International Journal of Naval Architecture and Ocean Engineering 14 (2022) 100488

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

International Journal of Naval Architecture and Ocean Engineering

journal homepage: http://www.journals.elsevier.com/
international-journal-of-naval-architecture-and-ocean-engineering/

An application of augmented Lagrangian differential evolution

algorithm for optimizing the speed of inland ships sailing on the
Yangtze River
Longhui Zhang a, b, *, Xiuyan Peng a, Zhengfeng Liu b, Naxin Wei b, Fei Wang c
a
College of Intelligent Systems Science and Engineering, Harbin Engineering University, Harbin, China
b
China Ship Scientific Research Center, Wuxi, China
c
Hefei National Laboratory for Physical Sciences at the Microscale, School of Life Sciences, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, Anhui, China

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: As an effective way to achieve energy conservation and emission reduction, the speed optimization of
Received 3 June 2022 inland ships has received increasing attention. In this study, a modeling method for the speed optimi-
Received in revised form zation of inland ships sailing on the Yangtze River and a heuristic algorithm called Augmented
30 September 2022
Lagrangian Differential Evolution (ALDE) method are proposed. The ALDE introduces adaptive control
Accepted 5 October 2022
Available online 12 October 2022
parameters, an elite strategy, and opposition-based learning technology for optimization. To validate the
performance of ALDE, it is compared with six other algorithms to solve several well-known constrained
optimization problems, and the results show that the ALDE outperforms these six algorithms. To
Keywords:
Inland ships
construct a speed optimization model, a discretization model for the Yangtze River waterway is estab-
Fuel consumption lished by segmenting the waterway. Considering the relationship among the environment, ship, engine,
Speed optimization and propeller, a fuel consumption prediction model is built, and then, the objective optimization function
Augmented Lagrangian differential for inland ship speed optimization is established by integrating the discrete model as well as the fuel
evolution algorithm consumption model. Finally, numerical simulation results show that the ALDE can realize less fuel
Energy conservation consumption for an inland ship sailing from Yibin Port to Jiangyin Port, verifying the feasibility of the
ALDE for speed optimization of inland ships.
© 2022 Society of Naval Architects of Korea. Production and hosting by Elsevier B.V. This is an open
access article under the CC BY license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

1. Introduction waterways and contributes to many environmental issues, most

Inland waterway transport, as a mode of transportation with a
large cargo volume, plays an important role in the world's freight
transportation. Compared with railways and highways, inland
water transport can be considered the most cost-effective and
safest, and its increased transport capacity can be up to 17 times
higher (Per

cic et al., 2021). However, there are some problems with
inland shipping, such as old ships with low efficiency, lack of
automation, and diesel-dominated power systems (Fan et al.,
2021a). Among these problems, the pollution caused by exhaust
gas released by fuel consumption is more significant. This exhaust
gas directly degrades the air quality of the people living near
* Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: rabbitsir@hrbeu.edu.cn (L. Zhang), pengxiuyan@hrbeu.edu.cn
(X. Peng), liuzf@cssrc.com.cn (Z. Liu), weinx@cssrc.com.cn (N. Wei), wangfei7@ustc.
edu.cn (F. Wang).
Peer review under responsibility of The Society of Naval Architects of Korea.
notably global warming (Peri et al., 2021). As environmental
problems such as extreme climates and haze weather have become
more prevalent because of global warming, international organi-
zations have formulated relevant regulations, for example,
restrictive regulations issued by the International Maritime Orga-
nization (IMO) for the exhaust emission control of marine diesel
engines (Saiful, 2016; Altosole et al., 2019).
On the other hand, with the rising diesel prices in recent years,
the proportion of fuel cost in the overall cost of ships is increasing,
and the inland shipping industry is under huge pressure. Reducing
fuel consumption is one of the important ways to lower exhaust
emissions and navigation costs, and inland waterway shipping
companies are attempting to find effective methods to achieve this
goal. Therefore, the speed optimization of ships is receiving sig-
nificant attention, as it is an effective way to reduce fuel con-
sumption and save energy (Corbett et al., 2009; Lindstad et al.,
2011; Psaraftis and Kontovas, 2013; Chang and Chang, 2013;
Fagerholt et al., 2010).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijnaoe.2022.100488
2092-6782/© 2022 Society of Naval Architects of Korea. Production and hosting by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY license (http://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
L. Zhang, X. Peng, Z. Liu et al.
List of abbreviations
ALDE Augmented Lagrangian Differential Evolution
algorithm
BPNN Back Propagation neural network
CDE Cultured Differential Evolution
COMDE Constrained Optimization based on Modified
Differential Evolution
CRGA Changing Rate Genetic Algorithm
DE Differential Evolution algorithm
EEOI Energy Efficiency Operation Index
ES-DE Eagle Strategy Differential Evolution
GA Genetic algorithm
IMO International Maritime Organization
PSO Particle Swarm Optimization algorithm
PSO-DE Particle Swarm Differential Evolution algorithm
SA Simulated Annealing algorithm
It is difficult to find a global optimal solution for the speed
optimization problem because it is nonlinear and computationally
expensive. To solve nonlinear speed optimization problems, some
advanced and efficient optimization algorithms have been pro-
posed. Among these algorithms, heuristic algorithms, generally
derived from the laws of nature or some empirical methods, are
typically able to provide feasible solutions to optimization prob-
lems in a reasonable amount of time. With the advantage of finding
globally optimal solutions, heuristic algorithms have been widely
adopted by scholars in speed optimization problems.
Wang et al. used the particle swarm algorithm to solve multi-
objective speed optimization problems. Based on the non-inferior
solutions obtained by this algorithm, the optimal engine speed
was selected by balancing the economy and safety requirements of
the ship. The particle swarm algorithm has fewer adjustable control
parameters and is easier to implement than the genetic algorithm
(Wang et al., 2018).
To solve a bi-objective model in which the minimum operation
cost and the maximum shippers’ satisfaction are optimized
simultaneously, Yu et al. developed an improved algorithm based
on a non-dominated genetic algorithm. A fast-non-dominated
sorting method and a modified crowded comparison operator
were used in this improved algorithm, enabling individuals of each
generation to satisfy multiple constraints of the bi-objective opti-
mization problem. The research results show that the improved
algorithm has a good convergence speed and property (Yu et al.,
2019).
Yan et al. developed a big data analytics platform, and with the
aid of this platform, a k-means clustering algorithm was used to
divide the route of the Yangtze River. A ship energy efficiency
optimization objective function was developed by analyzing the
corresponding environmental factors, and the Particle Swarm
Optimization (PSO) algorithm was adopted to solve the function. A
speed optimization case study on the Yangtze River was conducted,
and the results show that the reduction of energy consumption and
CO2 emissions can be achieved by using the PSO algorithm (Yan
et al., 2018).
Wang et al. proposed a speed optimization method for a coastal
bulk carrier. In their study, a speed optimization model was
established according to the ship-engine-propeller relationship,
and the most fuel-efficient speed was obtained using the multi-
objective genetic algorithm. The results indicate that expanding
the low-load operational range of the main engine and increasing
2
International Journal of Naval Architecture and Ocean Engineering 14 (2022) 100488
the sailing time are beneficial for reducing the fuel consumption of
the target ship (Wang et al., 2021).
For real-time optimization of a ship's speed, Sun et al. proposed
a comprehensive objective function based on ship speed deviation
and real-time Energy Efficiency Operation Index (EEOI) deviation.
To solve the function, Back Propagation Neural Network (BPNN)
was used to predict the main engine fuel consumption and ship
speed. They stated that the error of the prediction model of ship
speed and main engine fuel consumption based on the BPNN was
less than 2%. A genetic algorithm was used to optimize the engine
speed, and the optimized results could be obtained in a few epochs.
The proposed method can improve the energy saving and emission
reduction effect of the main engine under the given speed limit
requirements and navigation environmental conditions (Chao and
Jundong, 2020).
In research on speed optimization, simple penalty function
methods are widely used for nonlinear constraint handling. An
infeasible solution is punished by penalty numbers which makes it
a lower probability to survive into the next generation than a
feasible solution. The plenty function method is one of the effective
methods for handling nonlinear constraints, but there are some
limitations. For example, penalty numbers need to be preset, and
the appropriate penalty numbers are typically obtained by trial and
error method. For cases with several constraints, penalty numbers
cannot be updated automatically, so the workload to determine
penalty numbers should not be ignored. Under some conditions, a
penalty number needs to approach a large number to obtain the
optimal solution, which can lead to ill-conditioning and the Mar-
atos effect, making convergence difficult.
For the above reasons, in this study, a heuristic algorithm called
ALDE is proposed to solve the speed optimization problem of inland
ships. The ALDE algorithm combines the advantages of the
augmented Lagrangian function and DE algorithm, which requires
fewer control parameters, can update penalty numbers and
Lagrangian multipliers automatically, and avoids the ill condition as
well as the Maratos effect that the penalty function method may
produce. The augmented Lagrangian function with an evolutionary
algorithm has been used in recent studies. Kim et al. proposed a
two-phase evolutionary programming technique for constrained
optimization problems. The augmented Lagrangian method is used
in the second phase. By using Lagrangian multipliers, the trial so-
lutions are driven to the optimal point where all constraints are
satisfied (Kim and Myung, 2002). Lewis et al. presented a pattern
search method for nonlinearly constrained optimization that is an
adaptation of the bound-constrained augmented Lagrangian
method. They demonstrated that it is possible to be global
convergent with general constraints and simple bounds (Michael
and Torczon, 2002). Deb et al. devised a genetic algorithm
coupled with the augmented Lagrangian function. The critical pa-
rameters of the algorithm can be self-adaptive based on population
statistics (Deb and Srivastava, 2012). Rocha et al. presented an
augmented Lagrangian method with the fish swam method for
global optimization. They declared that the method can converge to
the solution with specified tolerance and is not expensive in terms
of function evaluations (Rocha et al., 2011). Wen Long et al. used the
modified augmented Lagrangian method to handle constraints and
then transformed the original problem into an unconstrained
problem. In their study, an artificial bee colony algorithm was
applied to solve unconstrained optimization problems (Deb and
Srivastava, 2012; Long Liang et al., 2018; Deb, 2000; Adeli and
Cheng, 1994; Li et al., 2014; Araromi et al., 2016). In this study, an
improved DE algorithm is designed and combined with the
augmented Lagrangian function. The DE algorithm is a heuristic
random search algorithm based on group differences. It was first
L. Zhang, X. Peng, Z. Liu et al. International Journal of Naval Architecture and Ocean Engineering 14 (2022) 100488

proposed by R. Storn and K. Price to solve the Chebyshev poly- range [0, 1), and xmax ðxmin Þ represents the maximum (minimum)
nomial problem (Price et al., 2006). In recent years, the DE algo- values of population elements.
rithm has been widely used in constrained optimization
calculations, clustering optimization calculations, nonlinear opti- Xg ¼ randi;j ð0; 1Þ , ðxmax  xmin Þ þ xmin (1)
mization control, neural network optimization, filter design, and
Once the population is initialized, the DE algorithm mutates and
other aspects (Das and Suganthan, 2010; Qin et al., 2008; Das et al.,
recombines the population to produce a population of trial vectors
2009).
vi;g ¼ ðvi;j;g Þ. The generation strategy of a trial vector significantly
The major contribution of this study can be concluded as fol-
lows: (1) Based on the augmented Lagrangian equation and DE influences the performance of the DE algorithm and has been
algorithm, we improve the original DE algorithm and propose the extensively investigated. In this study, different from the original
ALDE algorithm for solving nonlinear optimization problems. To DE algorithm, an elitist strategy with random search technology is
validate the effectiveness of the proposed algorithm, 13 well- adopted. This strategy can be expressed as Eq. (2), where
known constrained benchmark functions are tested, and the re- velitist ¼ ðvi;j Þ; i ¼ ð1; :::; en Þ; j ¼ ð1; :::; nÞ; are the elite offspring pro-
sults are compared with those of six other high-performance al- duced by the vector xbest with the best objective function value, and
gorithms. After the tests of the proposed algorithm are completed, these elite offspring help speed up convergence. The dimension of
the ALDE is used to solve the speed optimization problem of inland velitist is determined by en, which is equal to 20% of the population
ships on the Yangtze River, and the results are analyzed. (2) A size. vnormal are the offspring produced by random mutation, which
modeling method for the speed optimization of inland ships sailing account for 80% of the population and contribute to avoiding falling
on the Yangtze River is introduced. In this model, the effects of wind into local minima. ex2Ren n and rx2Rðnp en Þn are randomly
resistance, shallow water resistance, vessel turning resistance, and selected from the population, and the subscripts r0; r1; r2; r3; r4 are
basic resistance on fuel consumption are considered. The Yangtze used to distinguish them from each other.
River waterway is abstracted as a curve and discretized into several Fg ¼ ðfj Þ; j ¼ ð1; …; nÞ is a random mutation multiplier vector
points. The curvature at each point is calculated, and the environ- that determines the mutation rate of the population and can be
mental data are assigned to these points. To model the Yangtze calculated by Eq. (3), where F0;k represents the initial state of F, Flow
River waterway, the fitting method is usually adopted, especially represents the lower boundary of F, and subscript g represents the
for calculating the curvature of the Yangtze River (Wang., 2014; The, index of generation.
2009) however, the discretization method introduced in this study
is more convenient and suitable for automatic processing and en-
 "  #
velitist xbest;g þ Fg , exr1;g  exr2;g
gineering applications than the fitting method. vi;g ¼ ¼  
vnornal rxr0;g þ Fg , rxr3;g  rxr4;g
The remainder of this paper is organized as follows: In section 2, h i
2   n 3
the proposed ALDE algorithm and speed optimization model of xbest;j;g þ fj , exr1;j;g  exr2;j;g (2)
inland ships are introduced, and in section 2.1, the principle of ALDE 6 j¼1 7
¼4 h
is described, and the algorithm is tested by 13 well-known con-  in 5
rxr0;j;g þ fj , rxr3;j;g  exr4;j;g
strained benchmark test functions. In section 2.2, the methods, j¼1
including the route division method, environmental data acquisi-
tion method, and modeling method for speed optimization, are  
Fg ¼ F0;k  Flow , randð0; 1Þ þ Flow (3)
discussed. In section 3, case studies on the Yangtze River are pre-
sented to demonstrate the applicability of the ALDE algorithm, and Since the augmented Lagrangian function method needs to
the results of speed optimization cases are discussed. In section 4, solve several subproblems, we adjust F0 before every subproblem is
the main conclusions and future work are summarized. calculated so that the experience of each subproblem can be uti-
lized. For this purpose, first, F0 can be set as ð1; …; 1Þ1n ; then, after
2. Methods the kth subproblem is solved, it is updated by the sliding window of
F, which can be expressed as Eq. (4), where the function svð:Þ means
2.1. The proposed ALDE algorithm obtaining the significant valve of the vector and BFm is the sliding
window matrix used to store historical mutation multiplier vectors
In this study, the proposed ALDE algorithm is designed on the that contribute to finding the better objective function value.
basis of the augmented Lagrangian equation (see section 2.1.2) and
    
the improved DE algorithm (see section 2.1.1), which decomposes F0;kþ1 ¼ f0;1;kþ1 ::: f0;n;kþ1 ¼ sv BFm;k
the original optimization objective equation into several sub- 0 1 0 1
0 bf0;1;k bf0;n;k 1
problems to solve and introduces an adaptive multiplier during  B C B C
population mutation operation to improve the performance of the  ¼ @ svB C B
@ ::: A ::: sv@ ::: A
CA (4)
algorithm for searching the optimal value. An elite strategy and bfm;1;k bfm;n;k
opposition-based generation technologies (Rahnamayan Tizhoosh
et al., 2008) are also adopted in the proposed algorithm, which Uniform crossover (Syswerda, 1989) is adopted in this study.
improves the convergence efficiency of the algorithm. This method makes each parameter in the trial vector has the same
probability of inheriting its value from a given vector. The crossover
2.1.1. The improved DE algorithm vector ui;g can be calculated by Eq. (5).
The DE algorithm is a population-based stochastic algorithm

that starts with a randomly generated population. The initialization vi;j;g if ðrandi ð0; 1Þ  CrÞ
ui;g ¼ ui;j;g ¼ (5)
method of population can be expressed as Eq. (1), where Xg ¼ xi;j;g otherwise
ð xi;j;g Þ denotes the population matrix, subscript j ¼ ð1; :::; nÞ rep-
resents the dimension of the problem, subscript i ¼ ð1; :::; np Þ rep- where, Cr2½0; 1 is a user-defined value that controls the fraction of
resents the size of population, subscript g represents the generation parameter values copied from the mutant vector. To determine
of population, randi;j ð0; 1Þ is the random number generator, which which source contributes a given parameter, uniform crossover
returns a uniformly distributed random number from within the compares Cr with the output of a uniform random number
3
L. Zhang, X. Peng, Z. Liu et al. International Journal of Naval Architecture and Ocean Engineering 14 (2022) 100488

generator randi ð0; 1Þ. factor that increases the penalty parameter.
The selection strategy in the ALDE algorithm is a championship
strategy. If the crossover vector ui;g has a lower objective function lkþ1 ¼ lk ðxk ; lk ; sk Þ
value than that of its target vector xi;g, it replaces the target vector mkþ1 ¼ mk (12)
(see Eq. (6)); otherwise, the target vector retains its place in the ukþ1 ¼ uk
population for at least one more generation. hkþ1 ¼ hk
    
xi;g ¼
ui;g if f ui;g < f xi;g
(6) lkþ1 ¼ lk ðxk ; lk ; sk Þ
xi;g otherwise mkþ1 ¼ tmk
(13)
Finally, opposition-based learning technology (Rahnamayan ukþ1 ¼ u0 makþ1
u

Tizhoosh et al., 2008) is introduced to decrease the chance of ah

hkþ1 ¼ h0 mkþ1
visiting or revisiting unproductive regions of the search space. Eq.
(7) is used to calculate the opposite population opi;g , where "" #m " #r #
MINðMAXÞ2R1n denotes the minimum (maximum) boundary of lk;i sk;i lk;j sk;j
lk ðxk ; lk ; sk Þ ¼ ， (14)
the current population xi;g . Combining opi;g with xi;g as a new hk;i ðxÞ þ sk;i gk;j ðxÞ þ sk;j
i¼1 j¼1
population pg (see Eq. (8)), we select np fittest individuals from pg
as the next population xi;gþ1 . For the convergence criterion, if Eq. (15) is satisfied, the calculation
of the subproblem can be stopped, where u* and h* denote pre-
opi;g ¼ MINj;g þ MAXj;g  ui;g (7) defined positive constants.

 uk  u*
opi;g  
pg ¼ (8)  r  (15)
xi;g 2np n
 gi ðxÞlk;i i¼1
  h*

Based on the content described above, the pseudo-code of the

improved DE algorithm is given in Appendix B Table 1.
2.1.3. The pseudo-code of the ALDE algorithm
According to the contents mentioned above, the pseudo-code of
2.1.2. Augmented Lagrangian equation
the proposed ALDE algorithm is given in Appendix B Table 2.
The auxiliary problem Eq. (16) mentioned in Table 2 is shown
minimize f ðxÞ below, and it is intended to find an appropriate starting point for
subject to the kþ1st subproblem.
lb  x  ub (9)
minimize z
h1 ðxÞ ¼ 0; …; hm ðxÞ ¼ 0;
subject to (16)
g1 ðxÞ  0; …; gr ðxÞ  0:
gðxÞ  zskþ1  0
Many studies on the augmented Lagrangian equation have benn
conducted, and in this study, the research work of Conn et al. is
adopted (Conn et al., 1991). For the optimization problem expressed
as Eq. (9), its augmented Lagrangian form can be expressed as Eq. 2.1.4. Constrained benchmark functions test
(10). It is formulated by combining the fitness function f ðxÞ, To evaluate the performance of the proposed ALDE algorithm, 13
equality constrains hðxÞ and nonlinear constrains gðxÞ using the well-known constrained benchmark functions (Runarsson and Yao,
Lagrangian and penalty parameters. 2000) were tested. These test problems include various types of
objective functions with different numbers of variables and
X
r X
m different types of constraints. The test results are presented in
Lc ðx; l; s; mÞ ¼ f ðxÞ  li si lnðsi  gi ðxÞÞ þ li hi ðxÞ Table 3, where the best, mean, worst and standard deviation of the
i¼1 i¼1 objective function values obtained by the ALDE algorithm over 30
1 Xm
runs are listed. Six high-performance algorithms are compared
þ h ðxÞ2 (10)
2m i¼1 i with the ALDE algorithm. The selected algorithms include CDE, ES-
DE, COMDE, PSO-DE, CRGA and SA. The results of these six algo-
where l represents the vector of Lagrangian multiplier, m repre- rithms are taken directly from the original references.
sents the penalty parameter, and s represents the vector of The following parameters of the proposed ALDE are established
nonnegative shifts. The parameters l, m, and s can be computed as for the test of the constrained benchmark functions. The population
follows. If size is set to 100, the maximum generation is set to 2000, the
maximum number of iterations is set to 30, and the tolerances u* ¼
h . ir  
 a   m  1e  15 and h ¼ 1e  10* are set. In addition, the initial value of the
 gi ðxÞlk;i lk;il  þ ½hi ðxÞi¼1   hk (11)
i¼1 penalty factor t is set to 100, and the value of the penalty parameter
m is set to 0.2. The values of parameters of the augmented
update the Lagrangian multiplier estimates by using Eq. (12); Lagrangian function au , and ah are set as 1.0 and 0.75, respectively.
otherwise, reduce the penalty parameter using Eq. (13). In these As shown in Table 3, the proposed ALDE algorithm can find the
equations, l represents the estimates of the Lagrangian multiplier, global optima or the best result on the test functions over 30 runs,
which can be calculated by using Eq. (14), u represents the except for g04 and g06. Regarding the test functions g04 and g06,
parameter to limit the accuracy required of the algorithm, h rep- despite fail finding the optimal soultions, the best results obtained
resents a parameter to measure whether the algorithm has entered by the proposed algorithm are very close to the global optimal
the asymptotic phase of the calculation, and t represents a penalty solutions. Furthermore, the proposed ALDE algorithm is robust for
4
L. Zhang, X. Peng, Z. Liu et al. International Journal of Naval Architecture and Ocean Engineering 14 (2022) 100488

Table 3
Comparison of the results of ALDE and six other algorithms.

No Opt Value Statical ALDE CDE (Becerra and ES-DE (Gandomi COMDE (Mohamed and PSO-DE (Liu CRGA SA (Atiqullah and
Coello, 2006) et al., 2012) Sabry, 2012) et al., 2010) (Amirjanov, Rao, 2000)
2006)

g01 15 Best ¡15* ¡15 ¡15 ¡15 ¡15 14.9977 14.9991
Mean ¡15 14.999996 14.8511 ¡15 ¡15 14.9467 14.9933
Worst ¡15 14.999993 13 ¡15 ¡15 14.9467 14.98
Std 1.204E-12 2E-06 5.02E-01 1.970E-13 2.1E-08 1.4E-02 4.81E-03
g02 0.803619 Best ¡0.803619 ¡0.803619 ¡0.803619 ¡0.803619 0.704009 0.803615 0.802959
Mean 0.800845 0.724886 0.738181 ¡0.801238 0.756678 0.764494 0.371708
Worst ¡0.785267 0.590908 0.530496 0.785265 0.636799 0.722109 0.271311
Std 5.023E-03 7.013E-02 6.67E-02 5E-03 3.3E-02 2.6E-02 9.8E-02
g03 1 Best ¡1 0.995413 ¡1 ¡1 ¡1.00501 0.9997 ¡1
Mean ¡1 0.788635 ¡1 ¡1 ¡1.00501 0.9972 0.9992
Worst ¡1 0.639920 ¡1 ¡1 ¡1.00501 0.9931 0.9915
Std 1.201E-16 1.152E-01 0Eþ00 3.026E-08 3.800E-12 1.4E-03 1.65E-03
g04 30665.53867 Best 30665.538672 30665.538672 ¡30665.54 30665.539 30665.5387 30665.52 ¡30665.54
Mean 30665.50789 30665.538672 ¡30665.54 30665.539 30665.539 30664.398 30665.47
Worst 30664.637367 30665.538672 ¡30665.54 30665.539 30665.539 30660.313 30664.69
Std 1.644E-01 0Eþ00 2.200E-11 0Eþ00 8.3E-10 1.6Eþ00 1.73E-01
g05 5126.49671 Best 5126.496714 5126.570923 5126.5 5126.498109 NA 5126.5 5126.498
Mean 5126.496714 5126.570923 5127.29 5126.498109 NA 5507.041 5126.498
Worst 5126.496714 5327.390497 5129.42 5126.498109 NA 6112.075 5126.498
Std 0Eþ00 6.923Eþ01 1.17Eþ00 0Eþ00 NA 3.5Eþ02 0Eþ00
g06 6961.81388 Best 6961.813876 6961.813876 ¡6961.814 6961.813875 ¡6961.81388 6956.251 ¡6961.814
Mean 6961.813866 6961.813876 ¡6961.814 6961.813875 ¡6961.81388 6740.288 ¡6961.814
Worst 6961.813852 6961.813876 ¡6961.814 6961.813875 ¡6961.81388 6077.123 ¡6961.814
Std 1.172E-05 0Eþ00 2.180E-12 0Eþ00 2.300E-09 2.7Eþ02 0Eþ00
g07 24.306209 Best 24.306209 24.306209 24.3062 24.306209 24.306209 24.882 24.3106
Mean 24.362821 24.306210 24.3065 24.306209 24.30621 25.746 24.3795
Worst 25.295768 24.306212 24.3077 24.306211 24.306217 27.381 24.6444
Std 2.174E-01 1E-06 3.970E-04 4.700E-07 1.300E-06 7.000E-01 7.16E-02
g08 0.095825 Best ¡0.095825 ¡0.095825 ¡0.095825 ¡0.095825 ¡0.095825 0.095825 ¡0.095825
Mean ¡0.095825 ¡0.095825 ¡0.095825 ¡0.095825 ¡0.095825 0.095819 ¡0.095825
Worst ¡0.095825 ¡0.095825 ¡0.095825 ¡0.095825 ¡0.095825 0.095808 ¡0.095825
Std 0Eþ00 0Eþ00 7.800E-17 9.000E-18 1.300E-12 4.4E-06 0Eþ00
g09 680.630057 Best 680.630057 680.630057 680.6301 680.630057 680.630057 680.726 680.6301
Mean 680.630057 680.630057 680.6301 680.630057 680.630057 681.347 680.6364
Worst 680.630057 680.630057 680.6301 680.630057 680.630057 682.965 680.6983
Std 0Eþ00 0Eþ00 4.460E-13 4.071E-13 4.6E-13 5.7E-01 1.45E-02
g10 7049.248021 Best 7049.248019 7049.248058 7049.253 7049.248020 7049.248021 7114.743 7059.864
Mean 7049.248083 7049.248266 7049.418 7049.248077 7049.248038 8785.149 7509.321
Worst 7049.248664 7049.24848 7050.226 7049.28615 7049.249223 10,826.09 9398.649
Std 1.263E-04 1.67E-03 1.88E-01 1.5E-04 3E-05 1Eþ03 5.42Eþ02
g11 0.75 Best 0.749991 0.757995 0.75 0.749999 0.749999 0.752 0.75
Mean 0.749991 0.757995 0.75 0.749999 0.749999 0.752 0.75
Worst 0.75 0.796455 0.75 0.749999 0.750001 0.757 0.75
Std 2.494E-06 1.714E-02 0Eþ00 0Eþ00 2.500E-07 2.500E-03 0Eþ00
g12 1 Best ¡1 ¡1 ¡1 ¡1 ¡1 ¡1 ¡1
Mean ¡1 ¡1 ¡1 ¡1 ¡1 ¡1 ¡1
Worst ¡1 ¡1 ¡1 ¡1 ¡1 ¡1 ¡1
Std 0Eþ00 0Eþ00 0Eþ00 0Eþ00 0Eþ00 0Eþ00 0Eþ00
g13 0.053942 Best 0.053942 0.05618 0.05395 0.053942 NA* NA 0.05395
Mean 0.054825 0.288324 0.05395 0.053942 NA NA 0.29772
Worst 0.067624 0.3921 0.05395 0.053942 NA NA 0.43885
Std 3.361E-03 1.671E-01 5.400E-06 1.400E-17 NA NA 1.89E-01

*The number in bold font indicates the best result in the same row or the global optimum, and NA indicates no solution.

these problems, as shown by the standard deviation results of the
test functions. In particular, the standard deviations for the test
functions g05, g08, and g12 are equal to 0.
Table 3 shows that DE-based algorithms such as ALDE, CDE, ES-
DE, COMDE, and PSO-DE outperform the CRGA and SA algorithms.
For the test function g01, ALDE, CDE, ES-DE, COMDE, and PSO-DE
achieve similar best results, but only ALDE, COMDE, and PSO-DE
achieve similar mean and worst results, and they outperform the
CDE and ES-DE algorithms. For the test function g02, ALDE, CDE, ES-
DE, and COMDE can find similar best results, but CODME achieves
better mean results and ALDE achieves better worst results. For the
test function g03, the results obtained by ALDE, ES-DE, COMDE, and
PSO-DE are similar to the optimal solution; however, the result
achieved by PSO-DE is minimal and may suffer from rounding
errors, which may cause slight infeasibility. For the test function
g04, ES-DE and SA outperform the others, but the results achieved
by ALDE, CDE, and PSO-DE are also close to the optimal solution. For
the test function g05, ALDE can consistently find better results,
whereas PSO-DE cannot find a solution. For the test function g06,
the results achieved by PSO-DE are similar to the optimal solution.
The minimum values are obtained by ES-DE and SA, and the best
result obtained by ALDE is close to the optimal solution. For the test
function g07, the best results obtained by ALDE, CDE, ES-DE,
COMDE, and PSO-DE are similar, but the performance of COMDE
is better. For the test function g08, except for CRGA, the results
obtained by the other algorithms are close to the optimal solution.
For the test function g09, ALDE, CDE, COMDE, and PSO-DE can
provide better results than the others. For the test function g10, the

5
L. Zhang, X. Peng, Z. Liu et al. International Journal of Naval Architecture and Ocean Engineering 14 (2022) 100488

minimum value of the best result is obtained by ALDE, and the best
result, which is similar to the optimal solution, is obtained by PSO-
DE. For the test function g11, the optimal value can be obtained by
ALDE, even though ES-DE and SA perform better. For the test
function g12, all algorithms listed in the table can achieve solutions
similar to the optimal solution. For the test function g13, the best
results obtained by ALDE and COMDE are similar to the optimal
solution, and in terms of the standard deviation of the results,
COMDE is better than ALDE. Overall, the results show that the ALDE
algorithm outperforms the other algorithms and can be used to
solve the speed optimization problem.

2.2. The optimization speed problem of inland ships sailing on the

Yangtze River
Fig. 1. Discrete model of the Yangtze River.

For the study of the inland ship speed optimization problem, the
appropriate optimization algorithms and fuel consumption pre-
diction models are important. To date, there are mainly three types
of fuel consumption prediction models (Hu et al., 2021), namely,
the black-box model, the gray-box model, and the white-box
model. The black-box model (Sjo € berg et al., 1995; Yan et al., 2015;
Sun et al., 2019; Zhang et al., 2019) is based on historical data and
can be viewed in terms of its inputs and outputs without any
knowledge of its internal functioning. The gray-box model (Meng
et al., 2016; Yang et al., 2019) combines a partial theoretical struc-
ture with data to complete the model. The white-box model (Kwon,
2008; Lu et al., 2015; Sun et al., 2015) is the type of model that can
explain how it behaves, how it makes predictions, and what the
influencing variables are. MA et al. established a fuel consumption
model based on real-time monitoring data of a fixed route, and Fig. 2. The coordinate definition of the three-point curvature equation.
route segmentation was performed using route information. In a
consumption model, the speed of a ship is the independent vari-
able, and fuel consumption is the dependent variable (Ran-Qi et al., Yangtze River waterway (Zhang et al., 2020). The curvature formula
2018). Wang et al. established a fuel consumption model based on can be expressed as Eq. (17) to Eq. (19). The coordinate definition of
the Holtrop method and ship-engine-propeller interaction mech- the three-point curvature equation is shown in Fig. 2.
anism. They selected a coastal bulk carrier as the research object
and divided the shipping line into nine legs to find the optimal
speed on each leg (Wang et al., 2021). Fan et al. established rela- A ¼ M1 X (17)
tionship models of ship speed and fuel consumption based on B ¼ M1 Y
operational data collected from Yangtze River ships. In their
research, regression analysis was used to identify the parameters of
the relationship models, and the shipping route was divided into 11 3=2
legs for speed optimization (Fan et al., 2021b). a22 þ b22
r¼ (18)
In this study, a white-box-type model was adopted to achieve 2ða3 b2  a2 b3 Þ
fuel consumption prediction. First, the Yangtze River waterway was
divided into multiple segments, which were taken as compute
units for fuel consumption calculations. Second, the environmental 0 1
data of the Yangtze River were collected, and these data were 1 ta ta2
B C
assigned to each segment according to the geographic position. M¼B
@ 1 0 0C A (19)
Finally, based on the relationship among the environment, ship, 1 tb tb2
engine, and propeller, a fuel consumption prediction model was
built and used to estimate the fuel consumption of each segment
where, X represents the coordinate vector, which can be expressed
and the total fuel consumption.
as X ¼ ð x1 x2 x3 ÞT ; Y represents the coordinate vector, which
2.2.1. The discrete model of the Yangtze River waterway can be expressed as Y ¼ ð y1 y2 y3 ÞT ; A represnets the vector,
The Yangtze River is the longest in China. There are more than which can be expressed as A ¼ ð a1 a2 a3 ÞT ; B represents the
3500 navigable tributaries in the entire water system, with a total vector, which can be expressed as B ¼ ð b1 b2 b3 ÞT ; M repre-
navigable mileage of approximately 70,000 km, accounting for 70% sents the coefficient matrix, which can be expressed as Eq. (19); ta
of the total mileage of China's inland waterways. Because the and tb represent elements of matrix M, which can be expressed as
navigation route in the inland waterway of the Yangtze River is qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
relatively fixed, in this study, it is simplified as a curve for pro- ta ¼ ðx1  x2 Þ2  ðy1  y2 Þ2 , tb ¼ ðx2  x3 Þ2  ðy2  y3 Þ2 ; r
cessing, and then the curve is discretized into multiple discrete represents the curvature radius of point ð x2 y2 Þ.
points, as shown in Fig. 1. The Yangtze River waterway is divided into several segments,
After the curve is discretized, the three-point curvature formula and one segment contains several discrete points, which can be
can be used to calculate the radius of curvature of each point in the expressed as Eq. (20).
6
L. Zhang, X. Peng, Z. Liu et al. International Journal of Naval Architecture and Ocean Engineering 14 (2022) 100488

upper reach of the Yangtze River has a large water depth drop ratio,
and in the middle reach, the water is relatively shallow, and the
current is more turbulent than in the upper reach. In the lower
reach, the environment tends to be moderate (Lu, 1990).
In this study, environmental data such as water depth, wind
direction, wind and water speed are collected by onboard sensors,
including a depth finder, current meter, and wind sensors (Yan
et al., 2018). The sampling frequency of data collection is once per
second, and a mass of data at different locations along the Yangtze
River is obtained during the voyage. By averaging environmental
data collected from many voyages over four years, these data are
presented in Figs. 5e8.
The wind speed and direction data collected by inland ships
after averaging are shown in Figs. 5 and 6. These data are used to
Fig. 3. Segments of the Yangtze river. calculate the wind resistance by Eq. (25).
The average water speed and depth data are shown in Figs. 6 and
8. As shown in Fig. 6, in the middle reach of the Yangtze River, there
X
snum is a significant decrease in the water depth, whereas the water
N¼ ni (20) speed increases, which will have a remarkable effect on the resis-
i¼1 tance of inland waterway vessels.

where N represents the total number of discrete points, snum rep-

resents the total segment number, and ni represents the number of 2.2.3. Fuel consumption function based on the speed of inland ships
discrete points in segment i. As an inland ship sails at a certain speed on one of the segments,
Generally, the turning motion of an inland ship will produce a the engine should output sufficient power to overcome the envi-
drift angle that increases the hull and rudder resistances. To ronmental resistance forces, including basic resistance, shallow
consider the influence of turning motion on the inland ship speed, water resistance, and added resistance in wind. In this study, an
first, the radius data at discrete points of the waterway are used to inland ship sailing on the Yangtze River isinvestigated, and the total
calculate the average radius of the segment, and then the Fersov resistance can be formulated as Eqs. (22) ~ (25) according to these
formula expressed as Eq. (21) is used to calculate the radius of reference (Yan et al., 2018; Holtrop and Mennen, 1982; Townsin
turning, which makes 1  VC =V0 equal to 1% (Yang, 2016). The value et al., 1975; Li, 2002).
of the result is used as the threshold, that is, the segment with an
average curvature radius greater than or equal to this value is RT ¼ R0 þ DRh þ DRc þ Rwind (22)
considered a straight segment, and the segment with an average
curvature radius less than this value is considered a curved 0:0065V 2
segment (see Fig. 3). DRh ¼ pffiffiffi,R0 (23)
ðh=d  1Þ d
Vc rt2 ! !
¼ (21) rt2 þ 1:9L2 rt2 þ 1:9L2
V0 rt2 þ 1:9L2 DRc ðVÞ ¼ R0 V þ DRh V  R0 ðVÞ
rt2 rt2
In Eq. (21), rt represents the radius of turning; L represents the  DRh ðVÞ
length of inland ship; V0 represents the initial speed of the inland
ship; and Vc represents the speed of the turning process. (24)

1
2.2.2. Environmental data of the Yangtze River Rwind ¼ Cwind rair AT Vwind
2
(25)
2
Environmental data of the Yangtze River are taken as part of
input parameters to investigate the speed optimization problem of where RT denotes the total resistance; R0 denotes the basic resis-
inland ships. The Yangtze River can generally be divided into three tance, which is obtained by computational fluid dynamics calcu-
parts, the upper, middle, and lower reaches, as shown in Fig. 4. The lation; DRh denotes the additional resistance of shallow water; DRc

Fig. 4. The channel of the Yangtze River (Bian et al., 2021).

7
L. Zhang, X. Peng, Z. Liu et al. International Journal of Naval Architecture and Ocean Engineering 14 (2022) 100488

Fig. 5. Average wind speed data at different locations of the Yangtze River. (The raw Fig. 7. Average water speed data at different locations of the Yangtze River. (The raw
data in this figure are from the study of Yan et al. (Yan et al., 2018).). data in this figure are from the study of Yan et al. (Yan et al., 2018).).

Fig. 6. Average wind direction data at different locations of the Yangtze River. (The raw Fig. 8. Average water depth data at different locations of the Yangtze River. (The raw
data in this figure are from the study of Yan et al. (Yan et al., 2018).). data in this figure are from the study of Yan et al. (Yan et al., 2018).).

denotes the additional resistance of vessel turning; Rwind denotes

the wind resistance; d denotes the draft; V denotes the inland ship pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi!
speed; h denotes the water depth; Cwind denotes the coefficient of B þ B2  4AC B  B2  4AC
np ¼ max ; (27)
wind force; rair denotes the density of air; AT denotes the wind- 2A 2A
ward area of inland ship; Vwind denotes the wind speed relative to
the inland ship, and it is obtained by the wind sensors on board.
2
For a certain total resistance RT , the propeller thrust T can be Va Va T
calculated by Eq. (26), where pnum denotes the propeller number; B ¼ bT , ; A ¼ cT ; C ¼ aT ,  (28)
D D rwater D4
and td denotes the thrust-deduction fraction.

T
KT ¼ fT ðJÞ ¼ aT J 2 þ bT J þ cT ¼ (29)
RT rwater n2p D4
T¼ (26)
pnum ,ð1  td Þ

After the propeller thrust T is obtained, according to the formula of Va ¼ V,ð1  uÞ (30)
roots of a quadratic equation, the propeller speed np can be
calculated using Eq. (27) and Eq. (28), where aT , bT and cT are
known constants in the quadratic Eq. (29) 60; D represents the Va
J¼ (31)
propeller diameter. The advance of propeller Va can be obtained by np D
Eq. (30), where u represents the wake fraction, which is deter-
mined by ship geometry. Under the condition that np and Va are With the advance coefficient J known, the torque coefficient KQ and
known, the thrust coefficient of propeller KT and advance coeffi- torque Q0 can be calculated using Eq. (32) and Eq. (33). aQ , bQ and
cient J can be calculated using Eq. (29) and Eq. (31), respectively. cQ are known constants in Eq. (32) (Barnitsas et al., 1981).

8
L. Zhang, X. Peng, Z. Liu et al. International Journal of Naval Architecture and Ocean Engineering 14 (2022) 100488

sensors on board (see section 2.2.2).

KQ ¼ f ðJÞ ¼ aQ J 2 þ bQ J þ cQ (32)
X
n
cos ttotal ¼ pðVi ; paramsi Þ
Q0 ¼ KQ rwater n2p D5 (33) i¼1
(39)
Xn
Si
The engine power PS can be calculated using Eq. (34), where PT ¼ , ge;i ðVi ; paramsi Þ , Ps;i ðVi ; paramsi Þ
V
i¼1 i
denotes the propeller power (see Eq. (35)); h0 represents open
propeller efficiency, which can be calculated by Eq. (36); hr repre-
sents the relative rotating efficiency; hs represents the transmission
efficiency of the shaft; hg is transmission efficiency of the gearbox.
2.2.4. Workflow of the speed optimization model
Based on the fuel consumption model described in previous
PT
PS ¼ (34) sections (sections 2.2.1 ~ 2.2.3), the workflow of the speed opti-
h0 hr hs hg mization model is depicted in Fig. 10, showing the logical re-
lationships among the formulas listed in this study, as well as
PT ¼ T,Va (35) illustrating the basic principles of inland ship speed optimization.
The optimal speed result of inland ships on each segment can be
KT J obtained using the ALDE algorithm; thus, it can be taken as the
h0 ¼ (36) reference for navigation of inland ships. The specific steps for the
KQ 2p
execution of ALDE algorithm are briefly described in this figure, and
The fuel consumption rate of the engine is a function that takes the details of the computational steps of the algorithm can be found
the engine power PS and engine speed ne as variables (see Eq. (37) in section 2.1.
and Fig. 9). Because the calculation of power PS is related to the The objective function is created using the augmented
inland ship speed (to be optimized) as well as geographical, envi- Lagrangian equation (see Eq. (10)), and it can be expressed as Eq.
ronmental, and inland ship design data, the fuel consumption rate (40).
of the engine can be expressed as a function of the inland ship
speed V and known quantities params. The speed of the engine can 8 X n
>
> k
F Vi;j;g ; lk ; sk ¼ k
p Vi;j;g ; paramsi þ lk sk ln sk  g Vi;j;g
k
be calculated using Eq. (38), where i denotes the reduction ratio of >
>
>
>
the gearbox. >
>
i¼1
<
Xn
Si
k
ge ¼ GðPs ; ne Þ ¼ GðV; paramsÞ (37) >
> g Vi;j;g ¼  time  0; ði ¼ 1; 2; 3; :::; nÞ
>
> V k
>
> i¼1 i;j;g
>
>
:
ne ¼ i,np (38) k
Vmin  Vi;j;g  Vmax
Once the locations of the start and end ports are determined, the (40)
length of route segments Si can be easily obtained. The total fuel
consumption costtotal can be calculated using Eq. (39), where n k
where, Vi;j;g denotes the vessel speed on segments, which is going
denotes the total number of segments; ge;i denotes the fuel con- to be optimized. The subscript indicates the index of segments. The
sumption rate of ith segment, which can be obtained using Eq. (37); subscript j ðj ¼ 1; 2; 3; …; np Þ denotes the index of populations.
Vi denotes the inland ship speed of ith segment, which needs to be The subscript g denotes the number of iterations. The variable l
optimized; parami denotes the geographical and environmental denotes the Lagrangian parameter, s denotes the nonnegative shift,
data of ith segment, which is obtained by the electronic chart and and the superscript k represents the update number of parameters.
The nonlinear function pð ,Þ (see Eq. (39)) is used to predict the fuel
consumption of the vessel in each segment. paramsi are known
variables that contain the environmental data and design param-
eters of the target inland ship. The function gð ,Þ denotes the
nonlinear inequality constraint equation, and n represents the total
number of segments. Si represents the length of each segment. time
denotes the maximum allowable time for navigation. Vmin repre-
sents the minimum allowable speed of the target inland ship. Vmax
represents the maximum allowable speed of the target inland ship.

3. Case study

3.1. Description

The optimizing speed results presented in this study are based

on a 7500DWT inland ship. The inland ship is a bulk carrier
equipped with two fixed pitch propellers, and its design parameters
are presented in Table 4.
According to the workflow of speed optimization described in
section 2.2.4, the optimization algorithm is programmed with Cþþ
and computed by a desktop computer. To verify the effectiveness of
speed optimization, simulations were performed under the con-
Fig. 9. Surface chart of fuel consumption rate. ditions of the cases shown in Table 5. In these simulations, Jiangyin
9
L. Zhang, X. Peng, Z. Liu et al. International Journal of Naval Architecture and Ocean Engineering 14 (2022) 100488

Fig. 10. Workflow for the speed optimization model.

Table 4
Design parameters of 7500DWT inland ship.

Parameter Symbol Value Parameter Symbol Value

Length[m] L 130 Block Coefficient CB 0.8782

Depth[m] D 8.0 Volume of Displacement[m3] ▽ 9469
Breadth[m] B 16.2 Propeller Number pnum 2
Design draft[m] d 5.2 Midship Section Coefficient CM 0.998
Prismatic Coefficient Cp 0.8799 Wetted Surface[m2] S 3134

Table 5
Specifications of case.

No Start port End port Method Allowable sailing time Maximum speed Minimum speed

1 Jiangyin Port Yibin Port ALDE 180 h 18 km/h 10 km/h

2 Yibin Port Jiangyin Port ALDE
3 Jiangyin Port Yibin Port Constant speed
4 Yibin Port Jiangyin Port Constant speed

Port and Yibin Port were set as the start and end ports, respectively. (using the ALDE algorithm) and without speed optimization (sail-
The comparison between the conditions with speed optimization ing at a constant speed of 13.32 km/h) was performed under the

10
L. Zhang, X. Peng, Z. Liu et al. International Journal of Naval Architecture and Ocean Engineering 14 (2022) 100488

Table 6
Statistical fuel consumption results of 30 speed optimization runs.

Case No Max fuel consumption [kg] Min fuel consumption [kg] Mean fuel consumption [kg] Standard deviation [kg]

1 20,963.373 20,942.844 20,953.303 6.045

2 8502.605 8476.142 8489.870 5.859

Table 7
Statistical results of cases.

Case No Max Speed [km/h] Min Speed [km/h] Mean Speed [km/h] Fuel Consumption [kg] Sailing time [h] Method

1 14.925 11.401 13.320 20,942.844 179.999 ALDE

2 17.436 11.412 13.320 8476.142 179.999 ALDE
3 13.320 13.320 13.320 21,499.996 180 Constant speed
4 13.320 13.320 13.320 8605.927 180 Constant speed

same environmental conditions. Three constraints were considered
in the speed optimization process including maximum allowable
sailing time, maximum allowable speed, and minimum allowable
speed. The allowable sailing time was set as 180h based on the
requirements of the sailing task. The inland ship was assumed to be
full loaded, and the maximum and minimum allowable speeds
were set as 18 and 10 km/h, respectively, according to the
maneuverability of the ship.
3.2. Speed optimization results and discussion
For cases 1 and 2, 30 speed optimization runs were performed,
and the results with the minimum fuel consumption are taken as
the optimal solution. The statistical fuel consumption results of the
30 speed optimization runs are listed in Table 6. The table shows
that the standard deviations and the deviations between the max
and min fuel consumption of both cases are small, indicating the
stability of the optimization results.
The statistical results of cases 1e4 are listed in Table 7. For case 1,
when the inland ship sails from Jiangyin Port to Yibin Port, the total
fuel consumption is 20,942.844 kg, the maximum suggested speed
is 14.925 km/h, the minimum suggested speed is 11.401 km/h, and
the mean suggested speed is 13.32 km/h. For case 2, when the ship
sails from Yibin Port to Jiangyin Port, the total fuel consumption is
8476.142 kg, the maximum suggested speed is 17.436 km/h, the
minimum suggested speed is 11.412 km/h and the mean suggested
speed is 13.32 km/h. Comparing cases 1 and 3 (sailing at constant
speed), 2.59% of fuel consumption can be saved. Comparing cases 3
and 4 (sailing at constant speed), 1.51% of fuel consumption can be
saved using the ALDE algorithm.
Table 7 shows that the total fuel consumption when the inland
ship sails from Jiangyin Port to Yibin Port (cases 1 and 3) is more
than the total fuel consumption when the ship sails in the opposite
direction (cases 2 and 4). This is because the ship is against the
current when it sails from Jiangyin Port to Yibin Port, which causes
the engine to consume more fuel. For case 1 and case 2, the sailing
time is approximately equal to the maximum allowable sailing
time, which is 180 h. This result shows that although the speed of
the ship needs to be adjusted according to the environment, overall,
fully using the allowable sailing time will be beneficial in reducing
the fuel consumption of the ship.
The graphical results of speed optimization are shown in Figs. 11
and 15. As shown in Fig. 11, when the inland ship is halfway sailing
from Jiangyin Port to Yibin Port, there is a significant speed
reduction. This is caused by increased environmental loads, espe-
cially because of an increase in reverse direction current velocity,
acting on the inland ship, which increases in total resistance and
fuel consumption. Under this condition, the ship is suggested to
slow down to decrease the resistance.
The graphical results of wind resistance Rwind , vessel turning
resistance DRc and shallow water resistance DRh under case 1 are
shown from Figs. 12e14. According to the results of wind resistance,
the wind resistance obtained by ALDE is less than that obtained by
the constant speed in the middle of the route, whereas in other
segments, the resistance obtained by ALDE is greater. This is
because the relative wind speed decreases as the inland ship slows
down halfway from Jiangyin Port to Yibin Port, which resulted in a
decrease in wind resistance. The same trend can be observed in the

Fig. 11. Speed optimization results under case1.

11
L. Zhang, X. Peng, Z. Liu et al. International Journal of Naval Architecture and Ocean Engineering 14 (2022) 100488

Fig. 12. Resistance of wind results under case1.

Fig. 13. Resistance of vessel turning under case1.

Fig. 14. Resistance of shallow water under case1.

results of vessel turning resistance and shallow water resistance,
both of which are related to a decrease in the speed of the inland
ship.
Conversely, when the inland ship sails from Yibin Port to Jian-
gyin Port, the ship sails at low speed at first, then increases speed,
and finally, decreases the speed, as shown in Fig. 15. This is because
in the middle of the route, environmental loads, particularly cur-
rent, tend to propel the inland ship, and the speed of the ship
should be increased as the engine can work at the best operating
point for fuel saving.

12
L. Zhang, X. Peng, Z. Liu et al. International Journal of Naval Architecture and Ocean Engineering 14 (2022) 100488

Fig. 15. Speed optimization results under case2.

The graphical results of resistance of wind Rwind , vessel turning case 1, thereby leading to the larger wind resistance. In the middle
DRc , and shallow water DRh under case 2 are shown from of the route, the wind resistance obtained by ALDE is greater than
Figs. 16e18. According to the results of the wind resistance, the that at a constant speed. This is because the optimized speed in-
relative wind speed under case 2 is large compared with that under creases in the middle of the route, which results in the increase of

Fig. 16. Resistance of wind under case2.

Fig. 17. Resistance of vessel turning under case2.

13
L. Zhang, X. Peng, Z. Liu et al. International Journal of Naval Architecture and Ocean Engineering 14 (2022) 100488

Fig. 18. Resistance of shallow water under case2.

the relative wind speed. For the vessel turning resistance and
shallow water resistance, because the magnitude of these re-
sistances is positively related to the speed of the inland ship, they
also increase in the middle of the route, whereas, in other seg-
ments, they are lower than that at a constant speed.
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing
financial interests or personal relationships that could have
appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.

Acknowledgements
4. Conclusions
The work is supported by China Green Intelligent Inland Ship
In this study, a heuristic algorithm, ALDE, was proposed to Innovation Programme and Key Technologies of Intelligent Tech-
optimize the speed of an inland ship navigating in the Yangtze River nology Test Ship Development Programme (Ministry of Industry
to reduce fuel consumption. First, the principle and pseudo-code of and Information Technology, PRC)
the ALDE algorithm were introduced, and tests based on con-
strained benchmark functions were conducted to verify the per- Appendix A. Benchmark functions
formance of the proposed algorithm. Comparing with other
algorithms, the proposed algorithm was demonstrated better per- A.1. g01
formance and used to solve the problem of inland ship speed
optimization. X
5 X
4 X
13
Minimize f ðxÞ ¼ 5 xi  5 x2i  xi
To model the speed optimization problem, a discrete model of
i¼1 i¼1 i¼1
the Yangtze River waterway was developed, which divided the
Yangtze River into several segments, including straight and curved subject to
segments, to consider the increase in resistance caused by the
steering of the inland ship. Based on the relationship among the g1 ðxÞ ¼ 2x1 þ 2x2 þ x10 þ x11  10  0;
environment, ship hull, propeller, and engine, a fuel consumption
prediction model was constructed and combined with the discrete g2 ðxÞ ¼ 2x1 þ 2x3 þ x10 þ x12  10  0;
model of the Yangtze River to constitute the speed optimization
model. g3 ðxÞ ¼ 2x2 þ 2x3 þ x11 þ x12  10  0;
The validity of the ALDE algorithm for solving the speed opti-
mization problem was demonstrated by the simulation of several
g4 ðxÞ ¼  8x1 þ x10  0;
cases. The simulation results of cases with speed optimization were
compared with those of cases without speed optimization. The
total fuel consumption obtained by speed optimization is less than g5 ðxÞ ¼  8x2 þ x11  0;
that without optimization, showing that the speed optimization
problem can be effectively solved using the proposed ALDE algo- g6 ðxÞ ¼  8x3 þ x12  0;
rithm. By solving the speed optimization model, the recommended
speed results between Jiangyin Port and Yibin Port were obtained g7 ðxÞ ¼  2x4  x5 þ x10  0;
to provide guidance for navigating the inland ship.
If data such as environmental, vessel, and engine data are g8 ðxÞ ¼  2x6  x7 þ x11  0;
available, the speed optimization method proposed in this study
can also be applied to sea-going vessels. In future work, our
g9 ðxÞ ¼  2x8  x9 þ x12  0;
research project will consider the dynamic characteristics of a
vessel during speed optimization and conduct full-scale ship trials.

14
L. Zhang, X. Peng, Z. Liu et al. International Journal of Naval Architecture and Ocean Engineering 14 (2022) 100488

where the bounds are 0  xi  1 ði ¼ 1; :::; 9Þ,

0  xi  100 ði ¼ 10; 11; 12Þ and 0  x13  1. The global minimum g6 ðxÞ ¼  9:300961  0:0047026x3 x5  0:0012547x1 x3
is f ðx* Þ ¼  15, where six constraints are active ðg1 ; g2 ; g3 ; g7 ; g8  0:0019085x3 x4 þ 20  0;
g9 Þ and f ðx* Þ ¼  15
where 78  x1  102; 33  x2  45; 27  xi  45 ði ¼ 3; 4; 5Þ. The
optimum solution is f ðx* Þ ¼ 30665:53867: Two constraints are
A.2. g02  
Pn Y n  active ðg1 ; g2 Þ.
 cos4 ðx Þ  2 cos 2
ðx Þ
 i i 
i¼1 
Minimize f ðxÞ ¼   i¼1
sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi 

A.5. g05
 P 2
n 
 ix 
 i  Minimize f ðxÞ ¼ 3x1 þ 0:000001x31 þ 2x2 þ ð0:000002 =3Þx32
i¼1

subject to subject to

Y
n g1 ðxÞ ¼  x4 þ x3  0:55  0;
g1 ðxÞ ¼ 0:75  xi  0
i¼1
g2 ðxÞ ¼  x3 þ x4  0:55  0;

X
n
g2 ðxÞ ¼ xi  7:5n  0 h3 ðxÞ ¼ 1000 sinðx3  0:25Þ þ1000 sinðx4 0:25Þ þ 894:8  x1
i¼1  0;
where n ¼ 20 and 0  xi  10 ði ¼ 1; :::; nÞ. The global maximum is
unknown; the best reported solution is f ðx* Þ ¼  0:803619. h4 ðxÞ ¼ 1000 sinðx3 0:25Þ þ 1000 sinðx3  x4  0:25Þ þ 894:8  x2
 0;
A.3. g03

pffiffiffi n Y
n h5 ðxÞ ¼ 1000 sinðx4  0:25Þ þ 1000 sinðx4  x3  0:25Þ þ 1294:8
Minimize f ðxÞ ¼ ð nÞ xi  0;
i¼1

subject to where 0  x1  1200; 0  x2  1200; 0:55  x3  0:55 and 

0:55  x4  0:55. The best-known solution f ðx* Þ ¼ 5126:49671:
X
n
hðxÞ ¼ x2i  1 ¼ 0
i¼1
A.6. g06

where n ¼ 10 and 0  xi  10 ði ¼ 1; :::; nÞ. The global maximum is Minimize f ðxÞ ¼ ðx1  10Þ3 þ ðx2  20Þ3
pffiffiffi
at x* ¼ 1= nði ¼ 1; :::; nÞ; where f ðx* Þ ¼  1.
subject to

A.4. g04 g1 ðxÞ ¼  ðx1  5Þ2  ðx2  5Þ2 þ 100  0;

Minimize f ðxÞ ¼ 5:3578547x23 þ 0:8356891x1 x5 þ

g2 ðxÞ ¼ ðx1  6Þ2 þ ðx2  5Þ2  82:81  0;
37:293239x1  40792:141
where 13  x1  100 and 0  x2  100. The optimum solution is
subject to f ðx* Þ ¼  6961:81388:

g1 ðxÞ ¼ 85:334407 þ 0:0056858x2 x5 þ 0:0006262x1 x4

A.7. g07
 0:0022053x3 x5  92  0;
Minimize f ðxÞ ¼ x21 þ x22 þ x1 x2  14x1  16x2 þ ðx3  10Þ2 þ
g2 ðxÞ ¼  85:334407  0:0056858x2 x5  0:0006262x1 x4
4ðx4  5Þ2 þ ðx5  3Þ2 þ 4ðx4  5Þ2 þ ðx5  3Þ2 þ 2ðx6  1Þ2 þ 5x27 þ
þ 0:0022053x3 x5  0;
7ðx8  11Þ2 þ 2ðx9  10Þ2 þ ðx10  7Þ2 þ 45

g3 ðxÞ ¼ 80:51249 þ 0:0071317x2 x5 þ 0:029955x1 x2 subject to

þ 0:0021813x23  110  0;
g1 ðxÞ ¼  105 þ 4x1 þ 5x2  3x7 þ 9x8  0;

g4 ðxÞ ¼  80:51249  0:0071317x2 x5  0:029955x1 x2 g2 ðxÞ ¼ 10x1  8x2  17x7 þ x8  0;

 0:0021813x23 þ 90  0;
g3 ðxÞ ¼  8x1 þ 2x2 þ 5x9  2x10  12  0;
g5 ðxÞ ¼ 9:300961 þ 0:0047026x3 x5 þ 0:0012547x1 x3
þ 0:0019085x3 x4  25  0; g4 ðxÞ ¼ 3ðx1  2Þ2 þ 4ðx2  3Þ2 þ 2x23  7x4  120  0;

15
L. Zhang, X. Peng, Z. Liu et al. International Journal of Naval Architecture and Ocean Engineering 14 (2022) 100488

g5 ðxÞ ¼ 5x21 þ 8x2 þ ðx3  6Þ2  2x4  40  0; g6 ðxÞ ¼  x3 x8 þ 1250000 þ x3 x5  2500x5  0;

where 100  x1  10000, 1000  xi  10000ði ¼ 2; 3Þ, and

g6 ðxÞ ¼ x21 þ 2ðx2  2Þ2  2x1 x2 þ 14x5  6x6  0; 10  xi  1000 ði ¼ 4; :::; 8Þ. The optimum solution f ðx* Þ ¼
7049:248021:
g7 ðxÞ ¼ 0:5ðx1  8Þ2 þ 2ðx2  4Þ2 þ 3x25  x6  30  0;
A.11. g11
2
g8 ðxÞ ¼  3x1 þ 6x2 þ 12ðx9  8Þ  7x10  0;
Minimize f ðxÞ ¼ x21 þ ðx2  1Þ2
where  10  xi  10ði ¼ 1; :::; 10Þ. The optimization solution
f ðx* Þ ¼ 24:306209 : Six constraints are active. ðg1 ; g2 ; g3 ; g4 ; subject to
g5 and g6 Þ
hðxÞ ¼ x2  x21 ¼ 0
A.8 g08
where 1  x1  1 and  1  x2  1. The optimum solution is
sin ð2px1 Þsinð2px2 Þ
3 located at x* ¼ ð±1 =√2; 1 =2Þ, where f ðx* Þ ¼ 0:75:
Maximize f ðxÞ ¼ x31 ðx1 þx2 Þ
A.12. g12
subject to
Minimize f ðxÞ ¼  ð100  ðx1  5Þ2  ðx2  5Þ2 
g1 ðxÞ ¼ x21  x2 þ 1  0; ðx3  5Þ2 Þ=100

g2 ðxÞ ¼ 1  x1 þ ðx2  4Þ2  0; subject to

where 0  x1  10 and 0  x2  10. The optimum solution is gðxÞ ¼ ðx1  pÞ2 þ ðx2  qÞ2 þ ðx3  rÞ2  0:0625  0;
f ðx* Þ ¼  0:095825:
where 0  xi  10ði ¼ 1; 2; 3Þ, and p; q; r ¼ 1; 2; …; 7. The optimum
A.9 g09 solution f ðx* Þ ¼  1:

A.13. g13
Minimize f ðxÞ ¼ ðx1  10Þ2 þ 5ðx2  12Þ2 þ x43 þ 3ðx4  11Þ2 þ
10x65 þ 7x26 þ x47  4x6 x7  10x6  8x7
Minimize f ðxÞ ¼ ex1 x2 x3 x4 x5

subject to subject to

g1 ðxÞ ¼  127 þ 2x21 þ 3x42 þ x3 þ 4x24 þ 5x5  0; h1 ðxÞ ¼ x21 þ x22 þ x23 þ x24 þ x25  10 ¼ 0

g2 ðxÞ ¼  282 þ 7x1 þ 3x2 þ 10x23 þ x4  x5  0; h2 ðxÞ ¼ x2 x3  5x4 x5 ¼ 0

g3 ðxÞ ¼  196 þ 23x1 þ x22 þ 6x26  8x7  0; h3 ðxÞ ¼ x31  x32 þ 1 ¼ 0

where 2:3  xi  2:3 ði ¼ 1; 2Þ and  3:2  xi  3:2 ði ¼ 3; 4; 5Þ.

g4 ðxÞ ¼ 4x21 þ x22  3x1 x2 þ 2x23 þ 5x6  11x7  0;
The optimum solution is f ðx* Þ ¼ 0:053942:
where  10  x1  10ði ¼ 1; :::; 7Þ. The optimum solution f ðx* Þ ¼
680:630057: Appendix B. Pseudo-code

A.10 g10
Table 1
Minimize f ðxÞ ¼ x1 þ x2 þ x3 The pseudo-code of the improved DE algorithm

Input: population X, maximum number of generations genmax , crossover

subject to probability Cr2 [0, 1];
Initialize mutation multiplier vector F0 for kth subproblem;
g1 ðxÞ ¼  1 þ 0:0025ðx4 þ x6 Þ  0; Set g ¼ 0, run ¼ true;
While run
g ¼ gþ 1
g2 ðxÞ ¼  1 þ 0:0025ðx5 þ x7  x4 Þ  0; /* Calculate mutation multiplier (Eq. (3)) */
Fg ¼ ðF0  Flow Þ,randð0; 1Þ þ Flow
/* Mutation (Eq. (2))*/
g3 ðxÞ ¼  1 þ 0:01ðx8  x5 Þ  0;


velitist xbest;g þ Fg ,ðexr1;g  exr2;g Þ
vi;g ¼ ¼
vnornal rxr0;g þ Fg ,ðrxr3;g  rxr4;g Þ
g4 ðxÞ ¼  x1 x6 þ 833:33252x4 þ 100x1  83333:333  0; /* Crossover (Eq. (5))*/
If randi ð0; 1Þ  Cr
ui;g ¼ vi;g
g5 ðxÞ ¼  x2 x7 þ 1250x5 þ x2 x4  1250x4  0; else
ui;g ¼ xi;g

16
L. Zhang, X. Peng, Z. Liu et al. International Journal of Naval Architecture and Ocean Engineering 14 (2022) 100488

Table 1 (continued ) Amirjanov, A., 2006. The development of a changing range genetic algorithm.
Comput. Methods Appl. Mech. Eng. 195, 2495e2508.
End Araromi, D.O., Salam, K.K., Sulayman, A.A., 2016. Augmented Lagrangian genetic
/* Selection (Eq. (6))*/ algorithm based decentralized control configuration design for fluid catalytic
If f ðui;g Þ < f ðxi;g Þ cracking units. Adv. Chem. Eng. Sci. 6, 1.
xi;g ¼ ui;g Atiqullah, M.M., Rao, S., 2000. Simulated annealing and parallel processing: an
=* Record mutation multiplier */ implementation for constrained global design optimization. Eng. Optim.þ A35
BFm ¼ fBFm ; Fg g, m ¼ mþ1 32, 659e685.
else Barnitsas, M., Ray, D., Kinley, P.K.T., 1981. KQ and Efficiency Curves for the Wage-
xi;g ¼ xi;g ningen B-Series Propellers. University of Michigan.
end Becerra, R.L., Coello, C.A.C., 2006. Cultured differential evolution for constrained
optimization. Comput. Methods Appl. Mech. Eng. 195, 4303e4322.
/* Opposition-Based generation and selection (Eq. (7))*/
Bian, Y., Yan, W., Hu, H., et al., 2021. Feeder scheduling and container transportation
If randð0; 1Þ  Cr
with the factors of draught and bridge in the Yangtze River, China. J. Mar. Sci.
opi;g ¼ MINj;g þ MAXj;g  ui;g

 Eng. 9, 964.
opi;g Chang, C.-C., Chang, C.-H., 2013. Energy conservation for international dry bulk
pg ¼
xi;g 2n n carriers via vessel speed reduction. Energy Pol. 59, 710e715.
p

=* Update population *= Chao, S., Jundong, Z., 2020. Speed Optimization of Marine Main Engine Based on
Select np f ittest individuals f rom pg as xi;gþ1 Comprehensive Objective of Speed and Real-Time Energy Efficiency, vol. 46.
end Dalian Haishi Daxue Xuebao/Journal of Dalian Maritime University, pp. 31e35.
If g  genmax Conn, A.R., Gould, N., Toint, P.L., 1991. A globally convergent augmented Lagrangian
run ¼ false algorithm for optimization with general constraints and simple bounds. SIAM J.
Numer. Anal. 28 (2), 545e572.
end
Corbett, J.J., Wang, H., Winebrake, J.J., 2009. The effectiveness and costs of speed
end
reductions on emissions from international shipping. Transport. Res. Part D 14,
/* Update mutation multiplier (Eq. (4))*/
0 1 0 1 593e598.
0 bf0;1;k bf0;n;k 1 Das, S., Suganthan, P.N., 2010. Differential evolution: a survey of the state-of-the-art.
B C B C
F0;kþ1 ¼ ðsvðBFm ÞÞ ¼ @ svB C B
@ ::: A ::: sv@ ::: A
CA IEEE Trans. Evol. Comput. 15, 4e31.
Das, S., Abraham, A., Chakraborty, U.K., et al., 2009. Differential evolution using a
bfg;1;k bfg;n;k
neighborhood-based mutation operator. IEEE Trans. Evol. Comput. 13, 526e553.
Deb, K., 2000. An efficient constraint handling method for genetic algorithms.
Comput. Methods Appl. Mech. Eng. 186, 311e338.
Deb, K., Srivastava, S., 2012. A genetic algorithm based augmented Lagrangian
method for constrained optimization. Comput. Optim. Appl. 53, 869e902.
Table 2 Fagerholt, K., Laporte, G., Norstad, I., 2010. Reducing fuel emissions by optimizing
The pseudo-code of the ALDE algorithm speed on shipping routes. J. Oper. Res. Soc. 61, 523e529.
Fan, A., Wang, J., He, Y., et al., 2021a. Decarbonising inland ship power system:
Input: population size np , maximum number of iterations itermax , user-specified alternative solution and assessment method. Energy.
tolerance u* , h* , penalty factor t, penalty parameter m, and initial value of Fan, A., Wang, Z., Yang, L., et al., 2021b. Multi-stage decision-making method for
nonnegative shifts s: ship speed optimisation considering inland navigational environment. Proc.
Initialize population X; IME M J. Eng. Marit. Environ. 235, 372e382.

s 1=al Gandomi, A.H., Yang, X.-S., Talatahari, S., et al., 2012. Coupled eagle strategy and
Initialize Lagrangian multiplier l ¼ ; differential evolution for unconstrained and constrained global optimization.
m
Comput. Math. Appl. 63, 191e200.
Set k ¼ 0, run ¼ true;
Holtrop, J., Mennen, G., 1982. An approximate power prediction method. Int.
While run
Shipbuild. Prog. 29, 166e170.
Reconstructing augmented Lagrangian function Lc ðxk ; lk ; sk ; mk Þ for k'th Hu, Z., Zhou, T., Osman, M.T., et al., 2021. A novel hybrid fuel consumption pre-
subproblem; diction model for ocean-going container ships based on sensor data. J. Mar. Sci.
Carry out optimization for kth subproblem by using the improved DE Eng. 9, 449.
algorithm mentioned in section 2.1.1 then get the temporary solution xk of Kim, J.H., Myung, H., 2002. Evolutionary programming techniques for constrained
the subproblem; optimization problems. IEEE Trans. Evol. Comput. 1, 129e140.
k ¼ k þ 1; Kwon, Y., 2008. Speed loss due to added resistance in wind and waves. Nav. Archit.
Update parameters of augmented Lagrangian function; 3, 14e16.
If gðxk Þ > 0 Li, Y.B., 2002. Discussion on the method of inland ship sailing resistance calculation.
Minimize the auxiliary problem (16) by using gradient-based method. The J. Waterw. Harb. 1, 7e11.
minimization can be stopped when z < 1 or the iteration number exceed Li, J., Dridi, M., El-Moudni, A., 2014. Multi-vehicles green light optimal speed
limit. advisory based on the augmented Lagrangian genetic algorithm. In: 17th In-
ternational IEEE Conference on Intelligent Transportation Systems (ITSC). IEEE,
If z < 1
pp. 2434e2439.
x*k is obtained after optimization;
Lindstad, H., Asbjørnslett, B.E., Strømman, A.H., 2011. Reductions in greenhouse gas
Set xkþ1 ¼ x*k ;
emissions and cost by shipping at lower speeds. Energy Pol. 39, 3456e3464.
Else Liu, H., Cai, Z., Wang, Y., 2010. Hybridizing particle swarm optimization with dif-
Set xkþ1 ¼ xk ; ferential evolution for constrained numerical and engineering optimization.
end Appl. Soft Comput. 10, 629e640.
End Long, Wen, Liang, et al., 2018. An improved artificial bee colony with modified
Calculate Lc ðx*k ; lk ; sk ; mk Þ and the optimal value of k'th subproblem is augmented Lagrangian for constrained optimization. Soft Comput. 22 (14),
obtained; 4789e4810.
Update the population, replace xk by x*k ; Lu, J., 1990. Review of vellocity distribution and study on velovity distribution of
If stopping criteria (15) is satisfied or k > itermax Yangtze River Flow. J. Yangtze River Sci. Res. Inst. 1, 40e55.
run ¼ false; Lu, R., Turan, O., Boulougouris, E., et al., 2015. A semi-empirical ship operational
return final solution x*k . performance prediction model for voyage optimization towards energy efficient
shipping. Ocean Eng. 110, 18e28.
end
Meng, Q., Du, Y., Wang, Y., 2016. Shipping log data based container ship fuel effi-
End
ciency modeling. Transp. Res. Part B Methodol. 83, 207e229.
Michael, R., Torczon, L.V., 2002. A globally convergent augmented Lagrangian
pattern search algorithm for optimization with general constraints and simple
bounds. SIAM J. Optim. 12.
References Mohamed, A.W., Sabry, H.Z., 2012. Constrained optimization based on modified
differential evolution algorithm. Inf. Sci. 194, 171e208.
Adeli, H., Cheng, N.-T., 1994. Augmented Lagrangian genetic algorithm for structural Per
cic, M., Vladimir, N., Kori

can, M., 2021. Electrification of inland waterway ships
optimization. J. Aero. Eng. 7, 104e118. considering power system lifetime emissions and costs. Energies 14, 7046.
Altosole, M., Campora, U., Donnarumma, S., et al., 2019. Simulation techniques for Peri, M., Vladimir, N., Fan, A., 2021. Techno-economic assessment of alternative
design and control of a waste heat recovery system in marine natural gas marine fuels for inland shipping in Croatia. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 148.
propulsion applications. J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 7, 397. Price, K., Storn, R.M., Lampinen, J.A., 2006. Differential Evolution: a Practical
Approach to Global Optimization. Springer Science & Business Media.

17
L. Zhang, X. Peng, Z. Liu et al.
Psaraftis, H.N., Kontovas, C.A., 2013. Speed models for energy-efficient maritime
transportation: a taxonomy and survey. Transport. Res. C Emerg. Technol. 26,
331e351.
Qin, A.K., Huang, V.L., Suganthan, P.N., 2008. Differential evolution algorithm with
strategy adaptation for global numerical optimization. IEEE Trans. Evol. Com-
put. 13, 398e417.
Rahnamayan, S., Tizhoosh, et al., 2008. Opposition-Based Differential Evolution.
Evolutionary Computation IEEE Transactions.
Ran-Qi, M.A., Huang, L.Z., Wei, M.S., et al., 2018. Intelligent Speed Optimization of
Fixed Route Ship Based on Real Ship Monitoring Data, vol. 44. Dalian Haishi
Daxue Xuebao/Journal of Dalian Maritime University, pp. 31e35.
Rocha, A.M.A., Martins, T.F., Fernandes, E.M., 2011. An augmented Lagrangian fish
swarm based method for global optimization. J. Comput. Appl. Math. 235,
4611e4620.
Runarsson, T.P., Yao, X., 2000. Stochastic ranking for constrained evolutionary
optimization. IEEE Trans. Evol. Comput. 4, 284e294.
Saiful, K.M., 2016. Prevention of Pollution of the Marine Environment from Vessels.
Springer.
€ berg, J., Zhang, Q., Ljung, L., et al., 1995. Nonlinear black-box modeling in system
Sjo
identification: a unified overview. Automatica 31, 1691e1724.
Sun, X., Yan, X., Yin, Q., et al., 2015. Modeling of Main Engine Operational Energy
Efficiency for an Inland Waterway Ship with the Consideration of Navigation
Environment. Journal of Wuhan University of Technology.
Sun, C., Wang, H., Liu, C., et al., 2019. Dynamic prediction and optimization of energy
efficiency operational index (EEOI) for an operating ship in varying environ-
ments. J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 7, 402.
Syswerda, G., 1989. Uniform crossover in genetic algorithms. ICGA 2e9.
The, S.M., 2009. Optimization Research of Ship Economical Operation in the
Changjiang River and Sanxia Reservoir. Dalian Martime University.
18
International Journal of Naval Architecture and Ocean Engineering 14 (2022) 100488
Townsin, R., Moss, B., Wynne, J., et al., 1975. Monitoring the Speed Performance of
Ships. North East Coast Inst of Eng & Shipbuilders Trans, p. 91.
Wang, Z., 2014. Research on Energy Saving and Optimization of Sectional Speed for
Inland Vessels. Dalian Martime University.
Wang, K., Yan, X., Yuan, Y., et al., 2018. Optimizing ship energy efficiency: appli-
cation of particle swarm optimization algorithm. Proc. IME M J. Eng. Marit.
Environ. 232 (234), 379e391.
Wang, Z., Fan, A., Tu, X., et al., 2021. An energy efficiency practice for coastal bulk
carrier: speed decision and benefit analysis. Regional Studies in Marine Science
47, 101988.
Yan, X., Xing, S., Yin, Q., 2015. Multiparameter sensitivity analysis of operational
energy efficiency for inland river ships based on backpropagation neural
network method. Mar. Technol. Soc. J. 49, 148e153.
Yan, X., Wang, K., Yuan, Y., et al., 2018. Energy-efficient shipping: an application of
big data analysis for optimizing engine speed of inland ships considering
multiple environmental factors. Ocean Eng. 169, 457e468.
Yang, L., 2016. Regression analysis of the ship speed attenuation during rotation
motion (ship maneuvering). Ship Sci. Technol. 38 (5), 1e3.
Yang, L., Chen, G., Rytter, N.G.M., et al., 2019. A genetic algorithm-based grey-box
model for ship fuel consumption prediction towards sustainable shipping. Ann.
Oper. Res. 1e27.
Yu, B., Peng, Z., Tian, Z., et al., 2019. Sailing speed optimization for tramp ships with
fuzzy time window. Flex. Serv. Manuf. J. 31 (2), 308e330.
Zhang, C., Zhang, D., Zhang, M., et al., 2019. Data-driven ship energy efficiency
analysis and optimization model for route planning in ice-covered Arctic wa-
ters. Ocean Eng. 186, 106071.
Zhang, P.J., Zucca, P., Wang, C.B., et al., 2020. The frequency drift and fine structures
of Solar S-bursts in the high frequency band of LOFAR. Astrophys. J. 891 (1),
89e98.