International Journal of Naval Architecture and Ocean Engineering 14 (2022) 100460

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International Journal of Naval Architecture and Ocean Engineering

journal homepage: http://www.journals.elsevier.com/
international-journal-of-naval-architecture-and-ocean-engineering/

Computational analysis of welding radial deformation of typical

pressure cylindrical shell with ring stiffener
Hong Zhou a, Chaonan Shen b, Jiangchao Wang b, c, *
a
School of Naval Architecture and Ocean Engineering, Jiangsu University of Science and Technology, Zhenjiang, China
b
School of Naval Architecture and Ocean Engineering, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
c
Collaborative Innovation Center for Advanced Ship and Deep-Sea Exploration, Shanghai, China

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: We report on the evaluation of the radial deformation caused by the welding process on a typical
Received 27 January 2022 pressure cylindrical shell with ring stiffeners. Welding experiments on butt and fillet welding were
Received in revised form conducted beforehand, and temperature-dependent material properties were considered. The out-of-
13 May 2022
plane welding distortion and residual stress were measured using a three-coordinate measuring ma-
Accepted 14 May 2022
Available online 19 May 2022
chine and X-ray diffraction, respectively. Effective thermal elastic plastic FE analysis based on parallel
computation technology was performed to examine the mechanical behaviors. Computed results were
validated by comparison with experimental measurements. Welding inherent deformations of the
Keywords:
Pressure cylindrical shell
examined butt and fillet joints were then evaluated by integrating computed plastic strains. The elastic
Welding radial deformation FE analysis, with welding inherent deformation as mechanical loading, was employed to examine the
Effective TEP FE computation dimensional variation of the considered pressure cylindrical shell. The influence of ring stiffener on
Welding inherent deformation welding radial deformation was also discussed. Moreover, the application of welding sequence modifi-
Welding sequence modification cation and inverse deformation was numerically examined with the proposed elastic FE analysis to
Inverse deformation reduce the welding radial deformation and enhance the fabrication accuracy.
© 2022 Society of Naval Architects of Korea. Production and hosting by Elsevier B.V. This is an open
access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).

1. Introduction performance. The mitigation of welding-induced distortion has

A pressure cylindrical shell with ring stiffeners is a steel struc-
ture usually employed as a submersible vehicle owing to its
excellent pressure resistance ability in deep-water environment
(Baruch and Singer, 1963; Yamamoto et al., 1989). Based on the
required mechanical strength and precise equipment application
with its inner narrow space, fabrication accuracy plays an essential
role in its practical performance during its entire service life.
In actual fabrication, welding is used as the dominant joining
technique to assemble individual pieces. Welding distortions such
as in-plane shrinkage and out-of-plane bending are inevitably
generated. In particular, the welding radial deformation of the
pressure cylindrical shell significantly influences the appearance
shape and dimensional size in the view of the cross-section, which
further influences the mechanical strength and hydrodynamic
* Corresponding author. School of Naval Architecture and Ocean Engineering,
Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China.
E-mail addresses: WangJiangchaocn@gmail.com, WJccn@hust.edu.cn (J. Wang).
Peer review under responsibility of The Society of Naval Architects of Korea.
already become an important research topic and engineering
problem during the fabrication of complex welded structures. In
fact, it is better to examine the potential welding-induced distor-
tion prior to the actual fabrication (Wang et al., 2013, 2017; Zhou
et al., 2021). Presently, the representation and prediction of
welding-induced distortion, analysis of the generation mechanism,
and proposal of a practical approach with computational investi-
gation as features of advanced manufacturing are more or less
applied for the accurate fabrication of complex welded structures
such as examined pressure cylindrical shells with ring stiffeners.
To date, many studies on the mechanical performance of pres-
sure cylindrical shells with ring stiffeners using experimental tests
and computational analyses have already been proposed. In
particular, the influence of welding, as well as the generated
welding distortion, on the dimensional profile of a pressure cylin-
drical shell with ring stiffeners was examined. Wang and Koizumi
(2010) investigated the buckling behavior of cylindrical shells
with longitudinal welding joints through experimental and nu-
merical analyses. In addition, they examined the flexural rigidity of
welding joints and imperfections influence their buckling

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijnaoe.2022.100460
2092-6782/© 2022 Society of Naval Architects of Korea. Production and hosting by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
H. Zhou, C. Shen and J. Wang
performance. Brabin et al. (2010) concentrated on the circumfer-
ential welding joints of cylindrical pressure vessels, and a finite
element analysis was carried out to examine the influence of
misalignment during girth welding on dimensional accuracy.
Rastgar and Showkati (2018) pointed out that geometrical imper-
fections generated by vertical welding lines have a direct impact on
the structural behavior of cylindrical steel tanks under external
compressive loading.
Owing to the significant influence of the welding process and its
generated distortion on the dimensional accuracy of the pressure
cylindrical shell with ring stiffeners, the measurement of welding
distortion and its prediction using a computational approach were
examined. Moshaiov and Song (1991) developed a simple model to
describe the deformation of a ring stiffener under welding, with
applications to submarine hulls. Their work is based on the reali-
zation that only a small part of the structure near the welding arc
undergoes high-temperature changes, and thus behaves thermo-
elastic-plastically, whereas the rest of the structure is elastic in
nature. Brown and Song (Brown and Song (1992) employed both
two- and three-dimensional finite element models of a circular
cylinder and stiffening ring structure, and examined the effects of
variations in weld gap clearance, fixture positions, and fixture types
on residual stress states and distortion. Josefson et al. (1996) pro-
posed a fast and simple method for the determination of the re-
sidual deformation for a class of welding problems, ring-stiffened
pipes, which can predict the radial and angular distortions of thin-
walled pipe-ring-stiffeners and flange assemblies. Rasti et al. (2016)
developed a comprehensive simulation tool to predict distortions
and residual stresses generated by a fillet-welded stiffener ring on
an aluminum cylinder whereas ring-type stiffeners were welded to
cylindrical pressure vessels under hydrostatic pressure.
With the aforementioned literature, welding distortion of
pressure cylindrical shell with ring stiffeners have already been
examined. However, mitigation practices of welding distortion and
modification of their processing parameters are still not clearly
investigated. The prediction and mitigation of welding radial
deformation were considered during the assembly and fabrication
of the examined pressure cylindrical shell with ring stiffeners.
Typical butt and fillet welded joints and their corresponding
welding conditions were summarized beforehand, and welding
experiments were performed by measuring the thermal cycles. In
addition, the out-of-plane welding distortion, residual stress, and
macroscopic metallography of the welded joints were measured
using individual advanced equipment. Then, thermal
elasticeplastic FE computation was carried out to represent ther-
mal and mechanical responses during welding of the examined
welded joints. Computed results were in good agreement with
previous measurements. Computed residual plastic strains, after
cooling, were employed to evaluate the welding inherent defor-
mation, which is considered the basic cause of welding distortion.
Eventually, elastic FE analysis with welding inherent deformation
as mechanical loading was carried out to predict the radial defor-
mation of the pressure cylindrical shell with ring stiffeners, and the
influence of ring stiffeners on welding radial deformation was
examined. Moreover, mitigation practices, such as modification of
the welding sequence and application of inverse deformation, were
numerically investigated, both of which have a significant effect on
reducing the welding radial deformation.
2. Measured and computed approaches
To investigate the mechanical response during welding, the
welding distortion and residual stress of typical welded joints must
be measured using advanced equipment. Meanwhile, finite
element analysis is lower cost and highly efficient alternative
2
International Journal of Naval Architecture and Ocean Engineering 14 (2022) 100460
approach, which has often been employed to examine typical
welded joints for the validation of computational parameters and
to predict welding distortion of complex welded structures such as
pressure cylindrical shells with ring stiffeners. Approaches for the
measurement and FE computation are introduced as follows:
2.1. Welding distortion measurement with CMM
A Coordinate Measuring Machine (CMM) is an advanced touch
measurement approach with high precision and is usually
employed to obtain out-of-plane welding distortion, which is based
on the measurement of coordinates (Hocken and Pereira, 2012). A
Coordinate Measuring Machine (CMM) is used to measure the ge-
ometry of the examined structure by sensing discrete points on its
surface with a mechanical probe, which moves along the orthog-
onal X, Y, and Z axes in a three-dimensional Cartesian coordinate
system. As a result, a Coordinate Measuring Machine (CMM)
eventually supports a point cloud to describe the geometrical
characteristics of the measured surface, whereas this point cloud
has regular distance and topological features.
2.2. Residual stress measurement with XRD
The X-ray Diffraction (XRD) approach is a non-destructive
practical measurement of welding residual stress with an actual
welded structure (Schajer, 2013; Noyan and Cohen, 2013). In gen-
eral, positions of the welded joint for residual stress measurement
should be polished with a grinding wheel and abrasive paper to
clear the rust in advance, and then an electrochemical corrosion
process should be carried out to remove the influence of mechan-
ical treatment on the surface stress.
In XRD, X-rays are generated from different angles to the surface
position of the welded joint and receive the diffractive X-ray with a
diffraction pattern, k atomic separation is considered as an X-ray
diffraction grating.
Bragg's law, expressed in Eq. (1), explains the relationship be-
tween the atomic separation and angle of incidence, using which a
perfect diffraction peak can clearly be obtained. Using the
measured atomic separation, the magnitude of the residual stress
can be computed with respect to the equilibrium state of the atoms.
2d
sin q ¼ nl (1)
Fig. 1. Sideview of considered pressure cylindrical shell with ring stiffener.
H. Zhou, C. Shen and J. Wang International Journal of Naval Architecture and Ocean Engineering 14 (2022) 100460

2.3. Thermal elastic plastic FE analysis

Thermal Elastic Plastic (TEP) FE analysis is typically employed to

examine the temperature profile, residual stress, and welding
distortion of welded joints. In general, there are two uncoupled
thermal and mechanical processes during the entire welding pro-
cess, which are sequentially considered by computational analysis
(Wang et al., 2014; Ma et al., 2016). The transient temperature
distribution is computed with thermal analysis in advance,
whereas heat transfer, such as heat conduction, convection, and
radiation, is examined by considering the boundary of the heat flux.
This temperature profile is then applied as the t 2d
sinq ¼ nl
hermal loading for later mechanical analysis, while considering the
contribution of the transient temperature field to the mechanical
response through thermal expansion, as well as other temperature-
dependent material properties.
In addition, a body heat source with practical features, and
without loss of accuracy, is usually employed to model the welding
arc. Its heat density is determined by the welding condition as well
as the heat efficiency of the welding method. The ambient tem-
perature is usually assumed to be room temperature, and the
interpass temperature of the welding bead is set according to the
Welding Procedure Specification (WPS). Moreover, the birth and
death technique is considered to represent the behavior of multi-
pass welding. Elements of the current welding bead are activated
and other elements of the unwelded bead are all dormant.
For mechanical analysis, rigid body motion is fixed as a
boundary condition to examine the elasticeplastic behavior due to
local heating, whereas the expansion with heating and contraction
with cooling of the welding bead is constrained by the surrounding
base material. Moreover, advanced techniques such as the Iterative
Substructure Method (ISM) (Maekawa et al., 2015) and parallel
computation with OpenMP (Zhou et al., 2020a; Wang and Yi, 2020)
are applied to enhance the computational efficiency during weld-
ing simulations.

2.4. Elastic FE analysis with inherent deformation

Owing to numerous thermal elasticeplastic FE analyses and

experimental observations, Ueda et al. (2012) pointed out that
welding inherent strain is the primary cause of residual stress and
welding distortion. This mostly depends on the type of the welded
joint, material properties, plate thickness, and heat input. The
welding inherent strain includes all strain components except
Fig. 2. Material thermal and mechanical properties of employed HTSS.
elastic strain, which is defined as a summation of the plastic strain,
thermal strain, creep strain, and that caused by the phase trans-
Table 1 formation, as given by Eq. (2). Moreover, the welding inherent
Typical welded joints in the considered pressure cylindrical shell. strain can be directly replaced by plastic strain because strains
induced by creep and solid-state phase transformation are much
Number of Welded Joint B1 T1 T2
smaller, and thermal strain disappears when the temperature de-
Joining Form Butt Welding Fillet Welding Fillet Welding
creases to ambient temperature.
Groove Design X Shape K Shape K Shape
Plate Thickness (mm) 45 Both 45 Both 24 (Web Plate)
45 (Flange Plate) Еinherent ¼ εthermal þ εphase þ εplastic þ εcreep (2)
Materials HTSS with 700 MPa of yield stress
The complex distribution of the inherent strain perpendicular to
the welding line limits its engineering application. An inherent
deformation is then proposed (Wang et al., 2017), which is defined
where d means the atomic separation, l is the wavelength of the X-
as the integration of all inherent strains on each cross section,
ray, and q is the angle between the X-ray and the crystallographic
normal to the welding line, as given in Eq. (3). The influence of the
planes.
length and width of a welded joint on the magnitude of the welding
inherent deformation along the welding line can be neglected

3
H. Zhou, C. Shen and J. Wang International Journal of Naval Architecture and Ocean Engineering 14 (2022) 100460

Fig. 3. Groove design of butt and fillet welding.

Table 2
Chemical compositions of welding wires (wt%).

C Mn Si P Cr Ni Cu

JQ-TG50 0.081 1.48 0.93 0.014 0.026 0.02 0.17

FRW-501 0.048 1.22 0.43 0.01 0.021 0.009 0.012

Table 3
Mechanical properties of welding wires.

Yield Strength (MPa) Ultimate Strength (MPa) Elongation (%)

JQ-TG50 451 553 30

FRW-501 525 580 26

when the plate size is sufficiently large. Components of welding

inherent deformation can be considered as constant values (Wang,
2019).


1 12 h *
d*x ¼ ∬ ε*x dydz q*x ¼ ∬ z  ε dydz
h h3 2 x

 ; (3)
1 12 h
d*y ¼ ∬ ε*y dydz q*y ¼ 3 ∬ z  ε*y dydz
Fig. 4. Geometrical dimension of examined butt welded joint. h h 2

where ε*x and ε*y are the welding inherent strains in the longitudinal
and transverse directions, respectively. d*x and d*y are the inherent
shrinkage deformations in the longitudinal and transverse di-
* *
rections, respectively. qx and qy are the inherent bending de-
formations in the longitudinal and transverse directions,
respectively. h is the thickness of the welded joint, and x, y, z are the
welding, transverse, and thickness directions, respectively.
Based on the aforementioned theory, a customized code for
elastic FE analysis with welding inherent deformation was pro-
posed as an ideal and practical computational approach for the
prediction complex welded structures welding distortion without a
significant loss of computational accuracy (Murakawa et al., 2012).
In this elastic FE analysis, were applied welding inherent de-
formations with constant values to the welding lines in shell
element models of welded structures. These deformations values
corresponded to typical welded joints as mechanical loading
(shrinkage force, displacement, and bending moment) (Wang et al.,
2015, 2018). Moreover, the interaction between parts of the
Fig. 5. Arrangement of welding passes of butt welded joint.
examined complex structures to be welded together during elastic
FE analysis is investigated by interface elements, which are
assumed to be nonlinear springs arranged between the parts. In
particular, the bonding strength, gaps, and misalignments that arise
4
H. Zhou, C. Shen and J. Wang International Journal of Naval Architecture and Ocean Engineering 14 (2022) 100460

Table 4
Welding conditions and their corresponding heat input.

Velocity (mm/s) Current (A) Voltage (V) Heat Input (J/mm)

Root Welding 0.59 124.0 24.0 5055.1

~143.0 ~25.0 ~6059.3
Filler Welding 2.02 160.0 27.0 1297.3
~3.33 ~183.0 ~28.5 ~2581.9
Cap Welding 2.02 160.0 26.8 1764.6
~2.43 ~180.0 ~28.5 ~2539.6

Fig. 6. Locations of thermocouples.

during different assembly processes are considered by controlling

the stiffness and deformation of the interface element.

3. Welding experiment and measurement

The considered pressure cylindrical shell with a ring stiffener, as

shown in Fig. 1 will be fabricated as a single-body shell by means of
a welding experiment. The thickness of the shell was 45 mm, and
the material was high tensile strength steel (HTSS) with 700 MPa
yield stress, whereas its temperature-dependent material proper-
ties were supplied by the manufacturer, as illustrated in Fig. 2. Fig. 1
shows that the length of the considered pressure cylindrical shell in
the axial direction is approximately 4600 mm, the radii of ring
stiffeners 1e6 are all 1500 mm, and the radii of ring stiffeners 0 and
7 are both 1400 mm. Meanwhile, there is a branch pipe at the top
Fig. 7. Macroscopic metallographic phase of examined butt welded joint.
region between ring stiffeners 2 and 5, with radius and height of
500 and 800 mm, respectively. Geometrical profiles of all ring
5
H. Zhou, C. Shen and J. Wang
Fig. 8. Geometrical configuration of examined fillet welded joint.
Fig. 9. Macroscopic metallographic phase of examined fillet welded joint.
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International Journal of Naval Architecture and Ocean Engineering 14 (2022) 100460
Fig. 10. Examined butt and fillet welded joints on platform for out-of-plane welding
distortion measurement.
stiffeners are 24 mm
200 mm for the web plate and
24 mm
100 mm for the face plate, which are marked with
numbers 1 to 7, as indicated in Fig. 1.
Moreover, there are nine steel plates and eight ring stiffeners in
the considered pressure cylindrical shell. The outer shell is
assembled by means of butt welding beforehand during actual
production, and the ring stiffeners are sequentially welded with the
outer shell together by means of fillet welding. The typical welded
joints of the considered pressure cylindrical shell with ring stiff-
eners are summarized in Table 1. They were determined by the
joining form, plate thickness, and groove design, as indicated in
Fig. 3.
Welded joints B1 and T1 were employed to fabricate an outer
H. Zhou, C. Shen and J. Wang International Journal of Naval Architecture and Ocean Engineering 14 (2022) 100460

Fig. 11. Contour of out-of-plane welding distortion based on measured points cloud.

Table 5
Parameters of PULSTEC m-X360s for welding residual stress measurement of
examined welded joints.

Target material Cr (chromium)

Crystal structure BCC

Young's modulus 224.000 GPa
Poisson's ratio 0.280
Diffraction plane 211 (aFe)
Lattice constant (a) 2.8664 A
Wavelength K-Alpha
Diffraction angle (2 Theta) 156.396
Diffraction lattice angle (2 Eta) 23.604
X-ray tube current 1.50 (mA)
X-ray tube voltage 30.00 (kV)

FE analysis.

3.1. Butt welding experiment

Fig. 12. Measurement of welding residual stress with PULSTEC m-X360s.
shell with a thickness of 45 mm. T2 was used when ring stiffeners
with a thickness of 24 mm were welded to the outer shell. Owing to
the much larger radius of the considered shell, flat welded joints
will be examined by means of experiments and FE computations
instead of girth welding procedures, and the corresponding weld-
ing inherent deformations will be evaluated for subsequent elastic
7
First, butt welding of the HTSS was designed and practiced with
a plate thickness of 45 mm. In addition, a weld groove with a
symmetrical X shape was employed, the angle of the weld groove
was 60 and the gap was approximately 4 mm, as shown in Fig. 4.
Two plates with a length of 400 mm, width of 150 mm, and
thickness of 45 mm were tack welded in advance, then fixed to a
welding platform with a vertical position and joined together with
full welding from the bottom to the top edge, as indicated in Fig. 4.
Owing to the 45 mm thickness, a multi-pass procedure was
employed, and there were 25 welding passes of three types: root
welding, filler welding, and cap welding, as shown in Fig. 5.
Root welding was performed by Tungsten Inert Gas (TIG) arc
welding, its shielding gas was pure Ar, and the filler wire was a JQ-
TG50 with a diameter of 2.4 mm. Meanwhile, Metal Active Gas
(MAG) arc welding was used for filler welding and cap welding; its
shielding gas was CO2 and the flux cord electrode was FRW-501
with a diameter of 1.2 mm. The chemical compositions and me-
chanical properties of both welding wires of JQ-TG50 and FRW-501
are summarized in Tables 2 and 3. The welding conditions for the
root welding, filler welding, and cap welding are summarized in
Table 4.
H. Zhou, C. Shen and J. Wang International Journal of Naval Architecture and Ocean Engineering 14 (2022) 100460

As shown in Fig. 5, welding was carried out simultaneously from

both sides of the welding groove with an X shape to improve the
welding efficiency and reduce the welding angular distortion.
Before actual welding, the whole butt-welded joint was preheated
to approximately 120e150  C with an electric blanket. The inner
temperature between each welding pass was fixed at approxi-
mately 150e200  C, and during Post-Welding Heat Treatment
(PWHT), the temperature of the whole butt-welded joint was held
at approximately 200e250  C for 2 h.
During the welding process, two K-type thermocouples were
employed to obtain the thermal cycles of the multi-pass welding.
As indicated in Fig. 6, the location of one thermocouple was from
the welding groove of 2 mm and from the welding end of 167 mm.
The location of the other thermocouple was from the welding
groove of 4 mm and from the welding end of 185 mm.
After cooling to room temperature, the butt-welded joint was
cut by wire-electrode cutting to obtain a metallographic phase
specimen of the welded zone with a width of 65 mm, height of
45 mm, and thickness of 15 mm, as shown in Fig. 7. After polishing
and corrosion with alcoholic reagent, the geometric shape of each
welding pass, as well as the dimensional size of the fusion zone of
the examined butt-welded joint, can be clearly observed (Fig. 7).

3.2. Fillet welding experiment

A fillet welding experiment was conducted. In fact, fillet welding

Fig. 13. Measured results of welding residual stress with PULSTEC m-X360s.
is usually employed to assemble different stiffeners on the skin
plate. As shown in Fig. 8, the thickness of both the web and flange
plates was 45 mm, a welding groove of type K with an angle of both
45 was employed, and the gap was approximately 4 mm.
Specifically, the web plate was tack welded with a flange plate in
advance, and a multi-pass welding process with root welding, filler
welding, and cap welding was performed during the fillet welding
experiment. Compared to the butt welding experiment, an identical
filler wire, welding approach, and welding conditions were

Fig. 14. Solid elements model of examined butt welded joint B1.

8
H. Zhou, C. Shen and J. Wang
Fig. 15. Computed results of thermal analysis of butt welded joint B1.
employed, whereas root welding was performed by tungsten inert
gas (TIG) arc welding with filler wire of JQ-TG50. Filler welding and
cap welding were carried out by Metal Active Gas (MAG) arc
welding with a flux cord electrode of FRW-501. Chemical compo-
sitions and mechanical properties of the welding wires, as well as
welding conditions for root welding, filler welding, and cap weld-
ing, are summarized in Table 2, 3, and 4, respectively.
Similar procedures of wire-electrode cutting, polishing, and
corrosion after cooling, as mentioned above, were sequentially
performed for the examined fillet welded joint to obtain its
metallographic phase specimen, as well as the geometric shape of
each welding pass and the dimensional size of the fusion zone, as
shown in Fig. 9.
3.3. Measurement of out-of-plane welding distortion
To evaluate the fabrication accuracy, the out-of-plane welding
distortion as well as the angular distortion of the examined butt
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International Journal of Naval Architecture and Ocean Engineering 14 (2022) 100460
and fillet welded joints were measured using a three-Coordinate
Measuring Machine (CMM) (Zhou et al., 2020b). As shown in
Fig. 10, both the butt and fillet welded joints were fixed on a
working platform. A CMM with a measuring precision of 0.1 mm was
employed to obtain the deformed shape by sensing discrete points
on the surface of the examined welded joints with a probe.
Measured point clouds with coordinates, which have a regular
distance and topological features can then be used to establish the
out-of-plane welding distortion with numerical algorithms and
graphic visualization, as shown in Fig. 11.
3.4. Measurement of welding residual stress
Welding residual stress, as an essential welding mechanical
response, can be measured using different approaches such as the
blind hole and XRD methods. XRD is a representative nondestruc-
tive approach for welding residual stress measurement because of
its convenient advantages (Withers et al., 2008). As shown in
H. Zhou, C. Shen and J. Wang
Fig. 16. Comparisons of thermal cycles during multi-pass butt welding of B1.
Fig. 12, both longitudinal and transverse residual stresses caused by
welding of the examined butt and fillet welded joints were
measured using the advanced equipment of PULSTEC m-X360s, and
the corresponding measurement parameters are summarized in
Table 5.
Moreover, Fig. 13 shows the measured results of one measured
point post-process, where the X-ray diffraction profile can be
observed with a colorful contour, and an excellent diffraction peak
is also observed.
4. Thermal elastic-plastic FE computations and evaluation of
welding inherent deformation
As mentioned above, a butt-welded joint (Fig. 4) and a fillet
welded joint (Fig. 8) were examined through welding experiments
and measurements of thermal cycles, macroscopic metallographic
phase, welding distortion, and residual stress. Based on the
customized code, FE analysis with a thermal elasticeplastic
computational approach was then carried out to represent the
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International Journal of Naval Architecture and Ocean Engineering 14 (2022) 100460
thermal and mechanical behaviors during the welding process and
numerically predict the temperature distribution, profile of the
fusion zone, magnitudes of out-of-plane welding distortion, and
residual stress. By comparing computed results to measurements
for accuracy validation, computed plastic strains as the dominant
component of welding inherent strains will be employed for the
evaluation of welding inherent deformations, which will be applied
as mechanical loading for elastic FE analysis to predict the welding
radial deformation of the examined pressure cylindrical shell with
a ring stiffener.
4.1. Thermal mechanical response during butt welding
A solid element (8 nodes brick element) FE model of the butt-
welded joint, as shown in Fig. 14, was constructed with di-
mensions of length, width, and thickness of 400, 304, and 45 mm,
respectively. The number of nodes and elements of the butt-welded
joint are 51 086 and 27 960, respectively. In addition, the mechan-
ical boundary condition according to the butt welding experiment
H. Zhou, C. Shen and J. Wang
Fig. 17. Contour plots of residual stress caused by multipass butt welding of B1.
Fig. 18. Contour plots of out-of-plane welding distortion caused by multipass butt
welding of B1 (Deformed Ratio: 5).
was employed to prevent rigid body motion and obtain a relatively
deformed shape, as well as welding distortion.
When the welding conditions summarized in Table 4 and the
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International Journal of Naval Architecture and Ocean Engineering 14 (2022) 100460
material properties shown in Fig. 2 were employed, a transient
thermal analysis was performed to examine the temperature dis-
tribution and thermal cycle during the welding process of the butt-
welded joint, as shown in Fig. 14. In addition, a body heat source
with a uniform thermal flux, which is determined by the welding
method and its process parameters, was used to model the welding
arc while considering heat transfer.
As shown in Fig. 15, the transient temperature distribution was
predicted and demonstrated using a contour plot when the welding
arc of the last cap welding moved near the middle region along the
welding direction. Owing to the movement of the welding arc and
heat lost to ambient air, a difference in the temperature distribution
as well as a temperature gradient can be clearly observed in the
front and rear areas of the welding arc. Meanwhile, the profile of
the fusion zone of the examined butt-welded joint can be predicted
by considering the maximum temperature during the entire multi-
pass welding process (Fig. 15), which is in good agreement with the
measurement of the macroscopic metallographic phase, as shown
in Fig. 7.
Moreover, thermal cycles of each node in Fig. 14 could also be
obtained. Only two nodes, with identical coordinates compared to
the measured locations of the thermocouples, as indicated in Fig. 6,
were considered. Fig. 16 shows comparisons of the computed and
measured thermal cycles during the butt welding experiment. An
almost good agreement can be observed, and their tolerance may
arise from the welding heat source model and temperature-
dependent material thermal properties.
With transient temperature distribution as the thermal loading,
mechanical analysis of the butt-welded joint, considering the
elastic and plastic responses, can then be carried out using the
boundary condition shown in Fig. 14.
Out-of-plane welding distortion, residual stress, and plastic
strain can then be predicted. Contour plots of longitudinal and
transverse residual stresses as well as out-of-plane welding
distortion were demonstrated in Figs. 17 and 18. It can be observed
that longitudinal tensile residual stress was generated near the
welding line because of the contraction of the welding metal and
constraint supported by the base metal. Compressive residual
stress simultaneously appeared away from the welding line to
establish a balance condition. Moreover, longitudinal tensile re-
sidual stress with maximal magnitude exists in the region of the
cap welding pass, whereas the tensile residual stress generated by
the previous welding pass is removed by the heat-treatment effect
of cap welding. In the transverse direction, tensile residual stress is
generated owing to the temperature gradient, temperature-
dependent material properties, and physical behavior of expan-
sion with heat and contraction with cold. It can also be observed
that there is almost no transverse residual stress far from the
welding line.
To validate the accuracy of the computed residual stress as well
as out-of-plane welding distortion, computed magnitudes of points
on line 1, as indicated in Fig. 14, were compared with measure-
ments (Fig. 19). There is a good agreement in distribution and
magnitude between computed results and measurements for both
residual stress and out-of-plane welding distortion.
4.2. Thermal mechanical response during fillet welding
As summarized in Table 1, there were two typical fillet welded
joints with different plate thicknesses. The fillet welded joint with
T1 was then considered with transient thermal elasticeplastic FE
computation, and its thermal and mechanical responses during the
H. Zhou, C. Shen and J. Wang
Fig. 19. Comparisons of residual stress and out-of-plane welding distortion of multi-pass butt welded joint B1 (Points on line 1).
welding process are represented. As shown in Fig. 20, a solid
element (8-nodes brick element) model was constructed, which
has an identical dimension size compared with the experimental
fillet welded joint (Fig. 8).
In addition, the welding groove of T1 with a symmetrical K type
was considered, and there were 24 welding passes with different
colors, as indicated in Fig. 8. The number of nodes and elements of
the T1 FE model are 31 868 and 29 340, respectively. Similar to TEP
FE analysis of the butt-welded joint, as shown in Fig. 14, rigid body
motion is prevented as a mechanical boundary condition.
Taking into account welding conditions and temperature-
dependent material properties, thermal analysis of the fillet
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International Journal of Naval Architecture and Ocean Engineering 14 (2022) 100460
welded joint of T1 was carried out. The contour plot of the transient
temperature distribution during the last cap welding and predicted
dimension size of the fusion zone on the cross section are shown in
Fig. 21.
With transient temperature distribution as the thermal loading,
mechanical analysis was then carried out considering elastic and
plastic responses by employing the mechanical boundary condi-
tion, as indicated in Fig. 20. Fig. 22 shows contour plots of the
longitudinal residual stress and out-of-plane welding distortion of
the fillet welded joint of T1 after cooling to ambient temperature.
Moreover, computed out-of-plane welding distortions of points
on line 2 (Fig. 20) were compared to measurements, as shown in
H. Zhou, C. Shen and J. Wang International Journal of Naval Architecture and Ocean Engineering 14 (2022) 100460

Fig. 23. A good agreement can be observed not only for the
deformed tendency but also for their magnitudes.

4.3. Evaluation of welding inherent deformation

Based on the definition of welding inherent deformation, as

Fig. 20. Solid elements model of examined fillet welded joint T1.
indicated in Eq. (3), its magnitude can be evaluated by integrating
the welding inherent strains and residual plastic strains, which are
the dominant components of inherent strain.
As shown in Fig. 24, computed longitudinal and transverse
plastic strains of butt-welded joint B1 and fillet welded joint T1
were demonstrated. Compressive plastic strains near the welding
line could be clearly observed by means of their contour plots. With
the integration of plastic strains on each cross-section of butt-
welded joint B1 and fillet welded joint T1 (Wang et al., 2015,
2018, 2020), the welding inherent deformations along the welding
direction for both butt and fillet welded joints are shown in Fig. 25.

Fig. 21. Computed results of thermal analysis of fillet welded joint T1.

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Fig. 22. Contour plots of residual stress and out-of-plane welding distortion caused by
multipass fillet welding of T1 (Deformed Ratio: 5).

Fig. 23. Comparisons of computed and measured out-of-plane welding distortion of

multipass fillet welded joint T1 (Points on line 2).

An almost uniform distribution with an identical magnitude of

welding inherent deformation in the region without considering
the welding start and end parts can be observed. Thus, each
component of the welding inherent deformation with a center
magnitude for a typical welded joint can be sequentially evaluated
and summarized in Table 6, whereas longitudinal bending is
neglected owing to its much lower magnitude.

5. Predictions and mitigation radial deformation with elastic

FE analysis Fig. 24. Contour plots of plastic strains of examined welded joints.

Elastic FE analysis with welding inherent deformation as me-

structures, such as pressure cylindrical shells with ring stiffeners,
chanical loading is an effective and practical computational
results from the welding inherent deformations of typical welded
approach for predicting welding distortion and fabrication di-
joints, assembly sequence, structural stiffness, and clamping
mensions with sufficient accuracy in engineering applications
configuration. Thus, the magnitudes of the welding inherent de-
(Wang et al., 2017, 2020; Zhou et al., 2021, 2022).
formations (Table 6) will be applied to consider the influence of
In general, the dimensional tolerance of complex welded

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H. Zhou, C. Shen and J. Wang International Journal of Naval Architecture and Ocean Engineering 14 (2022) 100460

Fig. 25. Magnitudes of welding inherent deformations on each cross section of examined welded joints.

Table 6
Evaluated magnitudes of welding inherent deformation.

Butt Welded Joint B1 Longitudinal Inherent Shrinkage (mm) Transverse Inherent Shrinkage (mm) Transverse Inherent Bending (rad)

0.11923 2.56599 0.01551

Fillet Welded joint T1 Web 0.21774 0.97438 0.02880

Flange 0.75663 0.00775
Fillet Welded joint T2 Web 0.12867 0.42322 0.00284
Flange 0.67095 0.00357

welding conditions, material properties, plate thickness, and form structural stiffness with ring stiffener and welding sequence to
of typical welded joints on welding distortion during the fabrica- correct welding distortion was also numerically investigated using
tion of the examined pressure cylindrical shell. The variation in elastic FE analysis, and the application of inverse deformation to

15
H. Zhou, C. Shen and J. Wang International Journal of Naval Architecture and Ocean Engineering 14 (2022) 100460

enhance the fabrication accuracy of the pressure cylindrical shell

was eventually considered.

5.1. Welding distortion prediction of pressure cylindrical shell

With an identical dimensional configuration, as shown in Fig. 1,

a shell element model of a cylindrical pressure shell with a ring
stiffener was constructed (Fig. 26), which will be employed for later
elastic FE analysis to predict the welding radial deformation. The
total number of nodes and elements were 10 112 and 8796,
respectively, with 17 pieces of different colors, as indicated in
Fig. 26. In addition, pieces 1 to 8 are the main cylindrical shell, piece
9 is a branch cylindrical shell, and pieces 10 to 17 are all ring
stiffeners with a T-section bar. Rigid body motion was prevented as
a mechanical boundary condition without clamping application. To
compute variations in body volume, structural shape, and relative
deformation as welding distortion could then be obtained.
Fig. 26. Shell elements model of pressure cylindrical shell. Based on the theory of welding inherent deformation, an elastic

Fig. 27. Contour plots of welding radial deformations with and without considering ring stiffeners (Deformed Ratio: 5).

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H. Zhou, C. Shen and J. Wang International Journal of Naval Architecture and Ocean Engineering 14 (2022) 100460

Fig. 28. Comparison of welding radial deformations with and without considering ring stiffeners.

Table 7
Welding sequences for examined pressure cylindrical shell fabrication.

Parts welding Procedure

Welding Sequence 1 (Normal welding) Shell with Symmetrical Welding (Middle to Edge): (3,5,7)-(4,6,8), 1-(3,5,7), (4,6,8)-4, (3,5,7)-9, (4,6,8)-9
Ring Stiffeners with Sequential Welding: 10-11-12-13-14-15-16-17
Welding Sequence 2 Shell with Symmetrical Welding (Edge to Middle): 1-(3,5,7), (4,6,8)-4, (3,5,7)-(4,6,8), (3,5,7)-9, (4,6,8)-9
Ring Stiffeners with Sequential Welding: 10-11-12-13-14-15-16-17
Welding Sequence 3 Shell with Symmetrical Welding (Middle to Edge): (3,5,7)-(4,6,8), 1-(3,5,7), (4,6,8)-4, (3,5,7)-9, (4,6,8)-9
Ring Stiffeners with Symmetrical Welding (Edge to Middle): 10-17-11-16-12-15-13-14
Welding Sequence 4 Shell with Symmetrical Welding (Middle to Edge): (3,5,7)-(4,6,8), 1-(3,5,7), (4,6,8)-4, (3,5,7)-9, (4,6,8)-9
Ring Stiffeners with Skip Welding: 10-17-11-13-12-14-16-15

17
H. Zhou, C. Shen and J. Wang International Journal of Naval Architecture and Ocean Engineering 14 (2022) 100460

FE analysis with a shell elements model (Fig. 26) was performed by

applying welding inherent deformations (Table 6) to the corre-
sponding welding line. Meanwhile, to consider the influence of ring
stiffeners on the fabrication accuracy, an elastic FE analysis for a
pressure cylindrical shell without ring stiffeners was also carried
out.
Owing to the significant impact of smoothness on the me-
chanical performance of the pressure cylindrical shell in practice,
contour plots of the computed welding radial deformations with
and without ring stiffeners were compared, as shown in Fig. 27.
Welding radial deformations of points on lines 3 and 4, with
different cases, were then compared (Fig. 28).
Moreover, as shown in Fig. 27, it can be clearly seen that much
less welding distortion as well as better fabrication accuracy of the
examined pressure cylindrical shell can be generated by consid-
ering ring stiffeners. To further examine the distribution of the
welding radial deformation, Fig. 28(a) shows a comparison of the
welding radial deformations of points on line 3, as indicated in
Fig. 26. A much larger welding distortion will be generated without
ring stiffeners, whereas consistent behavior can also be observed,
as shown in Fig. 28(b). Thus, ring stiffeners have a much more
important effect in constraining the welded pressure cylindrical
shell and mostly prevent the generation of welding distortion
owing to their reinforced structural stiffness.

5.2. Application of welding sequence modification

Because the welding sequence has a significant effect on weld-

ing distortion and fabrication accuracy (Zhou et al., 2021; Wang
et al., 2020), three potential welding sequences, as summarized in
Table 7, were then examined with numerical analysis. As
mentioned above, the welding sequence for normal welding with
ring stiffeners was considered as WS1. Elastic FE analysis with
welding inherent deformations was carried out to predict welding
radial deformations with different welding sequences. The corre-
sponding contour plots of the computed welding distortion of the
examined pressure cylindrical shell were obtained, as shown in
Fig. 29.
Compared to the welding radial deformation with welding
sequence 1, as shown in Fig. 27(b), fewer welding distortions with
all modified welding sequences can be observed. Moreover, the
welding radial deformations of the points on lines 3 and 4 with four
different welding sequences, as summarized in Table 7, were
examined by comparison as shown in Fig. 30. It can be observed
that the application of all modified welding sequences can signifi-
cantly reduce welding radial deformations of points not only on
line 3 but also on line 4. In general, welding sequence modification
can enhance fabrication accuracy with less cost in practice for
complex structure manufacturing with massive pieces, whereas the
optimal welding sequence must increase structural stiffness as
soon as possible, and parts with large structural stiffness should be
preferentially assembled together.

5.3. Application of inverse deformation

When the corresponding inverse deformation is applied before

actual welding, this type of inverse deformation offsets welding
generated out-of-plane welding distortion, and welding radial
deformation can be reduced significantly (Zhou et al., 2021; Wang
Fig. 29. Contour plots of welding radial deformations with considering different et al., 2019).
welding sequences (Deformed Ratio: 5). Based on the thermal elasticeplastic FE computations of typical
fillet welded joints, as mentioned above, their inverse deformations
can be directly evaluated using out-of-plane welding distortion.
Then, an elastic FE analysis considering the application of inverse
deformation was carried out to predict the welding radial distortion
18
H. Zhou, C. Shen and J. Wang
Fig. 30. Comparison of welding radial deformations with considering different welding sequences.
of the examined pressure cylindrical shell, and a computed contour
plot of the welding radial distortion is shown in Fig. 31. It can be
seen that a much smaller magnitude of welding radial distortion is
generated with the application of inverse deformation than with
normal welding, as shown in Fig. 27(b).
Moreover, welding radial distortions of points on lines 3 and 4,
as indicated in Fig. 26 with normal welding and with application of
inverse deformation, are compared in Fig. 32. Nonetheless, there is
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International Journal of Naval Architecture and Ocean Engineering 14 (2022) 100460
almost no welding radial distortion with the application of inverse
deformation, and inverse deformation practice can almost elimi-
nate radial welding distortion.
To evaluate the different influential factors on the welding radial
distortion of the examined pressure cylindrical shell, the average
radial distortion was proposed, which was defined as the average
magnitude of the absolute value of each welding radial distortion
with respect to the original reference, as given in Eq. (4).
 P
jdradial ðiÞj
i¼1;n
Average Radial Distortion : dradial ¼ ; (4)
n

where, n is the total number of considered points, and dradial is the

Fig. 31. Contour plot of welding radial deformation by welding with inverse defor-
mation (Deformed Ratio: 5).
welding radial distortion of each point.
Fig. 33 shows a comparison of the average radial deformations
of points on lines 3 and 4, as indicated in Fig. 26. Influential factors
such as ring stiffeners, welding sequence, and inverse deformation
are summarized. It can be seen that the average radial deformation
of points on line 4 is usually less than that of points on line 3 with
any influential factor. Moreover, the application of inverse defor-
mation and modified welding sequences, such as S3 and S4, can
significantly reduce the average radial deformations, regardless of
the points on lines 3 and 4. The inverse deformation practice has a
much better effect in reducing welding radial distortion and
enhancing fabrication accuracy compared with welding sequence

Fig. 32. Comparison of welding radial deformation between normal welding and welding with inverse deformation.

20
H. Zhou, C. Shen and J. Wang
Fig. 33. Comparison of average radial deformations with considering different influ-
ential factors.
modification during the production of the examined pressure cy-
lindrical shell.
6. Conclusions
With the above-mentioned welding experiment and measure-
ment, thermal elastic plastic FE analysis was employed to examine
the welding response of typical welded joints. Moreover, elastic FE
analysis with welding inherent deformation was employed to
predict and mitigate the welding radial deformation of a cylindrical
pressure shell with ring stiffeners. The following conclusions were
drawn:
(1) Multi-pass butt and fillet welding with symmetrical practice
procedures were experimentally carried out, and the out-of-
plane welding distortion and residual stress were accurately
evaluated using an advanced measuring device.
(2) Transient thermal elasticeplastic FE analysis of typical wel-
ded joints was employed to examine the thermal and me-
chanical responses during the entire welding process, and
the computed results were in good agreement with the
measurements.
(3) The welding inherent deformation as the mechanical load of
the welded joint was evaluated by integrating the computed
plastic strain, which is considered to be the dominant
component of the welding inherent strain.
(4) Welding radial deformation of the considered pressure cy-
lindrical shell will cause the shape of the cross-section to
change from circular to elliptical, which will significantly
influence the fabrication integrity and hydrodynamic
performance.
(5) Welding sequence modification and the application of in-
verse deformation both have a significant influence on the
prevention of radial welding deformation during the fabri-
cation of the pressure cylindrical shell.
21
International Journal of Naval Architecture and Ocean Engineering 14 (2022) 100460
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing
financial interests or personal relationships that could have
appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgements
The authors appreciate the financial support provided by the
National Natural Science Foundation of China (no. 52071151).
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