International Journal of Naval Architecture and Ocean Engineering 14 (2022) 100472

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International Journal of Naval Architecture and Ocean Engineering

journal homepage: http://www.journals.elsevier.com/
international-journal-of-naval-architecture-and-ocean-engineering/

Fender segmentation in unmanned aerial vehicle images based on

densely connected receptive field block
Byeongjun Yu a, 1, Haemin Jeon b, 1, Hyuntae Bang b, Sang Soo Yi c, Jiyoung Min d, *
a
Stradvision, Seoul, Republic of Korea
b
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Hanbat National University, Daejeon, Republic of Korea
c
SISTECH, Seoul, Republic of Korea
d
Department of Structural Engineering Research, Korea Institute of Civil Engineering and Building Technology, Gyeonggi-do, Republic of Korea

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Periodic evaluation of port structures including outer walls and berthing structures with fenders is
Received 25 January 2022 paramount to ensure their safety. However, most fenders are inaccessible on land and inspectors utilize
Received in revised form floating boats for inspections. Therefore, this study aimed to develop a fender segmentation system
20 June 2022
incorporating a vision sensor with deep learning segmentation approach. The semantic segmentation
Accepted 2 July 2022
Available online 9 July 2022
model in an encoderedecoder framework was densely connected through a receptive field block
convolution module each with two different dilation rates and classified various types and sizes of
fenders efficiently. The images of various types of fenders were assembled and augmented to train the
Keywords:
Unmanned aerial vehicle
proposed network, and its performance was compared to conventional segmentation models. The
Vision sensor trained network was finally applied to unmanned aerial vehicle images and the results showed that
Deep learning fenders were successfully segmented even in the case of the images that include changes in shapes or
Fender segmentation colors.
Port structure © 2022 Society of Naval Architects of Korea. Production and hosting by Elsevier B.V. This is an open
access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).

1. Introduction 2030. That is, port facilities are deteriorating increasingly.

Port facilities are generally divided into five main categories:
basic facilities, functional facilities, support facilities, harbor
waterfront facilities, and hinterland complexes. In the Republic of
Korea, there are 1144 port facilities managed by public bodies. Of
these, 311 are outer wall facilities and 685 are mooring facilities,
accounting for 87.1% of the total, and they are an important part of
port operation and worker safety. Approximately 49.4% of the fa-
cilities were built before 2000, so the number with a service life in
excess of 30 years is expected to increase by approximately 50% in
Abbreviations: CNN, convolutional neural network; DRFP, densely connected
RFP; DRFPt, tiny version of DRFP; DWT, deadweight tonnage; GNSS, global navi-
gation satellite system; HFF, hierarchical feature fusion; IoU, intersection over
union; LTE, long-term evolution; RC, radio control; RCNN, region-based CNN; RFB,
receptive field block; RFP, receptive field pyramid; RoI, region of interest; RPN,
regional proposal network; SSD, single shot multibox detector; UAV, unmanned
aerial vehicle; YOLO, you only look once.
* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: amote83@kict.re.kr (J. Min).
Peer review under responsibility of The Society of Naval Architects of Korea.
1
These authors contributed equally to this work.
Furthermore, the frequency of waves exceeding the design wave
height is increasing due to climate change. Therefore, regular in-
spections and maintenance are vital to maintaining safety and
functionality, increasing port efficiency and providing a longer life
cycle.
Fenders installed on the side of the quay wall play an important
role for port usability, which prevents damage on both vessels and
port structures induced by impacts and friction during berthing. In
accordance with the 2018 revision of the ‘Special Act on Safety and
Maintenance of Facilities' in Korea, fender damage and absence
should be inspected and evaluated in the section of serviceability
performance evaluation (Ministry of Land, Infrastructure and
Transport, 2018). Fender generally consists of the body part and
the attached equipment. There are various types of damage
depending on the types of fenders, such as crack, delamination,
permanent strain, chipping, ozone cracking, and bolt hole damage.
In the serviceability evaluation, each damage on the fender is
categorized, and the length and area are measured, respectively.
Then, the degree of functional deterioration is determined ac-
cording to the fender inspection manual (Ministry of Oceans and
Fisheries, 2015 & 2018). Periodic inspections for fenders provide

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijnaoe.2022.100472
2092-6782/© 2022 Society of Naval Architects of Korea. Production and hosting by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
B. Yu, H. Jeon, H. Bang et al.
safe, low-maintenance, and long-lasting fender systems, leading to
high port efficiency, longer operational lifespan, and low overall
maintenance cost. At present, a human-based visual inspection is
classically performed. Inspectors on the floating boat approach the
target fender, check the fender condition, classify and measure
fender damage, and record damage length and area, bolt loosening
condition, etc. according to the fender inspection manual. Exam-
ples of fender damage are shown in Fig. 1.
As inspection techniques have been refined, the demand for use
of unmanned vehicles such as USV (unmanned surface vehicle) and
UAV (unmanned aerial vehicle) is increasing due to the complexity
of the fender replacement process and cost, the high frequency of
damage occurrence during berthing, and difficulties in land access.
Meanwhile, the Ministry of Oceans and Fisheries in Korea
announced the ' Smart Maintenance Roadmap 2020 for Port Facil-
ities' for introducing an innovative technology in the era of the
Fourth Industrial Revolution into the port infrastructures field
(Ministry of Oceans and Fisheries, 2020). Here, drone-utilized in-
spection was included as one of top ten in technology of the future.
Drones have potential to automate and upgrade the inspection
technique level for port facilities, especially the side of the main
body where inspectors cannot approach on land. So far, there has
been no research on image-based automation for the inspection
and maintenance of fender facilities. There have only been a few
studies related to the development of sensing and piercing aids for
fender facilities. Sakakibara and Kubo (2007) developed a system
that can assist berthing ships by attaching a pneumatic sensor to
the fender facility, which transmits data wirelessly to the ship.
Yamada et al. (2012) also developed a technology capable of
measuring changes in air pressure, which transmits the data
wirelessly to assist ship berthing. However, these did not directly
consider the structural health monitoring and diagnosis of the
fender system even the image-based deep learning technology.
This study aims to first develop a segmentation algorithm with
deep learning techniques that can automatically detect fenders
among numerous images obtained from vision sensors equipped in
UAV or USV. After this fender segmentation study, it can move
forward for damage extraction and quantization through the
follow-up research. In this study, the fender segmentation algo-
rithm is developed as follows: (1) Images of various types of fenders
are collected. (2) Data augmentation is performed to improve the
performance of the deep learning model through elastic distortion,
horizontal transformation, color correction, and geometric (affine)
transformation. (3) Pixel unit labeling for fenders is carried out on
each image. (4) A deep learning model is developed to improve the
encoderedecoder format and the receptive field block convolution
module which is inspired by the eccentric function of the human
visual system for efficient object segmentation. (5) The accuracy of
the developed model is evaluated with the drone images obtained
in an A-port, Incheon, Korea. It is noted that most port facilities in
Korea are included in the security area so there are limitations in
providing specific information related to the port.
Fig. 1. Examples of fender damage.
2
International Journal of Naval Architecture and Ocean Engineering 14 (2022) 100472
2. Development of deep learning model for fender
segmentation
2.1. Deep learning for object detection or instance segmentation
Recently, in the field of computer vision, object detection
methods for identification and localization have been developed
rapidly with the development of deep learning. Convolutional
Neural Networks (CNNs) which extract features using convolution
operations and down sampling play a major role in deep learning
for object recognition and detection problems. The various features
are extracted using different types of filters in each layer, and
learning errors can be reduced by combining the results. But it
checks all parts of an image at regular intervals to find a Region of
Interest (RoI) so the object detection using CNN requires a large
amount of computation. To solve this, region-based CNNs (RCNNs),
which include an algorithm that proposes a RoI in an image based
on detected regions, were proposed (Girshick et al., 2014). This
method also requires extensive computation because CNN opera-
tions are performed for all the extracted candidate regions. Next, a
fast RCNN was developed (Girshick, 2015). This extracts a feature
map by passing the entire image through a CNN architecture. The
RoI pooling is performed for each RoI that is found through the
selective search algorithm with the previously extracted feature
map. A fast RCNN reduced the initial computation cost, but still had
high computational complexity. Therefore, a faster RCNN was
proposed. This method extracts candidate regions by adding
Regional Proposal Networks (RPNs) that extract candidate regions
from feature-extracted images through CNN, and performs object
detection and classification (Ren et al., 2015).
For real-time detection, you only look once (YOLO) and single
shot multibox detector (SSD) were proposed where both RoI
detection and object classification are performed in one layer. The
YOLO divides the input image into grids of a certain size, detects
RoIs for each grid, and detects objects of interest in the feature map
of the last layer (Redmon et al., 2016). In order to achieve better
performance, SSD combines multi-scale feature maps with
different resolutions to detect large objects in the low-resolution
feature maps of the deep layers, and small objects in the high-
resolution feature maps of the shallow layers (Liu et al., 2016).
In addition to object detection, many studies have investigated
instance segmentation, where objects in an image are detected at
pixel level. The mask RCNN technique was proposed to predict an
object mask subdivided into pixels based on information obtained
using the RPN of Faster RCNN (He et al., 2017). Long et al. (2015)
developed an approach to image segmentation called a Fully Con-
volutional Network (FCN) that extracts image features from a single
network using an encoder, simplifies the image, then uses a
decoder to restore the image to its original size. U-net adds an
operation to transmit encoder image information to the decoder at
the same stage as the FCN encoder to deliver context information
related to the entire image during segmentation (Ronneberger
B. Yu, H. Jeon, H. Bang et al.
et al., 2015). For pixel-level detection of the fenders, in this paper, a
segmentation network in the encoder-decoder format with densely
connected receptive field blocks have been developed.
2.2. Development of deep learning network for fender segmentation
For deep learning-based fender segmentation, the
encoderedecoder format network with the Receptive Field Block
(RFB) convolution module, inspired by the eccentric function of the
human visual system, has been developed (Liu and Huang, 2018). In
order to efficiently search a wide area, the standard convolution
with various kernel sizes and dilated convolution with two
different dilation rates proportional to the kernel sizes are densely
connected in a pyramid form. The proposed method is named
Densely connected Receptive Field Pyramid (DRFP) or tiny version
of DRFP (DRFPt), in this paper. To reduce the computational
complexity, the channel modulation layer which reduces the pa-
rameters of the entire network by reducing the channels of the
input feature map has been applied. The network is summing
features extracted from various size convolutions and adding Hi-
erarchical Feature Fusion (HFF) to the last output layer for degrid-
ding (Simonyan and Zisserman, 2015; Wang et al., 2019). DRFP
provides abundant spatial information by combining all features of
various sizes extracted by two dilated convolutions, and it allows
the network to properly classify pixel classes in various external
backgrounds through multiple path configurations. The proposed
DRFP can be expressed through the following equations:
X h sn  oi
DRFP ¼ tsk dk d12$ðp==2Þþ1 d11 ðxÞ ; if p ¼ 1; k ¼ 1 ; else k
p or Q2, E2) for reducing the computational complexity. Since the
¼ 3a
(1)
Fig. 2. Deep learning network for fender detection.
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International Journal of Naval Architecture and Ocean Engineering 14 (2022) 100472
X
tsk ðxÞ ¼ xiþs$k $wk (2)
k

dsk ðxÞ ¼ tsk ðxÞx (3)
s ¼ 2ðjp  2j = = 2Þ þ 1 (4)
where the input feature map and branch in the RFP are x and p,
respectively; k is the kernel size; s is the dilation rate; and w is the
weight of the convolution filter. The//and || operators are quotient
and concatenation operators, respectively.
The overall structure of the deep learning network for seg-
mentation of fender images is shown in Fig. 2. As shown in the
figure, the encoderedecoder structure reduces and increases the
size of the feature map using the stride convolution modules and
pixel shuffle, respectively. The upper part of the figure shows the
encoder, and the lower part shows the decoder. The network pro-
posed in this study provides high accuracy through (1) an upsam-
pling method that does not lose information at boundaries, (2) HFF
that eliminates the gridding artifact, (3) densely connected feature
maps, and (4) a convolution module with various sizes of kernels.
The convolution modules at each stage are represented in Fig. 3. In
the figure, gray boxes and arrows in solid lines are newly added
convolution modules and dense connections, respectively, in the
proposed model in comparison with the conventional RFB. As
shown in the figure, features of various sizes are extracted using
two dilated convolutions with different dilation rates densely
connected with a standard convolution. DRFPt, which searches a
relatively narrow area, is used for small-size feature maps (Q1, E1,
original image consists of a limited number of channels, a front
layer (W1) that warms up the network has been added in the front.
After extending the number of channels to more than eight or six,
DRFP or DRFPt can be applied, respectively.
B. Yu, H. Jeon, H. Bang et al. International Journal of Naval Architecture and Ocean Engineering 14 (2022) 100472

Fig. 3. Convolution modules (DRFP and DRFPt) for fender detection.

3. Performance evaluation of fender segmentation network
3.1. Construction of fender image dataset
The proposed fender segmentation algorithm uses supervised
learning, in which learning data are composed of input and output
images, and based on this, network parameters are trained. An
output image is constructed by labeling the original image as
shown in Fig. 4. The original images were labeled at the pixel level
using Adobe photoshop. In addition, the data set was augmented by
applying elastic distortion, horizontal flip, color correction, and
affine transformations to improve segmentation performance (see
Fig. 5). During the geometric transformation of an image, bilinear
interpolation was applied to reduce step phenomena at the image
boundary, which may occur in the nearest neighbor interpolation.
In total, 1047 images of BP$V-, tire-, cylinder-, and panel-type
fenders were collected and labeled. Of the images, there are 510
images of BP- and V-type fenders, 362 images of tire-type fenders,
120 images of cell-type fenders, 33 images of cylinder-type fenders,
and 22 images of other type fenders such as roller-type and rubber-
ladder fenders. Of the original and labeled images, 209 (20% of the
total) were used as test data for performance evaluation. The
augmented images were generated by applying elastic distortion,
horizontal flip, color correction, and affine transformation methods
to the remaining 838 images. This provided a total of 4190 training
images.

Fig. 4. Labeling of different types of fender images (BP, tire, and cylindrical): (a) original images, and (b) labeled images (ground truth).

4
B. Yu, H. Jeon, H. Bang et al.
Fig. 5. Image augmentation with (a) elastic distortion, (b) horizontal flip, (c) color jitter, and (d) affine transform.
3.2. Performance of the segmentation network: encoderedecoder
with DRFP and DRFPt
The segmentation results are expressed in terms of the inter-
section over union (IoU), F1 score, precision, recall, GMAC, and
runtime. The IoU is an index frequently used for instance seg-
mentation and is defined as the ratio between the area of overlap
between the ground truth and predicted mask, and the total area
occupied by them; the F1 score is the harmonic mean of precision
and recall; the precision is the ratio of actual fenders among pixels
classified as fenders; and the recall is the ratio of pixels that the
model predicts to be fenders among actual masks of fenders. For
the verification, Pytorch was used as a deep learning framework for
model building, and training and testing were conducted using a
workstation equipped with Intel's Core i7-11800H 4.60 GHz CPU,
32 GB RAM, and Nvidia's GeForce RTX 3080 GPU. The batch size for
training the model was set to 3, and the epoch for learning the
entire data was set to 500.
With a dataset of 1047 images, the IoU, F1 score, precision, and
recall were 85.0%, 90.6%, 90.9%, and 91.4%, respectively (see
Table 1). Samples of segmentation results were shown in Fig. 6. The
computational complexity of each network was calculated by
computing the number of giga multiply and accumulate (GMAC)
operations. As shown in the table, the GMAC of the proposed
method dropped to 2.95 showing the best performance in fender
segmentation. The proposed DRFP- and DRFPt-based
encoderedecoder type deep learning network precisely detected
various types of fenders such as BP-, tire-, and cell-type fenders. The
performance for BP$V- and tire-type fenders, which accounted for
48% and 37% of the total images, respectively, showed the best
results.
To verify the performance of the proposed deep learning
network, conventional RFB and state-of-the art image segmenta-
tion models such as U-net and DeepLab v3 networks were applied
to the same dataset. U-net is a network that preserves the border
region by directly connecting the encoder and decoder symmetri-
cally through transposed-convolution (Ronneberger et al., 2015).
DeepLab v3 is a network that learns multi-scale context as a pyr-
amid in which dilation rates are applied differently to several
Table 1
Performance of the proposed method compared to conventional methods. Best scores are highlighted in bold.
IoU (%) F1 Score (%)
Proposed Method 85.0 90.6
Conventional RFB 84.0 89.9
U-net (VGG16) 81.5 88.1
DeepLab v3 (Res50) 83.6 89.8
International Journal of Naval Architecture and Ocean Engineering 14 (2022) 100472
convolutions (Chen et al., 2017, 2018; Takahashi and Mitsufuji,
2021). These networks have been widely used in the real-time
image segmentation by increasing the receptive field without
increasing computational cost. The performance of conventional
RFB, U-net, and DeepLab v3 was also shown in Table 1 and
Fig. 6(d) ~ Fig. 6(f). The results confirmed that the proposed method
segmented various types of fenders with higher IoU, F1 score, and
precision; also with less computational complexity. The recall value
of the proposed method was the same as that of DeepLab v3.
4. Field validation of the proposed model for fender
segmentation
4.1. Image data acquisition using an Unmanned Aerial Vehicle
(UAV)
To monitor the structural condition or the environment, various
types of UAVs incorporating the deep learning segmentation
methods have been proposed (Kerkech et al., 2020; Yang et al.,
2020; Boonpook et al., 2021). In the case of fender systems
installed on the side walls of quays, docks, wharfs, etc., they are
located in areas inaccessible on land so their inspections and
maintenance are generally conducted by inspectors on a boat. Thus,
UAVs have clear advantages when inspecting the condition and
serviceability of fenders.
This study utilized a specially modified UAV system, developed
by SISTECH Inc. in Korea, to obtain stable and consistent high-
resolution structural surface images including fenders. This UAV
is equipped with a flight controller, gimbal with motor, Radio
Control (RC) receiver, Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS)
module, Long-Term Evolution (LTE) module, battery, and mirrorless
camera (see Fig. 7(a)). In particular, it was designed to withstand
harsh marine environments including the high wind speed and the
tide level. It could maintain a set distance from a target structure
using the laser displacement sensor and a set height above sea level
(negative flight altitude) based on tide level information so it could
not crash into the water. It weighed 4.55 kg, had a 1 kg payload
capacity, and operated automatically over 30 min for aerial
photography. Fig. 7(b) shows the drone flying near a berthing
Precision (%) Recall (%) GMAC Runtime (s/frame)
90.9 91.4 2.95 0.024
90.8 90.1 3.29 0.012
88.1 89.4 20.88 0.024
89.6 91.4 16.40 0.019
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B. Yu, H. Jeon, H. Bang et al. International Journal of Naval Architecture and Ocean Engineering 14 (2022) 100472

Fig. 6. Performance of the proposed segmentation method compared to conventional methods: (a) original images; (b) labeled images (ground truth); and segmentation results
using (c) proposed method, (d) conventional RFB, (e) U-net, and (f) Deeplab v3.

structure. It is noted that, in the field validation, the FOV and the
resolution of the camera were 77 and 5280  3956 pixels,
respectively, and it recognized the object size of 1.4 mm at a set
distance of 7 m from the target.
The target structure in this study has two types of fenders: (1)
conventional BP-type and (2) panel-type fenders with a resin pad.
In Korean ports, BP-type fenders are usually installed at berthing
structures for 10,000e50,000 deadweight tonnage (DWT), and
panel type fenders with a resin pad are preferred for those over
50,000 DWT (Ministry of Oceans and Fisheries, 2022).
4.2. Fender segmentation using the proposed deep learning model
A total of 384 images of BP-type fenders and 482 images of
panel-type fenders with a resin pad were acquired in four different
ports in Korea (Incheon, Pohang, Gunsan, and Jeju) and through

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B. Yu, H. Jeon, H. Bang et al. International Journal of Naval Architecture and Ocean Engineering 14 (2022) 100472

Fig. 7. Details of the UAV: (a) composition, and (b) in-flight near a target structure.

Fig. 8. Experimental results for BP-type fenders: (a) original images, (b) labeled images (ground truth), and (c) fender segmentation images.

web crawling to train the proposed deep-learning segmentation
model. And then augmented images were generated by applying
elastic distortion, horizontal flip, color correction, and affine
transformation methods to the training dataset. In total, 1920 im-
ages of BP-type fenders, and 2410 images of panel-type fenders
were used to train the model. As in Section 3.2, Pytorch was used as
a deep learning framework for model building, and training and
testing were conducted using a workstation with the same speci-
fications as described in Session 3.2. The batch size for training the
model was set to 3, and the epoch for learning the entire data was
set to 500.
The proposed DRFP- and DRFPt-based encoderedecoder type
deep learning network was applied to the field validation. Samples
of original images, labeled images, and segmented results through
the proposed method are shown in Fig. 8 and Fig. 9, respectively.
The segmentation performance was also evaluated by calculating
the IoU, F1 score, precision, recall, and runtime, as shown in Table 2.
The proposed model successfully detected fenders with high ac-
curacy despite changes in the shape and color caused by barnacles
(see Fig. 8). Even the fenders were stably segmented in all the
images taken from various angles, as shown in the results for panel-
type fenders (see Fig. 9).

7
B. Yu, H. Jeon, H. Bang et al.
Fig. 9. Experimental results for panel-type fenders: (a) original images, (b) labeled images (ground truth), and (c) fender segmentation images.
Table 2
Performance evaluations with two different types of fenders.
Fender Type IoU (%) F1 Score (%)
BP-type 91.0 95.0
Panel-type 88.9 94.0
5. Conclusions
In this study, a semantic segmentation model in an encoder-
decoder framework with densely connected receptive field block
convolution modules was proposed for fender detection at pixel
level. The channel modulation layer, convolution modules with
various sizes of the kernels, two different dilation rates, and a
densely connected network enable the extraction of fenders with
fewer computing complexity. Moreover, an up-sampling method
helps not to lose information at the boundaries.
To verify the performance of the proposed model, 838 fender
images (80% of the original 1047 images) were augmented to
generate a training set containing 4190 images. The remaining 209
images (20% of the original images) were used to test the model.
The proposed model segmented the fenders with the IoU and F1
score of 85% and 90%, respectively, and showed an excellent per-
formance compared to the conventional RFB, U-net, and DeepLab
v3.
To examine the field applicability of the proposed model, images
of two types of fenders (BP-type and panel-type with a resin pad)
were captured by utilizing a UAV. The UAV was specially designed
to withstand the harsh marine environment including high winds
and tides. The final segmentation results indicated that the pro-
posed deep learning network reliably detected the fenders, despite
changes in the color or shape caused by the tide. Furthermore, the
proposed model could detect fenders in images taken from various
angles, with IoU and F1 scores exceeding 88%.
In the future, we plan to upgrade to an image-based fender
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International Journal of Naval Architecture and Ocean Engineering 14 (2022) 100472
Precision (%) Recall (%) Runtime (s/frame)
94.2 96.1 0.026
90.6 97.9 0.024
health evaluation system that can detect damage such as missing
sections or cracks from the segmented images and calculate a
damage index. The images of fenders are captured by using a UAV
or USV, and the deep learning network detects fenders robust to
environmental changes. Afterwards, the damage is estimated
quantitatively from the detected fender. Through this process, the
fender serviceability can be automatically evaluated, securing the
safety of inspectors on the boat and reducing the time cost in the
field.
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare the following financial interests/personal
relationships which may be considered as potential competing
interests: Jiyoung Min reports financial support was provided by
Korea Ministry of Trade, Industry, & Energy. Jiyoung Min reports
financial support was provided by Korea Ministry of Oceans and
Fisheries.
Acknowledgments
This work was co-supported by (1) the Technology Innovation
Program (Drone Application Service Market Creation Support, No.
20011780) funded by the Ministry of Trade, Industry, & Energy,
Korea; and (2) the project titled “Development of smart mainte-
nance monitoring techniques to prepare for disaster and deterio-
ration of port infra structures” (No. 20210659) funded by the
Ministry of Oceans and Fisheries, Korea.
B. Yu, H. Jeon, H. Bang et al.
The authors give special thanks to Incheon Port Authority (IPA)
for their cooperation, and J. Kim, N. Baek, and N. Kim from the
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Hanbat Na-
tional University, for their support with image dataset construction
and labeling.
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