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The Way Towards Zero Carbon Emissions in Aluminum Electrolysis

Chapter · February 2023

DOI: 10.1007/978-3-031-22532-1_86

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THE WAY TOWARDS ZERO CARBON EMISSIONS IN ALUMINUM ELECTROLYSIS

Gudrun Saevarsdottir1, Sai Krishna Padamata1, Brandon Nicholas Velasquez1, Halvor Kvande2

1
Department of Engineering, Reykjavik University, 101 Reykjavík, Iceland.
2
Previously: The Norwegian University of Science a Technology, Trondheim, Norway.

Keywords: aluminum smelting, greenhouse gas emissions, specific emissions, carbon footprint, sustainability, decarbonization

Abstract
The global community has set a goal of carbon neutrality by 2050. The almost one-fourth of the global emissions, attributed to
direct emissions from industrial processes, must be addressed by developing zero-carbon alternatives for each process, including
the production of aluminum. Several companies and research institutions are working on aluminum electrolysis using oxygen
evolving inert anodes, and recent developments are reported to be quite promising. For existing smelters, carbon capture and
sequestration may become a realistic alternative, depending upon successful adaptation of the flue-gas system enabling increased
concentration of CO2 in the flue gas. A third alternative is electrolysis of aluminum chloride, keeping chlorine and carbon in
separate recycling loops. This paper gives a review of the efforts to date, from industry and academia, to decarbonize the electrolysis
of aluminum. The development of the largest part of the carbon footprint, arising from the production of the electrical energy used
from fossil sources, is also discussed.

Introduction
The demand for aluminum has increased significantly in past decades. In 2021, primary production had increased by a factor of 2.7
since 2000 [1]. In addition comes increased recycling, but recycled material currently supplies around a third of all demand, around
20 % being end of life recycling, which captures around 70 % of post-consumer scrap, according to the International Aluminium
Institute (IAI) alucycle model [2][3]. Greenhouse gas emissions have increased, not only because of the growing aluminum
production but also the limited supply of electrical energy generated from renewable sources. In 2021, 67 % of the aluminum
production came from electricity from fossil fuels, mainly coal (57 %) and natural gas (10 %), up from 48 % in 2000 [4]. This is
down from 71% in 2018 [5], so there are some hopeful signs that the energy mix is starting to shift towards more renewable energy.

The IPCC [6] states in its most recent report that to prevent 1.5 °C of global temperature increase, the total greenhouse gas emissions
must be reduced by 45 % from 2010 levels by 2030, and reach “net zero” around 2050. The aluminum industry must contribute
towards this goal. This paper summarizes the strategies that the industry can pursue to reduce emissions from aluminum electrolysis.

Emissions from aluminum electrolysis

The only commercial process for aluminum production is the Hall-Héroult process, where smelter grade alumina, Al2O3, produced
from bauxite in the Bayer process, is dissolved in a sodium-aluminum-fluoride molten salt mixture (mainly cryolite, Na3AlF6) at
about 960 °C in an electrolysis cell. Direct electric current is passed through prebake carbon anodes and, predominantly CO2, forms
through electrochemical oxidation. Aluminum containing ionic species are reduced and deposited as metal at the cathode.

Alumina reacts to form molten aluminum and the gases CO2 and CO according to the overall chemical equation:

2 Al2O3 (dissolved) + 3(1+x) C (s) = 4 Al (l) + 3(1-x) CO2 (g) + 6x CO (g) (1)

Although CO2 is the primary anode product, carbon monoxide starts evolving at a lower potential than CO2 so it will always be
co-evolved, which comes in addition to the Boudouard reaction where CO2 will react with C to form CO at these temperatures.
The CO later reacts to form CO2. If only CO2 were formed, the minimum stoichiometric value would be 1.22 t CO2eq/t Al, but the
quality of available raw materials for making pre-baked anodes and co-evolution of CO, make it unlikely that these emissions will
be brought below 1.33 t CO2eq/t Al [7]. The reversible potential for the CO2 evolving reaction is 1.22 V, and the total cell voltage
to supply the reaction enthalpy is around 2 V, depending on the current efficiency of the process. The total cell voltage is normally
above 4 V, so around half of the electric energy supplied to the process is lost as heat, but the sides of the cell are protected by a
side ledge, a layer of solid electrolyte which is maintained by the heat loss.

Another mechanism for greenhouse gas emissions occurs when alumina is depleted from the electrolyte. The cell voltage rises
until other electrolyte components are oxidized, producing the perfluorocarbon gases CF4 and C2F6. These gases wet the anode
and insulate it electrically from the electrolyte, causing a rapid voltage rise known as anode effect. These gases can also be co-
 2

evolved in apparently normally operated cells without the onset of an anode effect. They are extremely potent greenhouse gases,
5000-18000 times more potent than CO2, depending on the timeframe [8]. According to IAI data, the average PFC emissions in
China amount to 1.12 t CO2eq/t Al, while the average outside of China is 0.19 t CO2eq/t Al. The high estimate for China is likely
due to non-anode effect PFC emissions being more prevalent in high amperage potlines with many anodes[9][10]. The global
average is 0.75 t CO2eq/t Al [11].
Estimates of the average specific greenhouse gas emissions from aluminum production, from the bauxite mine to cast metal, range
between 14 and 17 metric tonnes of CO2-equivalents per tonne of aluminum produced (t CO2eq/t Al), including both direct emissions
from the process and indirect emissions (mainly from energy sources), depending on the assumptions made in the various literature
sources [4][5][7]. These are significant emissions, and the industry is facing pressure to contribute to global emission reduction
goals.

There are four main sources of emissions in aluminum production [5]:

• The Bayer process producing smelter grade alumina from bauxite ore emits on average of 2.7 t CO2eq/t Al with a
variability of ± 0.5 t CO2eq/t Al. The variability is mostly due to the source of energy used to provide the thermal energy
for heating and steam in alumina refining, and higher energy efficiency in newer facilities [12][13].
• Producing the prebake anodes, including their raw materials, contributes around 0.6 t CO2e/t Al.
• The Hall-Héroult process, on average, releases 1.5 t CO2eq/t Al from the prebaked anodes during electrodeposition of
aluminum, but values down to 1.40 t CO2eq/t Al have been reported by Reny et al. [14]. Additionally, an average of 0.75
t CO2eq/t Al, ranging from 0.13 to 1.3 t CO2eq/t Al, depending on cell technology, arises from (PFC) gas emissions,
mainly during anode effects. Total values range between 1.5 and 2.3 t CO2eq/t Al [5][7][11][15].
• The dominating part of the emissions are indirect emissions, released in the production of electrical energy used in the
electrolysis step, estimated to be on average 9.6 t CO2eq/t Al [4][16][17]. These emissions are highly dependent on the
energy source, spanning from practically zero when using renewable energy and up to 12 to 18 t CO2eq/t Al when the
power is produced using low-grade coal.

There are ongoing efforts to bring down the emissions from the alumina production and anode production, but this paper focuses
on the Hall-Héroult process itself and the ways to reduce the emissions from that. Table 1 lists the global average emissions from
aluminum electrolysis as well as the lowest emissions achieved using Best Available Technology (BAT), using energy data for
2021.

Table 1. Data on emissions from aluminum electrolysis, the global average and the best available technology for the CO2eq emission
processes in aluminum smelters. Data is from refs. [18][5][7][15][17][14][11][4] [19].

CO2eq Emission Processes Chinese average Rest of the world Global Average Best Available
(t CO2eq/t Al) (t CO2eq/t Al) (t CO2eq/t Al) Technology
(t CO2eq/t Al)
Electricity production 12.4 4.6 9.6 0
Electrolysis 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.40
Perfluorocarbon formation 1.12 0.19 0.75 0.13
Ancillary materials 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1
Transport 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3
Total 15.4 6.7 12.2 1.9

Efforts to reduce or eliminate the process emissions from aluminum electrolysis can be put in three categories. There are a number
of initiatives aiming at replacing the carbon anodes with non-consumable oxygen evolving anodes, or inert anodes. Capturing CO2
from the Hall-Héroult cell flue gas for sequestration and/or utilization is another route being pursued, and the third is the reaction
of the alumina with carbon and chlorine to form AlCl3, which is then electrolyzed in a molten chloride electrolyte.

Decarbonizing aluminum production can, however, not be seriously discussed without addressing the indirect emissions from the
electrical energy used. Therefore the development of the energy mix used for the electrolysis process is presented, and the
opportunities discussed.

Ways to reduce emissions from aluminum electrolysis

Oxygen evolving inert anodes
One of the influential aspects of obtaining zero-emission during aluminum electrolysis would be to replace the
consumable carbon anodes with oxygen-evolving inert anodes in aluminum cells. Adapting inert anodes to the aluminum
 3

electrolysis process could eliminate or minimize greenhouse gas emissions, reducing the operating cost related to production and
avoid the frequent replacement of carbon anodes, and give a more efficient productivity of aluminum per unit cell [20]. However,
finding a suitable anode material that can withstand corrosive electrolytes at high temperatures has been challenging, and the search
is ongoing. Primarily, three categories of anode materials have been studied; they are metals, ceramics and cermets. Metallic anodes
are typically an alloy of two or more metals with good electrical conductivity, resistance to thermal shocks, and ease of fabrication,
but they are prone to severe corrosion. Ceramics are metallic oxides with high corrosion resistance and are chemically inert, but
show poor electrical conductivity. Cermets are a combination of ceramics and metals, possessing properties like good electrical
conductivity, low dissolution rate, and high chemical inertness. A good overview of these material types is available in the following
papers [20][21][22].

Inert anodes should show properties such as high electrical conductivity, low dissolution rate, resistance towards
fluorination, high mechanical strength, stable potential, low overpotential for oxygen evolution and low corrosion rate. The primary
reaction associated with inert anodes is as follows:
"
𝐴𝑙! 𝑂" = 2𝐴𝑙 + ! 𝑂! E0 = 2.19 V at 960 °C (2)

Here, E0 represents the reversible potential. The reaction enthalpy is around 2.9 V. For comparison, E0 for the reaction
involving decomposition of alumina and evolution of CO2 is around 1.19 V at 960 °C, while the reaction enthalpy voltage is around
2 V. The cell voltage would therefore be 1 V higher for an inert anode cell than in the conventional Hall-Héroult process if the
process design were similar. The total cell voltage (Etot) can be expressed as below:

Etot = E0 + IRelectrolyte + ηbubbles + IRanode + IRcathode (3)

However, studies have shown that the overvoltage of carbon anodes is 0.5 V, which is 0.4 V more than reported or oxygen
evolution on Pt anodes [23], while actual candidate anode materials may operate with higher overpotentials, or around 0.4 V [24].
Thus the cell voltage of the inert anode system would be 0.6-0.9 V higher than for a Hall-Héroult cell. The inert anode cell’s total
voltage can be further reduced by minimizing the anode-cathode distance. The bubble diffusion overpotential (ηbubbles) caused by
the bubbles evolving on the anode can be minimized by selecting an anode material with low bubble wettability behavior. Bubbles
generated on the anode surface should detach quickly so that the active anode surface remains constant, and the overpotential
caused by the bubbles could be low.

One of the major worries when using inert anodes is the aluminum contamination by anode products. Keller et al. [25]
described the mass transfer model to calculate the contamination caused by anode products shown by the equation:

Reduction rate = kcAcCbulk (4)

Here reduction rate is the rate at which the anode products are deposited at the anode. kc, Ac, and Cbulk are the anode mass
transfer coefficient, the anode’s active surface area, and the impurity cation concentration in the bulk phase. Solubility and the mass
transfer coefficient of the anode material should be as low as possible for a longer anode lifetime and maximum current efficiency.
The most important strategy to counter this is to use an electrolyte that can be used at a lower operating temperature. By replacing
sodium in the mixture with potassium, either completely or partly, the cryolite ratio, and thus the liquidus, can be lowered
significantly while retaining an acceptable alumina solubility [26]. In this instance, the cryolite ratio becomes CR = (mol% NaF +
mol% KF)/mol% AlF3, and in addition the potassium ratio, KR = mol% KF/(mol% KF + mol% NaF), is an important process
parameter. At high KR it is therefore possible to operate aluminum electrolysis cells at low CR and temperatures below 800 °C.
Operating conditions play a vital role in an inert anode’s performance. The operating temperature should be less, or around 800 °C,
to protect the anode from corrosion. The electrolyte should be thoroughly saturated with alumina for optimal stability of the anodes
[27]. Also, KF is volatile, and vaporization of KF would lower the CR value and make the electrolyte more acidic, risking severe
anode corrosion. A solution should be found to maintain the CR values constant, so the cell can operate without voltage fluctuations.
Findings show that the anodes have to be homogenized before use to have better corrosion resistance [28].

Solheim argued that inert anode cells would have no significant benefit over a Hall-Héroult cell in terms of economic and
environmental aspects [29]. The specific energy consumption in the aluminum production process in 2015 was 13.403 kWh/kg Al,
reduced from 14.286 kWh/kg Al in 2006. Due to the higher reversible voltage, the specific energy consumption in inert anode cells
would then be 15.35 kWh/kg Al, which is 15 % higher energy consumption for inert anode cells. The advantages of inert anodes
could therefore only be beneficial if the energy used for the electrolysis process is from renewable sources.

A possible way to avoid this increased energy consumption is to design the inert anode cell as a vertical electrode cell (VEC), rather
than using horizontal anodes like in the Hall-Héroult process, thus avoiding complications due to movement and waves in the liquid
metal, which is the de-facto cathode of the industrial cell. The VEC configuration requires the use of cathodes that are wetted by
molten aluminum. TiB2 is the leading candidate material for this application [30]. The thin aluminum film covering wetted cathodes
enable a shorter anode-cathode distance, reducing the ohmic resistance in the cell and increasing the electro-active area of the
expensive electrodes, while gas bubbles generated on the anode surface could easily escape from the active electrolyte area.
 4

It will, however, always be necessary to provide sufficient voltage to the cell to cover the reaction enthalpy (EDH = 2.9 V) as well
as any heat loss. If the cell voltage is maintained at around 4 V, as is normal for Hall-Héroult cells, the heat loss must be 50 %
lower for the inert anode cell to maintain its bath temperature. This makes it challenging to maintain a frozen lining to protect the
sidewalls of the cell, but as VEC enables a more compact design, with higher current per cell volume, the smaller surface area of
the cells can help with this issue.

Elysis is developing a VEC technology, which is planned to be commercialized by 2024. They stated that an inert anode’s lifespan
would be 2.5 years (30 times longer than a carbon anode’s lifespan), and operating costs would be 15 % less than for conventional
cells [31].

Arctus metals along with IceTech are developing a VEC design, based on metallic anodes made of Fe, Ni and Cu [32]. In fact, out
of the three material types mentioned above, metals have been widely studied and are considered promising candidate materials
for anodes in inert anode cells [22]. Metals can form a protective oxide layer during the electrolysis process, protecting the anode
from oxygen and electrolyte penetration and extending their lifespan. Findings show that the anodes must be homogenized before
use to have better corrosion resistance [28]. Pre-oxidation of anodes protects the anode surface from corrosion and fluorination
[33]. Another method would be to cover the anode with a protective layer using electrodeposition or vapor deposition processes.
One example is the De Nora anodes [34], made from a Ni-Fe-based alloy which was electrodeposited with a Co-based coating to
enhance the anode life. The anodes were tested in 100-300 A cells, and results show that the anodes have a lifespan of around one
year, with an oxide layer dissolution rate of about 3 mm/year.

Rusal, or En+, is also developing an inert anode process and currently produce around 1 t Al per day in a 140 kA inert anode cell
[35][36].

In short, regarding the current efforts to develop an industrial process for aluminum electrolysis with oxygen evolving inert anodes,
and the positive reports thereof, some optimism on successful implementation seems merited. For vertical electrode cell designs, it
is likely to be very costly to retrofit older cells. Therefore, alternative solutions, such as CCS, should be explored for existing
smelters.

Carbon Capture and Sequestration

If carbon dioxide emissions cannot be prevented in the aluminum production process, a potential method of emission
reduction is possible through the capturing of the gas at the production source and subsequent sequestration. Carbon capture and
sequestration (CCS) technology has already been shown to be able to work with a broad range of industrial applications, such as
in the production of power, fertilizer, hydrogen, iron and steel [37]. This being the case, it is certainly reasonable to think that it
can also be applied to the aluminum industry as well. The main obstacle is that the concentration of the carbon dioxide in the
exhaust gas is very low. The way that modern aluminum cells are designed requires a large amount of air to pass through the system
in order to cool process equipment and to prevent fugitive emissions from escaping into the potroom during operation. As a result
the concentration of carbon dioxide leaving the system through the ductwork is reduced to about 1 vol%, which is too low to be
considered economically and energetically viable for CCS to be implemented. Many current fume treatment plants are usually
limited to dry scrubbing and bag filters, which are used to remove HF and recycle fluorides back into the system. Meanwhile, the
carbon dioxide and SO2 are generally just released into the atmosphere at low concentrations. Research has been done regarding
the carbon dioxide, where it has been found that obtaining a concentration of at least 4 vol% or higher would be suitable in order
to make the cost of using CCS a worthy investment, as can be seen in Figure 1 [38].

Figure 1. Cost per tonne of captured CO2 as a function of CO2 concentration in exhaust gas. Adopted from [38].
 5

The most direct way to concentrate the exhaust gas would be to reduce the amount of air pulled into the system. As
effective as this would be to increase the concentration, it would also have the negative side effect of disrupting the heat balance in
the cell. By reducing the airflow, the amount of heat that is removed from the system would also be reduced, leading to an increase
in temperature of all components. In experiments performed by Shen et al. [39] on a 160 kA prebaked cell it was shown that
approximately 76 % of the heat leaving the system was through the exhaust gas, with the remaining ~24 % being emitted into the
potroom via superstructure surfaces. With reduced airflow, more of the heat from the cell will likely flow to other areas of the
system, including the sides of the cell, at the risk of melting the solid side ledge. This cannot be allowed to happen, as it would
significantly impact the useful operability of the cell. Research has been done simulating the upper section of a reduction cell with
a 50 % ventilation reduction while trying to maintain heat transfer levels that were present under normal flow conditions through
varied design modifications. These modifications included an increased surface area of the anode assembly (for increased contact
with the air), modification of the hood gap geometry (to induce faster flow into the hood), and using different material properties
for the anode cover (to increase the emissivity of the surface) [40]. Although none of these modifications were able to fully maintain
normal heat loss levels in this case, they do show the necessity for additional modelling and other potential design modifications
to be investigated, in conjunction.

Another possibility for increasing the carbon dioxide concentration is to suction the flue gas from the cell separate from
the main cooling air. The idea is to construct a suctioning device, dubbed distributed pot suctioning [41], to be placed above the
alumina feeding holes, where the majority of the process gases are emitted, see Figure 2. With this approach, there is far less
ambient air being mixed with the process gases, thus allowing the concentration of the collected carbon dioxide gas to be higher
than in the traditional system. Tests with this type of device were conducted and seemed to perform well, achieving concentrations
approaching 4 % while reducing the overall suction rate. The collected gas is also at a higher temperature, as it is suctioned much
closer to the heat source in the cell and diluted with less ambient air, which can be troublesome for superstructure integrity and
electrical components. Additional testing of devices such as this are required before further advancements can be made or have
long-term applicability. Several aluminum companies are currently working on cell adaptation to CCS although little is available
in the public literature

Figure 2. Distributed cell suctioning device attached to an alumina point feeder. Adopted from[41].

Aluminum Chloride Electrolysis

There is presently interest in looking at the old aluminum chloride electrolysis process that Alcoa developed in the 1980s. In the
temperature range 900-1200 K, alumina can be chlorinated by carbon, by the equation:

Al2O3 + 3/2 z C + 3 Cl2 = 2 AlCl3 + 3/2(2-z) CO2 (g) + 3(z-1) CO (g) (5)

CO can also be used as a reductant at similar temperature [43]. The AlCl3 can then be electrolyzed in a molten chloride electrolyte
at around 1000 K to form Al metal and Cl2 gas. The decomposition voltage for this reaction is around 1.85 V, which is significantly
higher than for the Hall-Héroult reaction (~1.2 V), but lower than for oxygen evolving inert anodes (~2.2 V). This approach has
been known for a long time, and was the basis of the Alcoa Smelting Process [44]. A molten chloride at 1000 K is less aggressive
than cryolite based electrolytes. The chloride electrolysis can be done with inert electrodes and with less heat losses than for the
Hall-Héroult process, thus claiming to require lower energy consumption. It is also possible to develop the process to use bauxite
ore as input, rather than alumina [45][46].
 6

Aluminium Technologies has developed the so-called CCR process to decarbonize primary aluminum production, replacing both
the Bayer process and the Hall-Héroult process. The process uses non-consumable anodes and is claimed to produce high purity
aluminum with no CO2 emissions, while using one-third less energy [47].

Hydro [48] is working on a similar technology, but there are some differences. In this case, CO (g) is used instead of C(s) in the
chlorination process of alumina, and the aluminum chloride is then electrolyzed. An interesting solution is that the CO2 is
electrolyzed back to CO (g) again and is recycled to the carbo-chlorination process, releasing O2 gas while keeping the carbon-
containing gases in a closed loop.

Indirect emissions from electric power used

Aluminum electrolysis is very energy intensive, with a global average of 14.1 kWh/tonne of aluminum in 2021, including
conversion losses [49], and therefore the source of electric energy used for the electrolysis is extremely important for the carbon
footprint. A number of papers have been published recently, focusing on the global development of the energy mix for aluminum
electrolysis [5][7][50]. Many have been curious to explore the development in the carbon footprint during the Covid-19 pandemic
and its economic aftermath. According to data from the International Aluminium Institute, which includes data from 2021, there
seems to have been some positive developments [49].

Looking at the total energy used for aluminum electrolysis, it can be seen that the fraction of hydropower has significantly increased
between 2018 and 2021. This has led to a decrease in the carbon footprint by 0.7 kg CO2eq/kg Al in that period, and is now at 9.6
kg CO2eq/kg Al. Down from a maximum of 10.3 kg CO2eq/kg Al in 2016 to 2018, see data in Figure 3.

Energy use for aluminium electrolysis by source Specific carbon emissions from energy used in electrolysis
1000 12
900
800 10
700
8
kg C02e/kg Al
TWh electric

600
500 6
400
300 4
200
2
100
0 0
1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021
Hydro Other Renewables Nuclear
Natural gas Coal Oil
Other non-renewables

Figure 3, On the right, the annual global energy used for aluminum production, by source, and on the right there is the
corresponding specific carbon footprint.

Energy usee for aluminium electrolysis in China by source Annual energy use, World ex. China
600.000 600.000

500.000 500.000

400.000 400.000
TWh electric

TWh electric

300.000 300.000

200.000 200.000

100.000 100.000

0.000 0.000
1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 1995 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021
Hydro Other Renewables Nuclear Hydro Other Renewables
Natural gas Coal Oil Nuclear Natural gas
Coal Oil
Other non-renewables Other non-renewables
Figure 4, On the right, the annual energy used in China for aluminum production, by source, and on the right there is the
corresponding energy use in the rest of the world.
 7

This can be attributed to a significant increase in the use of renewable energy in China, as can be seen in Figure 4, which shows
the energy used for aluminum production in China on the one hand and the rest of the world on the other. The Chinese data for
2019 and 2020 appears to have been updated retroactively, with an increased share of hydropower, which causes a slight
discrepancy with previously published data [50], but the important thing is that the Chinese aluminum industry is making a real
effort to increase the share of renewable energy used for aluminum production. The data shows an increase in the use of hydropower
in China, up by around 48 TWh/year from 2018 to 2021, which is equivalent to 3.5 million tonnes of aluminum annually.

This is consistent with declared goals from Chinese authorities, that they wish to shift aluminum production from coal power to
renewables, and efforts to transfer aluminum production capacity to southwest China, for example to Yunnan. The goal for the
industry is to be 50 % on renewables by 2045, according to an article published on the World Economic Forum website [51]. The
Chinese energy carbon footprint was 12.4 kg CO2eq/kg Al in 2021, while it was 13.7 kg CO2eq/kg Al in 2015.

The amount of aluminum produced with electricity from coal was reduced in the rest of the world between 2020 and 2021, so the
average energy carbon footprint from aluminum electrolysis for the world, other than China, was 4.6 kg CO2eq/kg Al in 2021, down
from 5.4 kg CO2eq/kg Al in 2020. The overall result being a significant improvement in the carbon footprint. This shows that it is
possible to get positive development in the carbon footprint, and that each smelter which shifts production from coal fired power
to renewable or nuclear matters for the overall global carbon footprint for aluminum production.

Discussion and conclusions

As a metal that is important for society moving forward through the green energy transition, it is crucial to reduce the high carbon
footprint associated with its production. Emissions from the electrolysis process can be practically eliminated by replacing the CO2
evolving carbon anodes with oxygen evolving inert anodes, and there is now increasing optimism that the initiatives to develop an
inert anode process, which is viable on an industrial scale, will indeed be successful. It is important to achieve this without
increasing the energy demand for the electrolysis, as the majority of the current emissions come from the production of electric
energy used for electrolysis. It is likely that the future of the aluminum industry will be the use of inert anodes, but that requires
significant investment, and it is not clear that it is possible retrofit traditional Hall-Héroult cells into vertical electrode configuration
without rebuilding the whole potline. Retrofit may be more applicable for horizontal configuration, but that would likely lead to a
15-20 % higher energy consumption than for Hall-Héroult. Therefore, there will be demand for applying carbon capture with
sequestration on existing smelters during their lifetime, in order to significantly reduce the emissions from the electrolysis process.

Decarbonization of the production of the alumina raw material is also important, as the emissions from that process step are similar
to those from the electrolysis itself. There are ongoing efforts to reduce these emissions, mostly by addressing the energy source
used, and improving energy efficiency by heat recovery and similar measures.

The most important emission source is, of course, the source of energy used in the electrolysis. It is good to be able to report some
positive developments in the overall average global carbon footprint from the production of the energy used for electrolysis. That
can be mostly attributed to China’s coordinated efforts to shift aluminum production to renewable energy and the reduced
production with coal power in the rest of the world. Results can already be reported in averages of the indirect emissions, which
has been reduced from 10.3 to 9.6 kg CO2eq/ kg Al between 2018 and 2021. This shows that every smelter, which uses low carbon
energy rather than coal thermal power, matters for the emissions.

References
[1] International Aluminium Institute, “Primary Aluminium Production.” Accessed: Aug. 23, 2022. [Online]. Available:
https://international-aluminium.org/statistics/primary-aluminium-production/
[2] The International Aluminium Institute (IAI), “IAI MATERIAL FLOW MODEL – 2021 UPDATE.” Accessed: Aug. 23, 2022.
[Online]. Available: https://international-aluminium.org/resource/iai-material-flow-model-2021-update/
[3] World Aluminium, “Global Aluminium Cycle 2019,” Oct. 04, 2021. Accessed: May 08, 2021. [Online]. Available:
https://alucycle.international-aluminium.org/public-access/
[4] International Aluminium Institute, “Primary Aluminium Smelting Power Consumption,” 2022. [Online]. Available:
https://international-aluminium.org/statistics/primary-aluminium-smelting-power-consumption/
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to Reduce the Carbon Footprint and Prevent Carbon Leakage,” JOM, vol. 72, no. 1, pp. 296–308, Jan. 2020, doi:
10.1007/s11837-019-03918-6.
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