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Scenarios for the carbon balance of

Finnish forests and wood products
Seppo Kellomäki
Environmental Science & Policy

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 Environmental Science & Policy 2 (1999) 165±175

Scenarios for the carbon balance of Finnish forests and wood

products
Timo Karjalainen a, *, Ari Pussinen a, b, 1, Seppo KellomaÈki b, 2, Raisa MaÈkipaÈaÈ c, 3
a
European Forest Institute, Torikatu 34, 80100 Joensuu, Finland
b
Faculty of Forestry, University of Joensuu, P.O. Box 111, 80101 Joensuu, Finland
c
Finnish Forest Research Institute, Unioninkatu 40A, 00170 Helsinki, Finland

Abstract

The objective of this paper is to compare di€erent scenarios for carbon (C) sequestration in the forest sector in Finland.
Forest inventory data was used as input data to simulate the dynamics of C sequestration with a gap-type forest simulation
model and a wood product model. In the baseline scenario, current forest management practices were applied. In another
scenario, current recommendations for forest management were applied, which resulted in more intensive harvesting than in the
baseline scenario. Both scenarios were also applied under changing climatic conditions to demonstrate the possible e€ect of
climate change on C sequestration.
This study demonstrates that C sequestration assessments should include not only C in the biomass of trees, but also C in the
soil and in the wood products, as well as interactions between the respective pools. Partial assessments are likely to result in
misleading estimates of the actual C sequestration. Forest management a€ects the distribution of C between the pools and the
changing climate is likely to change this distribution. The Kyoto Protocol deals with only a limited part of the forestry and
forest C cycle and C accounting accordingly can provide results that depart substantially from more complete accounting.
# 1999 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Carbon sequestration; Climate change; Forest management; Forest sector; Kyoto Protocol; Scenario analysis; Wood use

1. Introduction atmosphere, in particular that of carbon dioxide

The global climate is expected to change substan-
tially in the foreseeable future due to the rapidly
increasing concentration of greenhouse gases in the
* Corresponding author. Tel.: +358-13-252-0240; fax: +358-13-
124393; e-mail: timo.karjalainen@e®.®
1
Tel.: +358-13-252-0241, fax: +358-13-124-393, e-mail: ari.pussi-
nen@e®.®
2
Tel.: +358-13-2513630, fax: +358-13-2514444, e-mail: seppo.
kellomaki@joensuu.®
3
Tel.: +358-9-8570 5654, fax: +358-9-625 308, e-mail: raisa.
makipaa@metla.®
(Houghton et al., 1990, 1992, 1995). The importance
of reducing carbon (C) emissions with the aim of
slowing down the build-up of the atmospheric car-
bon dioxide is widely agreed, i.e. in the United
Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
in Rio de Janeiro in 1992 and in the Conference of
the Parties in Kyoto in 1997. This implies that less
fossil fuels should be used in order to decrease
emissions into the atmosphere. Emissions from land-
use can also be decreased, sequestration of C into
ecosystems and other stocks can be increased and
fossil fuel based energy and products can be
replaced with renewable wood based energy and
products.

1462-9011/99/$ - see front matter # 1999 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
PII: S 1 4 6 2 - 9 0 1 1 ( 9 8 ) 0 0 0 4 7 - 1
166 T. Karjalainen et al. / Environmental Science & Policy 2 (1999) 165±175
In the long run, the C accumulated in forests from
the atmosphere will be released back to the atmos-
phere through respiration, decay of litter and soil or-
ganic matter, oxidation of wood products and as a
result of disturbances in forests. Net change in the C
stocks (vegetation, soil, products) shows if these stocks
are C sinks (accumulating C) or C sources (loosing C).
It should be noted that the state of these stocks vary
over time, i.e. a stock can be a sink one year but it can
be a source the following year. Fluctuations are more
pronounced on smaller spatial scales than on larger
scales. Therefore it is important to look at the long-
term dynamics of C stocks and not only at particular
years. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
Change (IPCC) has provided guidelines to calculate
national greenhouse gas inventories for land-use
change and forestry (IPCC, 1997). These guidelines
assume, however, that wood products are oxidized im-
mediately and therefore no accumulation of C in long
life-span products. In the Kyoto Protocol Article 3.3,
C stock changes of land-use change and forestry are
limited to a€orestation, reforestation and deforestation
since 1990. In Article 3.4, however, each party has
been asked to establish its level of C stocks (not
de®ned which) in 1990 and to provide changes in C
stocks in subsequent years. Additional human-induced
activities may be included later in addition to those in
Article 3.3. Both the IPCC guidelines and the Kyoto
Protocol leave part of the system out of the consider-
ation and if applied would possibly provide biased esti-
mates of C sequestration.
The impact of forest management on the structure
and functioning of forest ecosystems in Finland is
much larger than that of natural disturbances: since
1970 approximately 428,000 ha per year have been
treated with fellings while annually burned areas have
been less than 700 ha (Yearbook of Forest Statistics,
1997). Forest growth is strongly limited by tempera-
ture, especially in the northern part of the country.
Predicted climate change may have a strong in¯uence
on forest growth, decomposition of litter, soil organic
matter and productivity, and thus on C sequestration.
This should not be neglected in C sequestration scen-
arios. In this paper, we have compared the e€ects of
di€erent forest management regimes and the possible
e€ects of changing climatic conditions on C sequestra-
tion in the forest sector in Finland. We chose one of
the scenarios as a baseline, but we have also discussed
the basis for choosing a baseline. Implications of
implementing Articles 3.3 and 3.4 of the Kyoto
Protocol are discussed brie¯y.
2. Methods and data
2.1. Carbon budget
Carbon sequestration in the forest sector has been
simulated using dynamic forest (KellomaÈki et al.,
1992; Karjalainen, 1996a) and wood product models
(Karjalainen et al., 1994), which take into account C
transfers between forests, wood products and the at-
mosphere (Fig. 1). They allow calculations of the net
changes in each of the C stocks and in the whole
system as well as ¯uxes between the stocks. This
procedure has been applied earlier both on stand
level assessments (Karjalainen and KellomaÈki, 1995;
Karjalainen, 1996b,c) and on national level assess-
ments (Karjalainen et al., 1997a; Pussinen et al.,
1997).
Carbon ¯uxes and storage can be calculated for
each component, but of particular interest is the net C
sequestration in the forest ecosystem (net change in
the forest ecosystem), the net C sequestration in wood
products (net change in wood products), the total net
C sequestration of the entire forest and wood-product
system (the total net change), as well as size of the for-
est C storage, wood-product C storage and storage of
the entire forest and wood-product system.
2.2. Forest simulation model
Carbon ¯uxes and stocks in forests have been simu-
lated with a gap-type model (KellomaÈki et al., 1992;
Karjalainen, 1996a,b; Talkkari and HypeÂn, 1996) in
which the site conditions are described in terms of the
availability of light, growing season degree-days, soil
moisture and availability of nitrogen. These environ-
mental conditions scale tree growth from the optimum
level to actual level. Also, the establishment and death
of trees, as well as the establishment, growth and
death of ground vegetation, are in¯uenced by these en-
vironmental constraints. In the current model, the
growing season degree-day multiplier, which limits the
geographical distribution of a tree species along the
temperature gradient by using the prevailing tempera-
ture sum and species speci®c minimum and maximum
temperature sums, has been modi®ed from the initial
multiplier. Now the growing season degree-day multi-
plier follows the initial multiplier up to the optimum
temperature conditions, but remains at the maximum
value until the break up in the maximum temperature
sum (MaÈkipaÈaÈ et al., 1998). Forest management com-
prises stand establishment, thinning and clearfelling.
Removals through felling of trees are converted into
timber assortments (logs, pulpwood and residue wood)
in accordance with the speci®c dimensions for each
assortment. This model has been widely used to assess
the e€ects of the changing climate on boreal forests in
 T. Karjalainen et al. / Environmental Science & Policy 2 (1999) 165±175
Fig. 1. Outlines of the atmosphere-forest-wood-based products C interactions in this study (C ¯uxes and stocks).
Finland (KellomaÈki and KolstroÈm, 1992a,b, 1993;
KellomaÈki, 1995; Karjalainen, 1996a,b,c; Talkkari,
1996; Talkkari and HypeÂn, 1996), also regionally and
nationally (Talkkari, 1996; Pussinen et al., 1997).
2.3. Wood-product model
Timber harvest, divided into timber assortments by
tree species, is used as the input in the wood-product
model. Harvested timber is processed into products
and the C bound in products is followed until the pro-
ducts are removed from use and the C is released back
into the atmosphere. The conversion of timber into
wood products (fuelwood, chemical pulp and paper,
mechanical pulp and paper, plywood and sawn timber)
is based on product/timber units typical for the wood-
processing industry in Finland. The ®nal products are
divided into four life-span categories to describe typi-
cal use of the products. These life-span categories are
short (fuelwood, newsprint, some packing paper,
paperboard and printing and writing paper), medium-
short (the rest of the packing paper, paperboard and
printing and writing paper), medium-long (part of
sawn timber and plywood) and long (rest of the sawn
timber and plywood). It should be noted that the
wood-product model does not consider the use of pri-
mary energy in processing wood into products, except
167
for the use of wood itself mainly in the form of by-
products. For further details of the product model see
Karjalainen et al. (1994, 1995).
2.4. Input data
The calculations were done for productive forest
land on mineral soils (average annual growth at least 1
m3/ha), representing approximately 66% of the for-
estry land area, i.e. 15.2 Mha. Data collected from
1256 permanent plots within the national forest inven-
tory by the Finnish Forest Research Institute provided
the basis for constructing the initial forest C storage
for the year 1990. The tree characteristics used as
input were tree species and diameter at breast height
and the site characteristics comprised coordinates, alti-
tude, site-type, depth of the humus layer, soil fertility
and type. Climatic conditions (temperature, precipi-
tation, heat-sum and evapotranspiration) were simu-
lated based on coordinates and altitude.
2.5. Scenarios
In the current climate scenario, the temperature and
precipitation values are from the period 1961±1990.
The mean annual temperature for the whole country
was 1.58C and precipitation 580 mm, varying from
168 T. Karjalainen et al. / Environmental Science & Policy 2 (1999) 165±175

Table 1
The scenarios of seasonal temperature and precipitation change over Finland for 1990±2100 (Carter et al., 1995). Rates of
change are assumed to be linear

Season Temperature change (8C/decade) Precipitation change (%/decade)

moderate intermediate greatest moderate intermediate greatest

Spring, March±May 0.1 0.4 0.6 0.125 0.5 0.75

Summer, June±August 0.075 0.3 0.45 0.25 1 1.5
Autumn, September±November 0.1 0.4 0.6 0.25 1 1.5
Winter, December±February 0.125 0.6 0.75 0.42 2 2.5
Mean 0.1 0.4 0.6 0.25 1 1.5

+58C and 650 mm in the southern part of the country
to ÿ28C and 450 mm in the northern part of the
country. For the changing climate, the increases in
temperature and precipitation for moderate, intermedi-
ate and greatest climate change (Table 1) are from
three scenarios applying low, central and high emission
estimates of the IPCC (IS92c, a and f in Houghton et
al., 1992).
The basis for forest management is as given in the
forest management recommendations (Tapio, 1994).
Currently, forests are not managed as intensively as
the recommendations would allow. Current harvesting
levels were achieved when each year 7% of the stands
that exceeded thinning and clearfelling limits were har-
vested. This meant that the probability of harvest in
these stands was 50% less than recommended within
10 years. This is later called current management. In
another scenario, forest management was intensi®ed to
the level recommendations allow. Intensi®cation of
management was done slowly and the recommended
level was achieved after 46 years. This is later called
intensive management.
The initial wood-product storage in 1990 was taken
from Pussinen et al. (1997), who calculated them by
using wood-use data for the period 1860±1990 (Tapion
taskukirja, 1956, 1975; Kunnas, 1973; Yearbook of
Forest Statistics, 1990±1991, 1992) in the wood pro-
duct model. Exports and imports of timber and wood
products were excluded from the calculations, since the
aim was to assess the contribution of wood grown and
processed in Finland to C sequestration regardless of
the end-use location of the ®nal products. The total
wood product stock in 1990 was 175.6 Tg C (approxi-
mately 80% of this is outside the Finnish border), of
which 88.7 Tg C was in products in use and 86.9 Tg C
was in products in land®lls. Products in use stock
increased by 0.8 Tg C in 1990, while products in land-
®ll stock increased by 1.6 Tg C/a, providing 2.4 Tg C/
a net change (sink) in the product stock.
3. Results
All the C stocks were higher in 2100 than in 1990
(Table 2). This indicates that current forest stocks are
not yet at the maximum levels. The current age class
structure of forests is fairly even and allows accumu-
lation of C in forests, because the standing volume
(amount of stemwood per hectare) can increase as a
result of increment increasing the fellings. The largest

Table 2
Size of the C stocks (Mg C/ha) in 1990 and in 2100 when applying current management and intensive management
on the productive forest land on mineral soil (15.2 Mha) under the current climate and the intermediate climate
change

C stock (Mg C/ha) Stock in 1990 Stock in 2100 Stock in 2100

current climate intermediate climate change

current intensive current intensive

management management management management

Vegetation 40.7 59.6 47.7 56.0 45.4

Litter 6.4 13.9 11.8 17.3 15.0
SOM 20.5 49.8 42.9 38.8 33.4
Forest 67.6 123.3 102.2 112.2 93.8
Products in use 7.3 15.0 17.4 17.2 18.7
Products in land®lls 3.3 12.3 14.7 13.8 16.3
Products total 10.6 27.3 32.1 31.0 35.0
Forest sector 78.2 150.7 134.4 143.2 128.7
 T. Karjalainen et al. / Environmental Science & Policy 2 (1999) 165±175 169

Fig. 2. Caption overleaf.

changes, however, took place in product stocks,
especially in land®lls, as a result of the continuous pro-
duction and use of products and input in the land®lls
exceeding the decay in land®lls. Stocks of litter and
soil organic matter also increased more than that of
vegetation. The impact of intensive management on C
stocks was larger than that of intermediate climate
change, except in the case of litter and soil organic
matter. Intensive management provided smaller forest
stocks than current management, since in the former
case more C from vegetation was transferred into pro-
ducts. Intensive management also decreased litter and
soil organic matter stocks as the turnover of C in these
stocks increased compared to current management.
Under current climatic conditions, forest stocks
decreased by 14±20% and product stocks increased by
16±20% as a result of intensive management between
1990 and 2100. Since forest stocks are larger than pro-
duct stocks, the change in the forest sector stock was
ÿ10%. It is worth noting that C removed from forests
170 T. Karjalainen et al. / Environmental Science & Policy 2 (1999) 165±175

Fig. 2. Caption opposite.

can substitute fossil fuel based C in products and
energy and thus provide emission reductions elsewhere
bigger than stock decrease in forests.
Intermediate climate change decreased the forest
stock by 8±9%, while product stocks increased by 9±
14% and the forest sector stock decreased by 4±5%.
Intermediate climate change decreased the forest stocks
thus: vegetation by 5±6%, soil organic matter by 22%,
while litter stocks increased by 24±27%. Product
stocks increased by 7±15%. It should be noted that
under moderate climate change all the forest stocks
were higher than under the current climate over the
whole simulation period (1990±2100). Under inter-
mediate climate change, however, vegetation and soil
organic matter stocks started to decrease (became C
sources) after the year 2070 (Fig. 2). This was a result
of litter formation exceeding the growth and decompo-
sition of soil organic matter exceeding input to soil or-
ganic matter. Litter stock increased, since input in that
stock increased more than decomposition of litter (due
to the larger input of stemwood which does not
decompose as quickly as other litter cohorts). Under
the greatest climate change, vegetation and soil organic
matter stocks became C sources after the year 2050,
 T. Karjalainen et al. / Environmental Science & Policy 2 (1999) 165±175 171

Fig. 2. Development of C stocks in di€erent scenarios, note that the scale in each ®gure is di€erent.

earlier than under intermediate climate change. These
changes turned the whole forest sector into a slight C
source under intermediate climate change after 2075,
but to a much larger C source under the greatest cli-
mate change after 2060.
It is worth emphasizing that each C stock has its
own dynamics (Fig. 2) and that they are connected to
each other (output from one is input to another).
Therefore changes as a result of changed forest man-
agement or changing climatic conditions will a€ect all
of them either directly (in case of forest stocks) or in-
directly (in case of product stocks).
The average net C sequestration over the whole
simulation period (1990±2100) was higher in forests
than in products (Fig. 3). Also changes in the net aver-
age C sequestration, as a result of applied forest man-
agement or changing climatic conditions, were more
pronounced in forests than in products. Under current
climatic conditions, 77% of the net C sequestration
took place in forests and 23% in products when apply-
172 T. Karjalainen et al. / Environmental Science & Policy 2 (1999) 165±175
Fig. 3. Average net C sequestration over the simulation period (1990±2100) in di€erent scenarios.
ing current management. When intensive management
was applied, 66% of the net sequestration was in for-
ests and 34% in products. As a consequence of more
pronounced climate change, both the net C sequestra-
tion in the forests and the total net C sequestration
decreased.
It is worth noting that gross ¯uxes are much higher
than net ¯uxes (changes in the stock sizes), also gross
¯uxes in forests are much higher than those in pro-
ducts (Fig. 4). Approximately 10% of the gross pro-
duction was actually sequestered in the forest sector.
For example, under current climate and current man-
agement average gross production was 5.9 Mg C/ha/a,
net sequestration was 0.5 Mg C/ha/a in forests and
0.15 Mg C/ha/a in products. Burning of by-products
(0.2 Mg C/ha/a) and burning of discarded products
(0.17 Mg C/a) have the potential to replace, for
example, fossil fuels.
4. Discussion
We have demonstrated how the forest and wood
product C stocks could develop when forest manage-
ment practices are changed. In our simulations intensi-
®ed management decreased the total C stock. Our
computations show that it is not enough to look at
one stock, for example at vegetation, since the forest
sector also has other components: at the end of the
simulations of current climatic conditions and current
management, 40% of the total C was in the veg-
etation, 9% in the litter, 33% in the soil organic mat-
ter, 10% in products in use and 8% in products in
land®lls. The dynamics of the system should also be
followed, since C sequestration is not static. Climatic
conditions are likely to change as a consequence of
human in¯uence, which should be taken into account
in C sequestration assessments, since the changing cli-
matic conditions can also in¯uence the forest sector C
sequestration as demonstrated in this paper. Moderate
temperature increase seems to enhance C sequestration
in the forests, while more pronounced temperature
increase could enhance decomposition of the soil or-
ganic matter so much that forests could turn from C
sinks into C sources.
We applied two forest management scenarios in this
study. These scenarios resulted in di€erent C allo-
cations in the forest sector, but also resulted in di€er-
ences in the net C sequestration. Both of the applied
management scenarios may be argued to be possible
baselines. Current forest management practices (cur-
rent management scenario) follow the actual thinning
and clearfelling practices and could therefore be the
basis for a baseline, as in this paper. Forest manage-
ment guidelines/recommendations (intensive manage-
ment scenario) aim at economical pro®tability but, at
the same time, they take into account the sustainability
of timber production, as well as the sustainability of
 T. Karjalainen et al. / Environmental Science & Policy 2 (1999) 165±175
Fig. 4. Average C ¯uxes (Mg C/ha/a) over the whole simulation period under current climatic conditions when current management was applied.
forest ecosystems (Tapio, 1994). In practice, all forests
are not managed according to these guidelines; usually
they are managed less intensively. If these guidelines
are thought of as a kind of recommendation, then also
the forest management guidelines could be regarded as
a basis for the baseline. One possibility could also be
that the forest sector is thought to be neither a sink
nor a source in the baseline. In this case, departures
from the zero line would be credited or debited in the
proceeding years. Moreover, the most likely changing
climatic conditions could be regarded as a basis for the
baseline and departures from this baseline which are a
consequence of human activities could be then credited
or debited. Departures from the baseline, however,
may not be easy to verify in practice.
The Kyoto Protocol has limited land-use and for-
estry activities to a€orestation, reforestation and defor-
estation since 1990, but does not give de®nitions for
these activities. The IPCC guidelines for the national
greenhouse gas inventories for land-use change and
forestry (IPCC, 1997) de®ne reforestation as planting
of forests on lands which have previously contained for-
ests but which have been converted to some other use,
while FAO (1997) de®nes reforestation as establishment
of a tree crop on forest land. If we had applied the
Kyoto Protocol and the IPCC de®nition for reforesta-
173
tion in our simulations, the net C impact of forestry
would have been zero, since we did not assume any
changes in the forest land area, only changes in the C
stock in the current forest land area as a consequence
of forest management and climate change. If we had
applied the FAO de®nition, then regeneration of clear-
felled areas would have been taken into account as
reforestation and the forest sector would have shown a
C sink. In this case, one important part of the
`equation' would have been excluded, that is, what has
preceded reforestation, namely harvesting. Inclusion of
harvesting, however, would have resulted in a substan-
tial source, since clearfelling takes place in areas of
high C density and the buildup of C stocks in these
areas takes a fairly long time.
If only the activities mentioned in the Kyoto
Protocol Article 3.3, as de®ned in the Revised 1996
IPCC guidelines for national greenhouse gas inven-
tories for land-use change and forestry (IPCC, 1997)
would be taken into account, the impact of forestry in
Finland on the national greenhouse gas balance would
di€er from reality. The a€orested and reforested area
in Finland, according to the IPCC de®nition, has been,
and is likely to be small (approximately 7400 ha/a
since 1970, Yearbook of Forest Statistics, 1997) and
would provide therefore a small C sink. The total for-
174 T. Karjalainen et al. / Environmental Science & Policy 2 (1999) 165±175
est area, however, has been slightly decreasing accord-
ing to forest statistics (area of forest and scrub land
decreased approximately 2190 ha/a between the
seventh and eighth national forest inventory,
Yearbook of Forest Statistics, 1997) and if a similar
trend is to continue, it would provide a C source for
Finland. In fact, the area of productive forest land and
also growing stock has been increasing for a fairly
long time and forests in Finland could be claimed to
have been a C sink in the recent past (see, for example,
Kauppi and Tomppo, 1993; Karjalainen et al.,
1997a,b). Nevertheless, areas treated with fellings have
been much larger than those mentioned above, ap-
proximately 427,900 ha/a since 1970 (Yearbook of
Forest Statistics, 1997). This also shows that inclusion
of only some activities and parts of the system could
provide misleading estimates of the actual contribution
to the system. According to Article 3.4, each Party has
been asked to establish its level of C stocks in 1990
and to provide changes in C stocks in subsequent
years. Which stocks should be reported is not men-
tioned and based on our analysis, it would be import-
ant to include all the stocks and also contribution of
forest management on the current forest land.
We suggest that the whole forestry-wood product
system should be included and all the stock changes
taken into account in order to estimate the contri-
bution of the forestry-wood product system to the C
cycle. Partial inclusion of the system as well as in-
clusion of limited activities is likely to provide biased
estimates of the contribution of the forestry-wood pro-
duct system to the C cycle. This does not mean that
the sink or source in the forestry-wood product system
should be credited or debited entirely when calculating
net emissions, since ®nally emission reductions have to
take place where the emissions occur. Apps et al.
(1997) have suggested ®ve principles to be recognized
in a C accounting strategy: accuracy, simplicity, scale
independence, precedence and incentives. Relating to
the last principle, a system of accounting for credits
and debits may provide a set of incentives and disin-
centives for behavior but the system will be counter-
productive if it fails to provide incentives for the
desired behavior. This is actually very important if we
keep in mind implementation of the ultimate objective
of the United Nations Framework Convention on
Climate Change: stabilization of greenhouse gas con-
centrations in the atmosphere at a level that would
prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the
climate system.
Acknowledgements
We acknowledge the reviewers and Bernhard
Schlamadinger for constructive comments to the
manuscript, the Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry
of Finland for funding this project and the Finnish
Forest Research Institute for giving us the forest
inventory data as input data for our simulations.
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Timo Karjalainen, Forestry, Programme Manager (Forest Ecology
and Management) and Senior Researcher at the European Forest
Institute. Several years experience in projects related to forestry car-
bon budget assessments.
Ari Pussinen (M.Sc.), Forestry, Researcher at the European Forest
Institute. Long experience in forestry carbon budget assessments and
in particular in model development for stand level and for national
level assessments for forests and wood products.
Seppo KellomaÈki, Forestry, Professor of Silviculture. Long term ex-
perience in ecosystem modelling, in studies related to impacts of cli-
mate change on boreal forests. His group has been nominated
several times as the Center of Excellence.
Raisa MaÈkipaÈaÈ, Forestry, Forest ecologist and soil scientist, long ex-
perience in carbon budget assessments of forests and in particular on
the impacts of nitrogen fertilization/deposition on forest ecosystems.
Currently involved also in biodiversity research.