 Involves fertilization the fusion of

PLANT AND male and female gametes to form

a zygote.
ANIMAL ASEXUAL
SEXUAL
REPRODUCTIO
REPRODUCTION N
REPRODUCTION

AND
NUMBER
DEVELOPMENT OF One Two
PARENTS

REPRODUCTION Present; Sperm

 The process by which mature
individuals produce offspring.
 An essential characteristic of all
living organism.
 Divided into two
IMPORTANCE OF REPRODUCTION
PROCREATION
 reproduction sustains the
species so that it does not
become extinct.
QUALITY IMPROVEMENT
 it allows for the mixing of
genetic materials leading to
variation among individuals in a
species.
GAMETE No need for
has to fertilize
S gametes
the egg
ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION
• Asexual reproduction is the process
by which a single organism
produces genetically identical
offspring.
• This type of reproduction is most
common in single celled organisms
like bacteria but can be found in
more complex organisms as well.
TYPES OF ASEXUAL
REPRODUCTION
1. BINARY FISSION

GAMETE  A cell splits into two new cells of equal

size
 A gamete is a reproductive cell of
an animal. In animals, female  Each daughter cell grows into a new
organism
gametes are called ova or egg cells,
 Occurs in organisms such as
and male gametes are called
amoeba,euglema,paramecium.
sperm.

TWO TYPES OF REPRODUCTION

ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION
 Does not involve gametes, instead
parts of mature organism may
develop to new individuals.

SEXUAL REPRODUCTION

Paramecium – single celled protists that are

naturally found in aquatic habitats.

GEN BIO 2NDQ PIETY mendoza


2. SPORULATION
 Formation of spores
-a spore is a single cell that can
develop into an exact copy of
the plant form which it came
 Spores are small haploid cells
produce by plants
 Spores give rise to new haploid
organisms
 Includes molds, ferns, bryophytes,
pteridophytes
3. BUDDING
 Where an outgrowth arises from a
parent and drops off to develop into
a new organism
 Hereditary material in the daughter
cell and parent are the same
 Occurs in organisms such as hydra,
jelly fish, sea anemones, yeast and
some fungi.
4. FRAGMENTATION
 Multicellular or colonial organisms
is a form of asexual reproduction
GEN BIO 2NDQ PIETY
or cloning in which an organism is
split into fragments. Each of these
fragments develop into mature,
fully grown individuals that are
clones of the original organism
ADVANTAGES OF ASEXUAL
REPRODUCTION
 Retention of useful
characteristics/genes/traits
 Offspring establish faster/shorter life
cycle
 Better chances of survival because of
suitable environment
DISADVANTAGES OF ASEXUAL
REPRODUCTION
 Lack of genetic variation
 Lowered resistance to disease
 Loss of hybrid vigor
 Competition for resources due to
overcrowding
PLANTS:
STRUCTURE AND
FUNCTION
MAJOR ORGANS OF A PLANT
FRUIT
 A protective covering that
surrounds the seed
FLOWER
 Makes seeds.
LEAF
 Makes the plant's food.
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STEM
 Carries water and food to the
rest of the plant.
ROOTS
 Anchor the plant in place and
absorb water and other
minerals from the soil.
GROUPED BY
CHARACTERISTICS
VASCULAR PLANTS
 Three main parts: roots,
stems and leaves
NONVASCULAR PLANTS
 Simple; most grow in moist
places
 No vascular tissues.
 Includes mosses,
liverworts, hornworts
VASCULAR PLANTS: ROOTS
 Classified further as:
 Fibrous root and Taproot
 Roots have different functions:
 Anchoring the plant
 Taking in water and
minerals
 Store food.
 Storage roots:
 beets, carrots, sweet
potatoes and turnips
VASCULAR PLANTS: STEMS
 Functions of Stem
– Support and transport
water & food
GEN BIO 2NDQ PIETY
• Most stems grow
upward
• Some stems grow
sideward
TWO MAIN TYPES OF STEMS
GREEN/HERBACEOUS
 Soft, green, flexible
 Annuals, biennials, or
perennials that die to the
ground at the end of the
growing season
WOODY
– Hard, produce secondary
growth
– usually in either trees or
shrubs
– May go dormant at the end
of a growing season
TRANSPORT OF MATERIALS
• Xylem & phloem
PLANT STRUCTURE: LEAVES
 leaves come in variety of shape and
sizes.
 Leaves are arranged in different ways
 Provides a large surface area to trap
sunlight needed for photosynthesis
 The food factory of the plant
 Vary among plants and may be used for
identification
 Covered by epidermis and cuticle
-Create water proof barrier
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THE CUTICLE - transport food, minerals, and
water through the plant
 is non-cellular protective layer
covering the outer cell DERMAL TISSUE (EXTERIOR)
layer(epidermis) of the green,
- The outer layers of cells that form
aerial parts of land plants.
a protective covering for the plant
TRANSPIRATION
 is a process where water (H2O)
leaves a plant through stomata

STOMATA
 Small opening, on the underside of
a leaf, where CO2 enters the plant
AND where O2 and H2O leave the
plant in a process called GROUND TISSUE
transpiration.
PARENCHYMA
– Found throughout the
plant, these tissues
PLANT TISSUE GROUPS
perform important
functions like
photosynthesis, food
storage, and secretion

COLLENCHYMA
– Structural support in
herbaceous plants
– Found just under the stem
epidermis and along leaf
A tissue is a group of cells organized to veins
form a functional unit or a structural unit
SCLERENCHYMA
PLANTS HAVE 3 TISSUE SYSTEMS: – Hard structural support
 Ground tissue (trees)
 Vascular tissue (xylem and – May be alive or dead and
phloem) still function structurally
 Dermal tissue (exterior) – One type of sclerenchyma
is fiber (wood)
GROUND TISSUE
- Makes up the inside of plants
- specialized to carry out
photosynthesis in leaves, support
the plant, and store photosynthetic
product.

VASCULAR TISSUE
 (xylem and phloem)

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VASCULAR TISSUE
 Xylem - conducts water and
minerals, long tapering cells
that act as pipes of a sort
 Phloem - conducts food
DERMAL TISSUE
EPIDERMIS
- outermost layer composed of single
layer of ground parenchyma cells
PERIDERM
- many layers thick, found on woody
plants, replaces epidermis, parenchyma
cells
PLANT TRANSPORT SYSTEMS
PLANT LIFE ON LAND
 430 million years ago plants
adapted to life on land.
 First plant adaptations to land were
a thick waxy cuticle to prevent
water loss and protection for
gametes and embryos.
 Vascular and Nonvascular Plants
Vascular plants
 have vessels to transfer water and
nutrients
Non Vascular Plants
 mosses bryophytes, etc. (moist
environments)
VASCULAR PLANTS
GEN BIO 2NDQ PIETY
 Vascular Plants have specialized
leaves and stems to get CO2 and
light from above ground.
 Vascular Plants have underground
root system to absorb water and
minerals from ground.
(Some roots have root hairs to increase
water absorption.)
LIGNIN
 hard material in the cell walls of
vascular plants that allows plants
and trees to stand upright.
COHESION-TENSION THEORY
 Water moves up the xylem of a vascular
plant due to root pressure,
transpiration, and the adhesive and
cohesive properties of water.
 Pressure exerted by the roots forces
water up the xylem.
COHESION
 the property of water molecules to
stick together (water molecules
hydrogen bond to other water
molecules)
ADHESION
 the property of water to stick to other
charged molecules.
 Due to cohesion of water and the
adhesion of water to charged groups on
the surface of the tracheid and vessel
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 cells, water will rise in the xylem
through capillary action.

TRANSPIRATION
 Leaves lose water by evaporation.
 Transpiration cause an area of
tension(low pressure)

As water molecules transpire through

the stomata of leaves, the cohesion of
water will pull on other water
molecules that will pull water up the
xylem of the entire plant.
GENERAL BIOLOGY
PRESSURE FLOW HYPOTHESIS
 Materials from phloem move from 2
source to sink cells. 1. IMMUNITY It is the ability of an
organism to resist a particular infection or
SOURCE CELLS
toxin.
 can be- cotyledons and
endosperm during germination, 2. INFECTION The state produced by the
leaves during spring and summer, establishment of one or more pathogenic
storage roots during spring. agents.

3. ANTIGEN Is any substance that causes

SINK CELLS
 are any cell that uses water and
sugars: food storage areas, and
growing leaf buds, root tips,
flowers, fruits, and seeds.
 Sucrose is actively transported into a
source cell.
 Water will flow into the source cell by
osmosis which increases the turgor
pressure.
 This increased pressure will push
sucrose molecules through the
sieve tubes to other phloem cells
towards sink cells.
 At the sink cells, sucrose and amino
acids will be actively transported to
other cells to be used or stored
 Water will flow out of the sink cells by
osmosis
your immune system to produce antibodies
against it.
4. ANTIBODY Proteins that protect you
when an unwanted substance enters your
body
5. PATHOGEN An organism causing
disease to its host, with the severity of the
disease symptoms referred to as virulence,.
IMMUNE SYSTEM
IN ANIMALS
WHAT IS IMMUNITY?
 Immunity is the capability of multicellular
organisms to resist harmful
microorganisms. Immunity involves both
specific and nonspecific components. The
nonspecific components act as barriers or
eliminators of a wide range of pathogens
irrespective of their antigenic make-up.

GEN BIO 2NDQ PIETY mendoza

NATURAL OR INNATE IMMUNITY
(NON-SPECIFIC)
 It is a non-specific, general immunity
against a pathogen. The two important
barriers against foreign bodies are the skin
and mucous membranes of the body. Skin is
the first line of defense against infection.
Mucous traps many of the microorganism
before they can able to penetrate the lungs.
Lysozyme present in tears, sweats and in
saliva degrade the cell wall of bacteria and
other microorganisms.
INTERNAL DEFENSES CONSIST OF
THE FOLLOWING:
1. Antimicrobial Agents includes Interferon,
Interleukins Lactoferrin and transferrin and
complement system.
2. Phagocytic cells engulf particles and
microorganisms in the digestive vacuoles and
then break down the by the lysozyme. The types
of phagocytic cells:
A) Stationary phagocytes or
macrophages are made in the bone marrow.
Monocytes circulate in the bloodstream. When
stop circulating and become localized, they
become macrophages.
B) Wandering phagocytes are
white blood cells that circulate in the blood
stream called neutrophils and monocytes.
3. Natural Killer cells (NK) are not phagocytic,
but they are attached to cell surface and
produce enzymes that destroy cells that have
infected with viruses.
4. Inflammation and Fever are non-specific
antimicrobial response to infection and
microorganisms. Fever, swelling, redness, pain,
and loss of function in the infected areas are the
indications of inflammation. This indicates that
immune system is working. High body
temperature during fever kills some bacterial
pathogens and promote phagocyte activity that
speeds up an acquired immune response. It also
reduces the concentration of iron in the blood.
Microorganism weakens and eventually die if
the amount of iron available for them is
reduced.
GEN BIO 2NDQ PIETY
ADAPTIVE OR ACQUIRED
IMMUNITY (SPECIFIC)
 For vertebrates includes the recognition of
traits specific to pathogens using a huge
range of receptors. It is the second line of
defense that is activated when pathogen is
not destroyed by our nonspecific defenses.
a. Humoral response is the production and
secretion of antibodies against specific antigens
(a protein, a foreign body like pollen, bacteria,
dust, virus).
b. Cell mediated response occurs when
cytotoxic cells defend the body against
infection
ANTIBODY
 A protein molecule produced by
lymphocytes from advanced vertebrates
like mammals. They protect the organisms
by fastening and eliminating foreign
molecules by activating mechanisms of
the immune system.
ANTIGEN
 A substance or part of pathogen that
stimulate production of a specific
antibody for the given target

B CELLS
 Are white blood cells that develop and
mature in the bone marrow. They are
activated when they encounter antigen in
the lymph nodes. Activated B cells produce
antibodies, proteins that recognize and
bind to specific parts of the pathogen
called antigens. Each B cell produces only
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 antibody which recognizes only one kind of
antigen
FIVE MAJOR CLASSIFICATIONS OF
ANTIBODIES
IgD
 Present on surface of many B cells, but
function is uncertain.
IgM
 Found on surface of B cells and plasma. It
acts as a B cell surface receptor for
antigens secreted early in primary
response.
IgG
 Most abundant immunoglobulin in the
blood plasma, approximately 75% of
antibodies are in the class.
IgA
 Produced by plasma cells in the digestive,
respiratory and urinary systems, where it
protects the surface linings by preventing
attachment of bacteria to surfaces of
epithelial cells.
IgE
 It activates mast cells and leads to the
production of histamine responsible for
allergic reactions, such as hay fever and
asthma
T CELLS
 Are white blood cells made in the bone
marrow and mature in the thymus. They
are activated when they meet antigens in
the lymph nodes. T cells need to distinguish
an antigen in the context of self-molecules
called major histocompatibility complex
(MHC) molecules. .
THREE TYPES OF T-CELLS:
1. Cytotoxic T cells
GEN BIO 2NDQ PIETY
 Are effectors that kill infected cells,
tumor cells, and foreign cells by a
touch-kill mechanism
2. Helper T cells
 Secrete proteins that help other
immune cells (B cells, macrophages)
survive and perform their function
3. Regulatory T cells
 Controls and turn off the immune
response. This prevents the immune
system from harming the body.
PLANTS AND
ANIMALS ORGAN
SYSTEM AND
THEIR FUNCTION
HOMEOSTASIS
 Homeostasis refers to the relatively
stable state inside the body of an
animal. Animal organs and organ
systems constantly adjust to internal
and external changes in order to
maintain this steady state. Examples of
internal conditions maintained
homeostatically are the level of blood
glucose, body temperature, blood
calcium level. These conditions remain
stable because of physiologic processes
that result in negative feedback
relationships.
The goal of homeostasis is the maintenance of
equilibrium around a specific value of some
aspect of the body or its cells called a set point.
While there are normal fluctuations from the set
point, the body’s systems will usually attempt to
go back to this point. A change in the internal or
external environment is called a stimulus and is
detected by a receptor; the response of the
system is to adjust the activities of the system so
the value moves back toward the set point. For
instance, if the body becomes too warm,
adjustments are made to cool the animal. If
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glucose levels in the blood rise after a meal,
adjustments are made to lower them and to get
the nutrient into tissues that need it or to store it
for later use.
OSMOREGULATION
 is the active regulation of osmotic
pressure to maintain the balance of
water and electrolytes in an organism.
Control of osmotic pressure is needed
to perform biochemical reactions and
preserve homeostasis.
How Osmoregulation Works
 Osmoregulation is the process of
maintaining salt and water balance
(osmotic balance) across membranes
within the body
OSMOSIS
 is the movement of solvent molecules
through a semipermeable membrane
into an area that has a higher solute
concentration.
OSMOTIC PRESSURE
 is the external pressure needed to
prevent the solvent from crossing the
membrane. Osmotic pressure depends
on the concentration of solute particles.
In an organism, the solvent is water and
the solute particles are mainly dissolved
salts and other ions, since larger
molecules (proteins and
polysaccharides) and nonpolar or
hydrophobic molecules (dissolved
gases, lipids) don't cross a
semipermeable membrane. To maintain
the water and electrolyte balance,
organisms excrete excess water, solute
molecules, and wastes.
GEN BIO 2NDQ PIETY
REGULATORS AND
CONFORMERS
TWO MAJOR TYPES OF
OSMOREGULATION
OSMOCONFORMERS
 Osmoconformers use active or passive
processes to match their internal
osmolarity to that of the environment.
This is commonly seen in marine
invertebrates, which have the same
internal osmotic pressure inside their
cells as the outside water, even though
the chemical composition of the solutes
may be different.
OSMOREGULATORS
 Osmoregulators control internal
osmotic pressure so that conditions are
maintained within a tightly-regulated
range. Many animals are
osmoregulators, including vertebrates
(like humans
OSMOREGULATION
STRATEGIES OF DIFFERENT
ORGANISMS
PROTOZOA
 Protists use contractile vacuoles to
transport ammonia and other excretory
wastes from the cytoplasm to the cell
membrane, where the vacuole opens to
the environment. Osmotic pressure
forces water into the cytoplasm, while
diffusion and active transport control
the flow of water and electrolytes.
PLANTS
 Higher plants use the stomata on the
underside of leaves to control water
loss. Plant cells rely on vacuoles to
regulate cytoplasm osmolarity. Plants
that live in hydrated soil (mesophytes)
easily compensate for water lost from
by absorbing more water. The leaves
and stem of the plants may be protected
from excessive water loss by a waxy
outer coating called the cuticle. Plants
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 that live in dry habitats (xerophytes)
store water in vacuoles, have thick
cuticles, and may have structural
modifications (i.e., needle- shaped
leaves, protected stomata) to protect
against water loss.
Plants that live in salty environments
(halophytes) have to regulate not only water
intake/loss but also the effect on osmotic
pressure by salt. Some species store salts in their
roots so the low water potential will draw the
solvent in via osmosis. Salt may be excreted
onto leaves to trap water molecules for
absorption by leaf cells. Plants that live in water
or damp environments (hydrophytes) can absorb
water across their entire surface.
ANIMALS
 Animals utilize an excretory system to
control the amount of water that is lost
to the environment and maintain
osmotic pressure. Protein metabolism
also generates waste molecules which
could disrupt osmotic pressure. The
organs that are responsible for
osmoregulation depend on the species.
IN HUMAN
the primary organ that regulates water is the
kidney. Water, glucose, and amino acids may be
reabsorbed from the glomerular filtrate in the
kidneys or it may continue through the ureters to
the bladder for excretion in urine. In this way,
the kidneys maintain the electrolyte balance of
the blood and also regulate blood pressure.
Absorption is controlled by the hormones
GEN BIO 2NDQ PIETY
aldosterone, antidiuretic hormone (ADH), and
angiotensin II. Humans also lose water and
electrolytes via perspiration.
OSMORECEPTORS
 in the hypothalamus of the brain
monitor changes in water potential,
controlling thirst and secreting ADH.
ADH is stored in the pituitary gland.
When it is released, it targets the
endothelial cells in the nephrons of the
kidneys. These cells are unique because
they have aquaporins. Water can pass
through aquaporins directly rather than
having to navigate through the lipid
bilayer of the cell membrane. ADH
opens the water channels of the
aquaporins, allowing water to flow. The
kidneys continue to absorb water,
returning it to the bloodstream, until the
pituitary gland stops releasing ADH.
FEEDBACK
MECHANISMS
(TEMPERATURE &
GLUCOSE LEVEL
REGULATION)
INTERRELATIONSHIP OF BODY
SYSTEMS
Why is the interdependence of body systems
essential?
 Homeostasis, or controlled internal
conditions, is essential to an organism’s
survival. Wildebeest brain cells, like
those of humans, must be kept at a
stable temperature and supplied with a
steady stream of glucose for energy –
even when animal is under stress. The
brain cells must be bathed in fluid with
a constant concentration of water and
be cleansed of metabolic waste
products. These conditions must not
dramatically change during droughts,
floods, famines, heat or cold. Failure of
homeostasis, even for a few minutes,
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 would lead to permanent brain injury or
death.
 All body systems work together to
maintain homeostasis. The following
discussion will help you learn about
other body systems, those that fight
disease, produce, and release chemical
controls, and manage body temperature
– all to help ensure homeostasis.
A) FIGHTING DISEASE
 Most animals have an immune system
that can distinguish between “self” and
“other”. Once the immune system
discovers “others” in the body, it
attacks the invaders and works to
restore homeostasis. Your body
experiences this process regularly, any
time you catch a cold or fight off other
kinds of infections. During the process,
you may develop a fever and feel other
effects of the battle going on within
your body.
B) CHEMICAL CONTROLS
 Vertebrates, such as the migrating
wildebeest, along with arthropods and
many other invertebrates regulate many
body processes using a system of
chemical controls. Endocrine glands are
part of that system. Endocrine glands
regulate body activities by releasing
hormones into the blood. Some
hormones control the way the body
stores energy or mobilizes it – as in the
case of wildebeests.
C) BODY TEMPERATURE
CONTROL
How do animals control their body
temperature?
 Control of body temperature is
important for maintaining homeostasis,
particularly in areas where temperature
varies widely with time of day and with
season. Why is temperature control so
important? Because many body
functions are influenced by
temperature. For example, muscles
cannot operate if they are too cold or
GEN BIO 2NDQ PIETY
too hot. Cold muscles contract slowly,
making an animal slow to react. If
muscles get too hot, on the other hand,
they may tire easily.
An animal may be described based on the
structures and behaviors that enable it to control
its body temperature.
a) ectotherms - animals that do not have
internal control of their body.
the body temperature is generally like the
temperature of the environment, although
the individual organisms may do things that
keep their bodies slightly below or above
the environmental temperature. This can
include burrowing underground on a hot day
or resting in the sunlight on a cold day.
 have relatively low metabolic rates
when resting, so their bodies do not
generate much heat.
 most reptiles, invertebrates, fishes, and
amphibians are ectotherms that regulate
body temperature primarily by
absorbing heat from, or losing heat to,
their environment
b. endotherms -animals that maintain a constant
body temperature in the face of environmental
changes.
 they can maintain a level of
activity because they generate
internal heat that keeps their
cellular processes operating
optimally even when the
environment is cold.
Birds and mammals have high metabolic rates
that generate heat, even when they are resting.
THERMOREGULATION
 It is coordinated by the nervous
system. The processes of temperature
control are centered in the
hypothalamus of the advanced animal
brain. The hypothalamus maintains
the set point for body temperature
through reflexes that cause
vasodilation or vasoconstriction and
shivering or sweating.
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  During an infection, compounds called
pyrogen are produced and circulate to
the hypothalamus resetting the
thermostat to a higher value. This
allows the body’s temperature to
increase to a new homeostatic
equilibrium point in what is commonly
called a fever.
control via negative feedback. This is
where the corrective response, triggered
by a deviation from normal levels, is
turned off by a return to normal levels.
 For example, low blood glucose results
in the production of glucagon and this
raises blood glucose. Consequently, as
glucose levels rise, the stimulation to
produce glucagon is turned off.

NEGATIVE FEEDBACK
 The increase in body heat makes the
body less optimal for bacterial growth
and increases the activities of cells so
they are better able to fight the
infection.
 Blood glucose regulation involves
maintaining blood glucose levels at
constant levels in the face of dynamic
glucose intake and energy use by the
body.
 Glucose is key in the energy intake of
humans. On average, this target range is
60-100 mg/dL for an adult. In order to
maintain this range, there are two main
hormones that control blood glucose
levels: insulin and glucagon.
 In blood glucose regulation, the
hormone insulin plays a key role. When
blood sugar rises in the blood, insulin
sends a signal to the liver, muscles, and
other cells to store the excess glucose.
Some is stored as body fat and other is
stored as glycogen in the liver and
muscles.
 If the blood glucose level is too low, the
pancreas releases the hormone
glucagon. This travels to the liver in the
blood and causes the breakdown of
glycogen into glucose. Glucose enters
the blood stream, and glucose levels
increase back to normal.

INSULIN

is released when there are high amounts of

glucose in the blood stream.

GLUCAGON

 is released when there are low levels of

glucose in the blood stream.

A key regulatory pathway to control

blood glucose levels is the hormone insulin.
Insulin is released from the beta cells in the islets
of Langerhans found in the pancreas. Insulin is
released when there is a high concentration of
glucose in the blood stream.

HOMEOSTATIC CONTROL
 The control of blood glucose is an
excellent example of homeostatic

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