Unit operations of mechanical process

engineering in polymer recycling (I)

Jochen Schmidt

Lehrstuhl für Feststoff- und Grenzflächenverfahrenstechnik

Friedrich-Alexander-Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg

www.lfg.fau.de
 Waste process cycle for plastics

closed-loop-recycling
(cf. PET bottles, see last lecture)

Jochen Schmidt Lecture “Polymer Recycling” summer term 2023 2

 Waste process cycle for plastics

Jochen Schmidt Lecture “Polymer Recycling” summer term 2023 3

 Sorting of post-consumer plastic wastes
(flow chart)

K. Ragaert et al., Waste Management 69 (2017) 24-58.

Jochen Schmidt Lecture “Polymer Recycling” summer term 2023 4
 Key challenges towards high-quality
recycled plastics
• Sorting to a monopolymer of high purity of at least 99.98% purity
→ NIR sorting in plastic recycling facilities (PRF)

• Removal of contaminations (dirt, glue, labels)

→ Hot washing of flakes

• Desorption of any substances remaining within the polymer from prior applications or
from external contamination
→ vacuum degassing, cf. slides on food-grade r-PET from last lecture

• Prior to processing in a PRF, the plastic wastes (from collection) are ‘sorted’ in a
material recycling facility (MRF); ‘sorting also takes place in the PRF:
• Sorting by size (e.g. by sieves),
• Separation of plastics from paper, cans (e.g. by air classification, magnetic
separators, ballistic separators, sink-float separation)
• Size reduction (e.g. in shredders, grinding)

→ application of Particle Technology / unit operations of Mechanical Process

Engineering
Trevor Letcher, Plastic Waste and Recycling - Environmental Impact, Societal Issues, Prevention, and Solutions (2020),
Academic Press, ISBN: 9780128178812.
.
Jochen Schmidt Lecture “Polymer Recycling” summer term 2023 5
 Mechanical Process Engineering and
Particle Technology

… in the classical picture of Hans Rumpf for particle systems > 1 µm

Chem. Ing. Techn. 33 (1961) 7, 502-509

→ unit operations with and without change of particle size

Jochen Schmidt Lecture “Polymer Recycling” summer term 2023 6

 Mechanical Process Engineering and
Particle Technology

Change of size and shape No change of size or shape

Dispersion particle formation, e.g. separation, e.g.

separation, e.g.
• comminution
comminution • sorting
• atomization, gasification • classifying
• crystallization • collection
• particle synthesis

Addition particle enlargement mixing

mixing
• agglomeration
agglomeration dispersing
• compaction suspending
• pelletizing

Transport conveying, dosing, storage of dispersed substances, rheology

Measuring particle characterization

M. Stieß, Mechanische Verfahrenstechnik – Partikeltechnology 1, Springer, Berlin, 2009, ISBN 978-3-540-32551-2,

e-ISBN 978-3-540-32552-9
Jochen Schmidt Lecture “Polymer Recycling” summer term 2023 7
 Food-grade rPET via URRC (United Resource
Recovery Corporation) process
Bale feed 1.
Bale dissolver 2.
Sorting booth 3.
Grinder 4.
Hot wash 5.
Swim-sink 6.
separation
7. Drying
8. Air classification
9. Caustic soda
treatment
10. Surface cleaning
with vaccum
treatment
11. Rewash and
drying
12. Sieving and
sorting
13. Filling
Unit operations of mechanical process engineering in the process chain
https://www.veolia.de/veolia-pet-germany-gmbh-urrc-process
Jochen Schmidt Lecture “Polymer Recycling” summer term 2023 8
 Sorting of post-consumer plastic wastes in
a material recycling facility (MRF)
Manual sorting

visual identification of the plastic type by operators via

• Resin identification code

• Shape

• Color

• Appearance

• Trademark of the plastic

→ labor-intensive, possibility of human error

→ can be used as only sorting step, or as a first sorting step to remove ‘bulky’
items and (large) contaminations or after automatic sorting to remove ‘false
positives’
Rudolph et al., Understanding Plastics Recycling, München, 2020
Jochen Schmidt Lecture “Polymer Recycling” summer term 2023 9
 Sorting of post-consumer plastic wastes in
a material recycling facility (MRF)
Automatic sorting - equipment

Dri M. et al., Best Environmental Management Practice for the Waste Management Sector, JRC Science for Policy Report, EUR
29136 EN, Publications Office of the European Union, Luxembourg, 2018, ISBN 978-92-79-80361-1, doi:10.2760/50247,
JRC111059.
Jochen Schmidt Lecture “Polymer Recycling” summer term 2023 10
 Sorting of post-consumer plastic wastes in
a material recycling facility (MRF)
Automatic sorting - equipment

Dri M. et al., Best Environmental Management Practice for the Waste Management Sector, JRC Science for Policy Report, EUR
29136 EN, Publications Office of the European Union, Luxembourg, 2018, ISBN 978-92-79-80361-1, doi:10.2760/50247,
JRC111059.
Jochen Schmidt Lecture “Polymer Recycling” summer term 2023 11
 Mechanical Process Engineering and
Particle Technology

Change of size and shape No change of size or shape

Dispersion particle formation, e.g. separation, e.g.

• comminution • sorting
• atomization, gasification • classifying
• crystallization • collection
• particle synthesis

Addition particle enlargement mixing

• agglomeration dispersing
• compaction suspending
• pelletizing

Transport conveying, dosing, storage of dispersed substances, rheology

Measuring particle characterization

→ before addressing unit operations, we have to know how to describe particle

systems
M. Stieß, Mechanische Verfahrenstechnik – Partikeltechnology 1, Springer, Berlin, 2009, ISBN 978-3-540-32551-2,
e-ISBN 978-3-540-32552-9
Jochen Schmidt Lecture “Polymer Recycling” summer term 2023 12
 Distribution functions of particle properties

Particle ensembles are characterized by their physical features:

Kind of quantity Dimensions Index Measuring

process
Number L0 r=0 counting
Length L1 r=1
Surface L2 r=2 extinction
Mass/volume L3 r=3 weighing

Note:
• One particle of 1 mm has the same mass as 1000 particles of 0,1 mm.
• Attention must be paid to the statistical data of the measuring procedure.

Jochen Schmidt Lecture “Polymer Recycling” summer term 2023 13

 Cumulative distribution and
density distribution
Cumulative distribution:
Number of particles which are equal to or smaller than a certain
particle size
Sum of all particles with size x ≤ x i
Qr (x) =
Total quantity
Density distribution:
Number of particles, whose size lies within a certain particle size interval

Amount in interval between x i and x i+1

qr (x i ) =
Interval length (x i+1 − x i ) ⋅ Total quantity

Notice the dimensions: Qr(x) : [-] ,qr(x) : [L-1]

Resulting in:
Qr (x i+1 ) − Qr (x i ) ΔQr (x i )
Qr (x min ) = 0 and Qr (x max ) = 1 qr (x i ) = =
x i+1 − x i Δx i
Jochen Schmidt Lecture “Polymer Recycling” summer term 2023 14
 Sieve analysis – Cumulative distribution

Mesh size Mass

per sieve Q(x) = Amount of particles with size ≤ x
Total amount of particles
8 mm 0g
m(x < xi )
4 mm 3g xi / mm Q(xi)
g

2 mm 7g 8 20 1,0

4 17 0,85
1 mm 5g
2 10 0,5
0,5 4g
mm 1 5 0,25

0 mm 1g 0,5 1 0,05
(bottom)
0 0 0,0
Σ = 20 g 0,5

Jochen Schmidt Lecture “Polymer Recycling” summer term 2023 15

 Sieve analysis – Cumulative distribution

Q(x) = Amount of particles with size ≤ x

Total amount of particles
1.00
xi / mm Q(xi)

Q(x)
(x)
8 1,0 0.75

cumulative distribution Q
Verteilungssumme
4 0,85
0.50
2 0,5 Diskrete Verteilung
discrete distribution
(lineare Interpolation)
(linear interpolation)
1 0,25 0.25 Kontinuierliche
continuous
Approximationsfunktion
approximation function
0,5 0,05
0.00
0 0,0 0 5 10
0,5
particle size xx/ mm
Partikelgröße / mm
Jochen Schmidt Lecture “Polymer Recycling” summer term 2023 16
 Sieve analysis – Density distribution

Mesh size Mass

per sieve q(x) = Amount of particles in interval around x
8 mm 0g Total amount ⋅ width

4 mm 3g q𝐪𝐪0𝟑𝟑((�
x𝐱𝐱i𝐢𝐢))
x / mm mi / g ∆xi / mm
i 𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦
mm
-−𝟏𝟏
1

2 mm 7g
6 3 4 0,0375
1 mm 5g
3 7 2 0,175

0,5 4g 1,5 5 1 0,25

mm
0,75 4 0,5 0,40
0 mm 1g
(bottom)
0,25 1 0,5 0,10
Σ = 20 g 0,5

Jochen Schmidt Lecture “Polymer Recycling” summer term 2023 17

 Sieve analysis – Density distribution

q(x) = Amount of particles in interval around x

Total amount ⋅ width

q0𝟑𝟑((�
𝐪𝐪 x𝐱𝐱i )𝐢𝐢 )

-1 -1
x / mm Diskrete
discrete Verteilung
distribution
i -1

mm
mm −𝟏𝟏
𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦 (Histogramm)
(histogram)

q(x) //mm
0.4
Kontinuierliche
continuous
6 0,0375

density distribution q(x)

Approximationsfunktion
approximation function

3 0,175 Verteilungsdichte
0.2
1,5 0,25

0,75 0,40
0.0
0,25 0,10
0,5
0 2 4 6 8 10
particle size xx // mm
Partikelgröße mm
Jochen Schmidt Lecture “Polymer Recycling” summer term 2023 18
 PSDs: Type of quantity

small intermediate large

Particle size
1 : 2 : 4

Mass 1 : 1 : 1
Q3 = 0,33 0,67 1,0

Number 64 : 8 : 1
Q0 = 0,88 0,99 1,0
Jochen Schmidt Lecture “Polymer Recycling” summer term 2023 19
 PSDs: Type of quantity

Cumulative distributions with 3 fractions

1.00
distributionQQrr (x)
(x)

0.75 Q0
Verteilungssumme

0.50
Q3
cumulative

0.25

0.00
0 1 2 3 4 5
particle size x /x mm
Partikelgröße / mm
Jochen Schmidt Lecture “Polymer Recycling” summer term 2023 20
 Representation of distribution functions

[1/Length] [-]
Distribution
densities
Histogram
are plotted
over the
mean of [Length] [Length]
the interval
[1/Length] [-]

1 Continuously
xi = (x i + x i+1 )
2 differentiable
= Qr (x1,x2)
function

[Length] [Length]
x
Plot over dQr (x) Plot over
qr (x) = resp. Qr (x) = ∫ q (x)dx
r
midst of intervall dx x min
end of interval
x2 x max

with ∫ q (x)dx = Q (x
r r 2 ) − Qr (x1 ) and ∫ q (x)dx = 1
r
x1 x min

Jochen Schmidt Lecture “Polymer Recycling” summer term 2023 21

 Calculating with distributions

measuring
representation
procedure

e.g. light scattering

conversion
number distribution mass distribution
with moment
[m-3] [mg / m³]
Δm3i x i3 ⋅ Δm0i x i3 ⋅ m0 ⋅ q0 (x i )Δx i x i3 ⋅ q0 (x i )
q3 (x i ) = = = =
m3 Δx i ∑(i
3
) 3

i
(
x i Δm0i ⋅ Δx i m0 ⋅ ∑ x i ⋅ q0 (x i )Δx i ⋅ Δx i ) ∑(
i
x i3 ⋅ qo (x i ) ⋅ Δx i )
x 3 ⋅ q0 (x) x 3 ⋅ q0 (x)
q3 (x) = x max
=
M3,0
∫ ⋅ q0 (x)dx
3
x
x min
with
m = total amount
x i3 ⋅ q0 (x i ) (Index 0: number, Index 3: mass, Index i: interval)
That means: q3 (x i ) =
M3,0 m0i = number in interval i
M3,0 = complete moment
Jochen Schmidt Lecture “Polymer Recycling” summer term 2023 22
 Moment representation

Complete 3. moment of x max

number distribution
(
M3,0 = ∑ x i3 ⋅ qo (x i ) ⋅ Δx i ) M3,0 = ∫ q0 (x)dx
x 3

i x min

x max

Complete kth moment ∫ x q (x)dx

k
Mk,0 = 0
x min

x max
x k Δm0 Δx Sum of all x k
Mk,0 =∑ = = xk
x min m0 Δx Number
Mk,0 is the integral mean value or the expected value for xk
Example: average particle volume
x
π 3 π 3 max 3 π 3
V = x v = ⋅ Ψv,x ∫ x ⋅ q0 (x)dx = ⋅ Ψv,x ⋅ M3,0
6 6 x min
6

x k ⋅ q0 (x) x k ⋅ q0 (x)
For qk (x) – distribution: qk (x) = x max
=
Mk,0
∫ ⋅ q0 (x) ⋅ dx
k
x
x min

Jochen Schmidt Lecture “Polymer Recycling” summer term 2023 23

 Generalization for any qr(x)-distribution

For the complete kth moment of the qr(x)-distribution is:

x max

∫ qr (x)dx
k
Mk,r = x
x min

Standardization:
for k = 0 and a given r: M0,r =1
Furthermore, one can show that:

x r −lql (x)
qr (x) =
Mr −l,l

Jochen Schmidt Lecture “Polymer Recycling” summer term 2023 24

 Relationship between moments

For a given number density distribution

x max
x r q0 (x)
Mk,r = ∫ x q (x)dx
k
and qr (x) =
x min
r
Mr,0
x max x max

∫ x ⋅ x q0 (x)dx ∫ q0 (x)dx
k r k +r
x
x min x min Mk +r,0
We get: Mk,r = = =
Mr,0 Mr,0 Mr,0

x lq0 (x)
For any distribution ql(x) with: ql (x) = i.e. q0 (x) = x −lql (x)Ml,0
Ml,0

x max x max

∫ q0 (x)dx ∫ x ql (x)Ml,0dx
k +r k + r −l
x x Mk +r -l,l
x min x min Mk +r −l,l Mk,r =
Mk,r = = = Mr -l,l
Mr,0 Mr,0 Mr,0 /Ml,0

Jochen Schmidt Lecture “Polymer Recycling” summer term 2023 25

 Separation

According to which properties can you classify particles?

• Size

• Shape

• Density

• Conductivity

• Hydrophobicity (flotation in mineral’s processing)

Jochen Schmidt Lecture “Polymer Recycling” summer term 2023 26

 Sorting of post-consumer plastic wastes
(flow chart)

K. Ragaert et al., Waste Management 69 (2017) 24-58.

Jochen Schmidt Lecture “Polymer Recycling” summer term 2023 27
 Separation – quantity balance

Integral balance: feed fine

MA,r = MF,r + MG,r MF,r(x)
MAr(x)
MG,r MF,r QF,r(x)
QA,r(x)
1 = gr + fr = +
MA,r MA,r qF,r(x)
qA,r(x)
Differential balance:
in a particle size interval x…x+dx
dMA,r (x) = dMF,r (x) + dMG,r (x) coarse
MA ⋅ qA (x) ⋅ dx = MF ⋅ qF (x) ⋅ dx + MG ⋅ qG (x) ⋅ dx
MC,r(x), QC,r(x), qC,r(x)
qA (x) = f ⋅ qF (x) + g ⋅ qG (x)
Density distribution q
QA ( x ) − QF ( x ) q A ( x ) − qF ( x ) Cumulative distribution Q
g= =
QG ( x ) − QF ( x ) qG ( x ) − qF ( x )
Quantity M
Jochen Schmidt Lecture “Polymer Recycling” summer term 2023 28
 Example

A raw gas contains 500 particles of 1µm and 500 particles of 10µm size.
A separator separates all 10µm particles completely, however all 1µm
particles pass.

MA,0 = 1000
π
MA,3 = 500 ⋅ ρP (13 + 10 3 )µm3
6
π
MG,3 = 500 ⋅ ρP 10 3 µm3
6
MG,0
g0 = = 0,5
MA,0
MG,3 103 1000
g3 = = 3 3
= = 0,999
MA,3 1 + 10 1001

Jochen Schmidt Lecture “Polymer Recycling” summer term 2023 29

 Distribution curves

F: Fines
A: Feed
G: Coarse

Jochen Schmidt Lecture “Polymer Recycling” summer term 2023 30

 Grade and fractional collection efficiency

Grade efficiency
quantity of particles with the size x...x + dx in coarse
T(x) =
quantity of the particles with the size x...x + dx in feed

dMG (x) MG ⋅ qG (x) ⋅ dx qG (x)

T(x) = = = gr ⋅
dMA (x) MA ⋅ qA (x) ⋅ dx qA (x)

Total collection efficiency

x max

gr = ∫ T(x) ⋅ q
x min
A (x) ⋅ dx gr dependent on r
T(x) independent on r

Jochen Schmidt Lecture “Polymer Recycling” summer term 2023 31

 Ideal and real separation

qA (x) = f ⋅ qF (x) + g ⋅ qG (x)

g qG(x)
q(x) q(x) qA(x)

f qF(x)

x x
xmin xt xmax xmin x50,t xmax

T(x) T(x)
1 1

0,5

0 x 0 x
xt xu x50,t x0

a) a)ideal
idealeseparation
Trennung b) real separation
b) reale Trennung
Jochen Schmidt Lecture “Polymer Recycling” summer term 2023 32
 Analytical cut size

particle size xa,t at which

fraction of the coarse in the fines =
fraction of the fines in the coarse material

x a, t xo xo

g ⋅ ∫ qG (x) ⋅ dx = f ⋅ ∫ qF (x) ⋅ dx =
xu x a, t
∫ ((q
x a, t
A (x) − g ⋅ qG (x)) ⋅ dx

area below density distribution of

coarse and fine materials have
the same size at xa,t

Jochen Schmidt Lecture “Polymer Recycling” summer term 2023 33

 Separation sharpness

Indicator for the width of grade efficiency curve

x 25,t
κ= κ = 0,3 ... 0,6 technical
x75,t separation
κ = 0,6 ... 0,8 sharp
separation
κ = 0,8 ... 0,9 analytical
separation
with T ( x 25,t ) = 0,25
κ=1 ideal
T ( x75,t ) = 0,75 separation

Jochen Schmidt Lecture “Polymer Recycling” summer term 2023 34