.

A: Model-1 Q # 17.
Q # 15: Explain alternative mechanism of CO2 fixation in plant.

A: Book Pg: 90-91.

Q # 16: How does the pressure-flow theory explain the movement of sugar through the
plants?

A: The pressure-flow theory is a model that explains how water and solutes, including glucose,
are transported in plants. It states that the movement of water and solutes from the roots to the
leaves is driven by a pressure gradient that exists between the roots and the leaves. The pressure
gradient is created by the active transport of water from the roots to the xylem tissue, which creates
a high pressure in the roots. This high pressure drives the flow of water and solutes from the roots
to the leaves, where the pressure is lower. The glucose is transported along with the water in the
xylem tissue, so it also moves from the roots to the leaves. This process continues until a balance
is reached between the pressure in the roots and the pressure in the leaves, which results in a steady
flow of water and solutes in the plant.

MODEL - 5

Q # 1: MCQ's -------------- Solved in papers.

Q # 2: Why enzymes are called temperature sensitive?

A: Model-2 Q # 5.

Q # 3: Why mitochondria is called powerhouse of cell?

A: Model-3 Q # 9.

Q # 4: Differentiate between peroxisomes and glyoxymes.

A:
Q # 5: Why does oxidation of pyruvate provide more energy than lactic acid fermentation?

A: Full oxidation of glucose to CO2 yields more energy than fermentation because in fermentation
complete oxidation of the sugar does not occur.

Q # 6: Why asexual and sexual Ulva plants are called sporophytes and gametophyte?

A: Because the sexual phase, called the gametophyte generation, produces gametes, or sex cells,
and the asexual phase, or sporophyte generation, produces spores asexually.

Q # 7: Name various classes of protozoa and how each of their members move?

A: Model-4 Q # 3.

Q # 8: Why do gymnosperms have naked seeds but not angiosperms?

A: The gymnosperms have their ovules freely exposed before and after fertilization. They are not
enclosed by any ovary wall. The seeds formed by them lack the seed coat. Hence, due to the
absence of ovary wall and seed coat, their seeds are naked.

Q # 9: Why flower is called reproductive parts of a plant?

A: Model-1 Q # 11.

Q # 10: Why cold treatment is necessary for the germination of seeds in some plants?

A: It is a survival mechanism, so the seed does not germinate prematurely. Many plants require a
period of cold temperatures to break their dormancy cycle.

Q # 11: How osmotic adjustment is beneficial for plants?

A: Model-2 Q # 11.

Q # 12: Describe some of the unusual features of nuclear behavior in fungi.

A: A characteristic feature of fungal hypha is the presence of a large number of nuclei in a common
cytoplasmic environment. Nuclei cooperate, compete or combat.

Q # 13: Describe the effects of temperature on the rate of enzyme action.

A: Model-1 Q # 15.

Q # 14: Describe structure and functions of Golgi complex.

A: Golgi Apparatus Structure

• The Golgi apparatus is a major organelle in most of the eukaryotic cells.

• They are membrane bound organelles, which are sac-like. They are found in the cytoplasm of
 plant and animal cells.
• The Golgi complex is composed of stacks of membrane-bound structures, these structures are
known as the cisternae. An individual stack of the cisternae is sometimes referred to as
dictyosome.
• In a typical animal cell, there are about 40 to 100 stacks. In a stack there are about four to eight
cisternae.
• Each cisternae is a disc enclosed in a membrane, it possess special enzymes of the Golgi which
help to modify and transport the modified proteins to their destination.
• The flat sacs of the cisternae are stacked and are bent and semicircular in shape.
• Each group of stacks is membrane bound and its insides are separated from the cytoplasm of
the cell.
• The interaction in the Golgi membrane is responsible for the unique shape of the apparatus.
• The Golgi complex is polar in nature.
• The membranes of one end of the stack are different in composition and thickness to the
membranes at the other end.
• One end of the stack is known as the cis face, it is the 'receiving department" while the other
end is the trans face and is the "shipping department". The cis face of the Golgi apparatus is
closely associated with the endoplasmic reticulum.

Golgi Apparatus Function

• The cell synthesizes a huge amount of variety of macromolecules. The main function of the
Golgi apparatus is to modify, sort and package the macromolecules that are synthesized by the
cells for secretion purposes or for use within the cell.
• It mainly modifies the proteins that are prepared by the rough endoplasmic reticulum.
• They are also involved in the transport of lipid molecules around the cell.
• They also create lysosomes.
• The Golgi complex is thus referred to as the post office where the molecules are packaged,
labelled, and sent to different parts of the cell.
• The enzymes in the cisternae have the ability to modify proteins by the addition of
carbohydrates and phosphate by the process of glycosylation and phosphorylation respectively.
• The Golgi complex also plays an important role in the production of proteoglycans.
• It is also a major site for synthesis of carbohydrates.
• The process of phosphorylation of molecules by the Golgi requires the import of ATP into the
lumen of the Golgi.

Q # 15: Explain cyclic and noncyclic photophosphorylation during light reaction.

A: Cyclic Photophosphorylation

The photophosphorylation process which results in the movement of the electrons in a cyclic
manner for synthesizing ATP molecules is called cyclic photophosphorylation.

In this process, plant cells just accomplish the ADP to ATP for immediate energy for the cells.
This process usually takes place in the thylakoid membrane and uses Photosystem I and
chlorophyll P700.

During cyclic photophosphorylation, the electrons are transferred back to P700 instead of moving
into the NADP from the electron acceptor. This downward movement of electrons from an
acceptor to P700 results in the formation of ATP molecules.

Non-Cyclic Photophosphorylation

The photophosphorylation process which results in the movement of the electrons in a non-cyclic
manner for synthesizing ATP molecules using the energy from excited electrons provided by
photosystem II is called non-cyclic photophosphorylation.

This process is referred to as non- cyclic photophosphorylation because the lost electrons by P680
of Photosystem II are occupied by P700 of Photosystem I and are not reverted to P680. Here the
complete movement of the electrons is in a unidirectional or in a non- cyclic manner.

During non-cyclic photophosphorylation, the electrons released by P700 are carried by primary
acceptor and are finally passed on to NADP. Here, the electrons combine with the protons – H+
which is produced by splitting up of the water molecule and reduces NADP to NADPH2.

Q # 16: Give the diagnostic features of four classes of fungi.

A: Following are the important features of fungi:

• Fungi are eukaryotic, non-vascular, non-motile and heterotrophic organisms.

• They may be unicellular or filamentous.
• They reproduce by means of spores.
• Fungi exhibits the phenomenon of alternation of generation.
• Fungi lack chlorophyll and hence cannot perform photosynthesis.
• Fungi store their food in the form of starch.
• Biosynthesis of chitin occurs in fungi.
• The nuclei of the fungi are very small.
• The fungi have no embryonic stage.
• They develop from spores.
• The mode of reproduction is sexual or asexual.
• Some fungi are parasitic and can infect the host.
• Fungi produce a chemical called pheromone which leads to sexual reproduction in fungi.
• Examples include mushrooms, moulds and yeast.
Q # 17: Describe the life cycle of moss with diagram.

A: The life cycle of most mosses begins with the release of spores from a capsule, which opens
when a small, lid like structure, called the operculum, degenerates. A single spore germinates to
form a branched, filamentous protonema, from which a leafy gametophyte develops. The
gametophyte bears organs for sexual reproduction. Sperm, which are released by the mature
antheridium (the male reproductive organ), are attracted into the neck of an archegonium (the
female reproductive organ). Here, one sperm is fused with the egg to produce the zygote. After
cell division, the zygote becomes the sporophyte, and, at the same time, the archegonium divides
to form the protective calyptra. The sporophyte usually consists of a capsule and a seta. Asexual
reproduction occurs within the capsule and the whole process may begin again.