Module-5 Water Chemistry 2022 SRK

KSIT
Dept of Chemistry,
Dr. Kiran Kumar S. R, Assistant Professor, BENGALURU
KSIT, Module-V
Water Chemistry
Water is most wonderful, abundant, precious gift of nature. The is most essential element to
all the living beings and also to industrial activities. Water covers nearly 72% of the earth surface.
All most 97.2% of water is sea water, 2.1% is in the form of ice and glaciers and remaining only 0.6
– 0.7 5 is fresh water.
Natural Sources of Water

1. Rain Water.
2. River Water.
3. Lake Water.
4. Sea Water.
5. Underground Water.
1. Rain water: Probably rain water is purest form of natural water. But due to dissolution of
atmospheric gasses, it is slightly acidic in nature. This small amount of acidity does not cause
any damage and is necessary to dissolve the minerals in earth soil to make them available to
plants and animal life.
Engg.Chemistry -21CHE12/22
2. River water: contains various dissolved minerals of the soil such as chlorides, sulphates,
bicarbonates of calcium, magnesium and iron etc. it also contain the organic matter and
suspended impurities due to decomposition of plants.
3. Lake water: more or less has a constant chemical composition. It is usually contains less
amount of dissolved and higher quantities of organic matter.
4. Sea water: is the most impure form of natural water. It contains an average of 3.5% of
dissolved salts, out of which about 2.6% is sodium chloride.
5. Underground water. Spring and well water are the natural underground water. Due to
filtration action of soil, it has clear appearance, but contains more of the dissolved salts and
less organic impurities.
Impurities in water: Water usually contaminated by various types of impurities. The impurities
in water largely depend upon the source. The major impurities of water are,
1. Suspended solids
2. Dissolved solids
3. Dissolved gases
4. Biological impurities.
1. Suspended solids: Suspended or colloidal impurities are the extremely fine particles such as
clay, silt, silica, salts of iron, magnesium, are inorganic suspensions and peat, algae, weeds,
protozoa, microorganisms are organic suspensions. These fine particles impart turbidity and
colour to the water. These impurities can be removed by filtration, sedimentation or by
coagulation process.
2. Dissolved solids: Dissolved solids are soluble impurities present in water, such as
bicarbonates, sulphates, chlorides of calcium, magnesium and sodium salts. And also small
amounts of nitrate, nitrites, silicates and iron salts.
3. Dissolved gases: All natural waters contain CO2 and O2 as dissolved gases. Some waters have
H2S, SO2, NH3 and oxides of nitrogen as dissolved gases. Dissolved gases impart a foul odour to
the water.
4. Biological Impurities: Biological impurities are pathogenic bacteria, microorganisms, which
are main cause of water borne diseases. E.g. Algae, Fungi, viruses, parasites, worms and
pathogenic bacteria, such as coliforms, typhoid bacillus, faecal streptococcus, etc.
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KSIT
Dept of Chemistry,
KSIT, Module-V
Potable water:
Water that is fit for human consumptions and meets the stringent microbiological and chemical
standards of quality to prevent waterborne diseases and health risks from toxic chemicals is
called potable water.
1. It should be clear,
2. It should be colourless,
3. It should be odourless,
4. It should be free from toxic chemicals and heavy metals.
5. It should be free from pathogenic microorganism.
6. Palatable taste.
WHO Drinking Water Specifications

Parameters Standard limits as per WHO guidelines (mg/L)
pH 6.5 – 8.5
Total Dissolved Solids 300
Calcium 75 – 200
Sulphates 200 – 400
Chloride 250
Magnesium 30
Nitrate 50
Nitrite 3
Fluoride 1.5
Mercury, Arsenic, Lead 0.001
Dissolved Oxygen 5.0 – 8.0
Residual Chlorine 0.2 – 1.5
Hardness of Water:
Hardness of water is the lather producing capacity of water with soap. It is due to the presence of
salts like bicarbonates, chlorides and sulphates of Ca & Mg. The unit of Hardness is ppm or
mg/ liter of CaCO3.
Hardiness of water is classified into two types Temporary Hardness and Permanent Hardness.
1. Temporary Hardness: Temporary Hardness of water is caused by the presence of

bicarbonates of calcium and magnesium. It can be removed easily by simple methods like
boiling or by addition of simple chemical substances such as lime.
2. Permanent Hardness: Permanent hardness of water is caused by the presence of chlorides
and sulphates of calcium and magnesium. It cannot be removed by simple methods like
boiling etc. Instead advanced methods like ion exchange process can be used to remove the
permanent hardness.
Total hardness of water is the sum of both temporary and permanent hardness.
Total hardness of water is determined by complexometric titration by titrating known volume of the
water sample against standard disodium salt EDTA solution with the aid of Eriochrome Black-T
indicator.
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KSIT
Dept of Chemistry,
KSIT, Module-V
Determination of Total Hardness of a sample of water using disodium salt of

EDTA By Complexometric Method.
Theory: The total hardness is determined by titrating a known volume of the water sample against
ethylenediamine tetra acetic acid (EDTA) using Eriochrome Black-T indicator. EDTA is a hex
dentate ligand and forms a weak complex with Ca2+ and Mg2+ ions. The molecule represented as H4Y
has two easily replaceable hydrogen atoms in its molecule.
EDTA has the following structure:
HOOC H2C CH2 COOH

| |
N - CH2 - CH2 - N
| |
HOOC H2C CH2COOH
The ionization in solution is represented as follows:

H4Y  H2Y 2− + 2H +
The anion formed in the above ionization forms complexes with metal ions M2+ that can be
represented as follows:
M 2+ + H2Y2  MY2 + 2H +
where M2 + represents Ca2 + and Mg2 + ions.
The Total Hardness of water can be determined by titrating a known volume of water sample
against standard EDTA solution at a pH of 10 using Eriochrome Black-T as indicator. The colour of
the free indicator at pH = 10 is clear blue. Eriochrome Black-T forms a wine red coloured complex
with M2+ which is relatively less stable than MY2−. On titration, EDTA first reacts with free M2 + ions
and then with the M2 + ions of indicator complex. Once all the M2 + ions are complexed with EDTA
the indicator is set free and gives a colour change from wine red to clear blue at the equivalence
point.. However, this indicator cannot give a sharp colour change in the absence of magnesium ions.
Since the reaction involves the release of H+ ions, a buffer solution is used to maintain a pH of 10.
The buffer solution used in the titration is NH3 - NH4Cl. The free acid (EDTA) is only sparingly
soluble and hence the more soluble disodium salt(Na2H2Y), is used for preparing the reagent.
Procedure:
Part A: Preparation of standard solution of disodium salt of EDTA
Weigh accurately to 0.1 mg (4th decimal place) the weighing bottle containing around .5g of crystals
of disodium salt of EDTA using electronic balance (m1 g). Transfer the crystals carefully into a
funnel placed over a 250 cm3 volumetric flask and find the weight of the emptied weighing bottle (m2
g). Wash the funnel with ion exchange water and remove the funnel. Dissolve the crystals by gently
swirling the flask (add a few drops of ammonia if the crystals do not readily dissolve). Dilute with
ion exchange water and make upto the mark. Stopper and invert the flask several times so that a
homogeneous solution results. Calculate the molarity of the Na2EDTA salt solution.
Part B: Determination of total hardness of water sample

Transfer 25.0 cm3 of the given hard water sample into a clean 250 cm3 conical flask using a pipette.
Add 5 cm3 of NH3 - NH4Cl buffer solution and a pinch of Eriochrome Black-T indicator. Titrate
against EDTA solution till the colour of the solution changes from wine red to clear blue. Repeat the
experiment for agreeing values.
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Dept of Chemistry,
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Observations and Calculations

Weight of weighing bottle + Na2EDTA crystals = m1g
Tare weight of weighing bottle = m2 g
Weight of Na2EDTA crystals transferred = (m1 - m2) g
= ‘Z’
Volume of Na2EDTA solution required to react with 25 cm3 of water sample = ‘X’ cm3
1000 cm3 of 1 M Na2EDTA 100g of CaCO3 (Molecular mass of CaCO3 = 100)
25 cm3 of the Hard Water sample contains 'a' g of CaCO3

Therefore, 106 (1 million cm3) of Hard Water sample contains
= ............ g of
Total hardness of the water sample =........................... ppm or mg/litre of CaCO3
Result: Total Hardness of the water sample is found to be --------------- ppm of CaCO3.
Important Note:
Hardness type Hardness causing ions Hardness causing salts
Temporary Bicarbonates of Ca & Mg Ca (HCO3)&Mg (HCO3)

Chlorides and Sulphates of
Permanent CaSO4, MgSO4, CaCl2&MgCl2
Ca & Mg
Bicarbonates, Chlorides and Ca (HCO3),Mg (HCO3), CaSO4, MgSO4,
Total Hardness Sulphates of Ca & Mg CaCl2&MgCl2
Amounts equivalent to CaCO3 (mg/Lit) =
Page 4 of 25
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Dept of Chemistry,
KSIT, Module-V
Numerical Problems on Hardness of Water

1. A sample of water is found to contains following dissolving salts in milligrams per liter
Mg(HCO3)2 = 73, CaCl2 = 111, Ca(HCO3)2 = 81, MgSO4 = 40 and MgCl2 = 95. Calculate
temporary, permanent hardness and total hardness.
Solution:
Name of the Amount of the Molecular weight
Amounts equivalent to
hardness causing hardness causing of hardness
CaCO3 (mg/Lit)
salts salts(mg/Lit) causing salts
Mg(HCO3)2 73 146
Ca(HCO3)2 81 162
CaCl2 111 111
MgSO4 40 120
MgCl2 95 95
Temporary hardness= Mg(HCO3)2+ Ca(HCO3)2= 50 + 50 = 100mg/Lit.

Permanent hardness = CaCl2 + MgSO4 + MgCl2 = 100 + 33.3 + 100 = 233.3mg/Lit.
Total hardness = Temporary hardness + Permanent hardness
= 100 + 233.3
Total hardness = 333.3mg/Lit or ppm of CaCO3
2. Calculate the temporary and permanent hardness of water sample containing

Mg(HCO3)2= 7.3mg/L, Ca (HCO3)2= 16.2mg/L, MgCl2= 9.5mg/L, CaSO4=13.6mg/L).
Solution:
CaCO3 (mg/Lit)
Mg(HCO3)2 7.3 146
Ca(HCO3)2 16.2 162
MgCl2 9.5 95
CaSO4 13.6 136
Temporary hardness= Mg(HCO3)2+ Ca(HCO3)2= 5 + 100 = 15mg/Lit.

Permanent hardness = MgCl2 +CaSO4 = 10 + 10 = 20mg/Lit.
= 15 + 20
Total hardness = 35 mg/Lit or ppm of CaCO3
Page 5 of 25
KSIT
Dept of Chemistry,
KSIT, Module-V
3. A sample of water is found to contains following dissolving salts in milligrams per litre
Mg(HCO3)2 = 16.8, MgCl2 = 12.0, MgSO4 = 29.6 and NaCl = 5.0. Calculate temporary
and permanent hardness of water.
Solution:
CaCO3 (mg/Lit)
Mg(HCO3)2 16.8 146
MgCl2 12.0 95
MgSO4 29.6 120
NaCl does not contribute any hardness to water

NaCl 5.0
hence it is ignored.
Temporary hardness= Mg(HCO3)2= 11.50 mg/Lit.

Permanent hardness = MgCl2 +MgSO4 = 12.63 + 24.66 = 37.29 mg/Lit.

= 11.50 + 37.29
Total hardness = 48.79 mg/Lit or ppm of CaCO3
4. 100 ml of a sample of water required 15.0 ml of 0.01 M EDTA for titration using
Eriochrome Black-T indicator. In another experiment, 100 ml of the same sample was
boiled and the precipitate was removed by filtration. The filtration required 8.0 ml of
0.01 M EDTA using Eriochrome Black-T indicator. Calculate (i) the total hardness (ii)
permanent hardness (iii) bicarbonate hardness in terms of mg/lit of CaCO3.
Solution:
Volume of EDTA consumed before boiling = 15 ml
Volume of EDTA consumed after boiling = 8 ml
Molarity of EDTA = 0.01 M
Volume of water sample taken = 100 ml
Total Hardness of the water sample:
Total Hardness = ppm of CaCO3 equivalent
= ppm of CaCO3 equivalent

Total Hardness= 150 ppm of CaCO3
Permanent Hardness of the water sample:

Permanent Hardness = ppm of CaCO3 equivalent

Permanent Hardness= 80 ppm of CaCO3
Page 6 of 25
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Dept of Chemistry,
KSIT, Module-V
Temporary Hardness of the water sample:

Temporary hardness= Total hardness − Permanent hardness
= 150 − 80 = 70 ppm
Temporary hardness = 70 ppm of CaCO3
5. In an estimation of hardness of water by EDTA titration, 250 ml of a sample of water

required 15ml of 0.025 M EDTA solution to get the end point. Calculate the hardness of
water.
Solution:
Volume of EDTA consumed = 15 ml
Volume of water sample taken = 250 ml
Total Hardnessof the water sample:


Total Hardness = 150 ppm of CaCO3
6. 200 ml of water sample requires 30 ml of 0.02 M EDTA with NH 4Cl – NH4OH buffer
and EBT indicator. Another 200 ml of water sample was boiled and the precipitate was
removed by filtration.100 ml of this boiled sample (filtrate) requires 5 ml of 0.02 M
EDTA following the same procedure. Calculate temporary, permanent and total
hardness of water.
Solution:
Volume of water sample taken before boiling= 200 ml (For Total hardness)
Volume of water sample taken before boiling= 100 ml (For Permanent hardness)



Permanent Hardness = 100 ppm of CaCO3
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Dept of Chemistry,
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= 300 − 100 = 200 ppm
Temporary hardness = 200ppm of CaCO3
7. 50 ml of sample water consumed 15 ml of 0.02 M EDTA before boiling and 5 ml of the

same EDTA consumed after boiling. Calculate temporary, permanent and total
hardness of water.
Solution:
Volume of water sample taken before boiling= 50 ml (For Total hardness&Permanenthardness)



Permanent Hardness = 200 ppm of CaCO3

= 600 − 200 = 400 ppm
Temporary hardness = 400ppm of CaCO3
Dissolved Oxygen (D.O)
The pure water contains approximately 8.0 mg / dm3 dissolved oxygen at 25oC which is very
much essential for survival of aquatic life. The Amount of oxygen present in one liter of water in
dissolved state is called Dissolved Oxygen.
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KSIT
Dept of Chemistry,
KSIT, Module-V
BOD – Biological Oxygen Demand

BOD is defined as the “amount of oxygen required by microorganisms for the biological
oxidation of the organic matter Present in one liter waste water at 200 C for a period of 5 –
days under aerobic conditions.”
BOD estimation is very important in sewage treatment, as it indicates the amount of decomposable
organic matter present in sewage. Larger the concentration of decomposable organic matter, higher is
the BO D. BOD has a special significance in pollution control as it enables to determine the degree
of pollution in sewage.
COD Value is always greater than BOD; Because COD is the amount of Oxygen required for
oxidation of both inorganic and organic matter. Whereas BOD is the amount of Oxygen required for
biological oxidation of only organic matter.
COD – Chemical Oxygen Demand

COD is defined as the “amount of oxygen required for chemical oxidation of organic and
inorganic matter present in one liter waste water by a strong oxidizing agent.”
It is a faster method of determining the amount of impurity present in water. Impurities are
chemically oxidisable organic and inorganic wastes. C O D is an important parameter used in the
determination of pollution strength of stream, sewage and industrial wastewater.
Determination of Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) of Waste water

Theory: Chemical Oxygen Demand is a measure of the oxygen equivalent of organic and inorganic
materials in a water sample that can be oxidized by a strong chemical oxidant. This parameter is
important for industrial waste studies. COD is expressed as milligrams of Oxygen required to oxidise
impurities present in 1000 cm3 of Waste water.
The oxidisable constituents of Waste water include straight chain aliphatic compounds,
aromatic hydrocarbons, straight chain alcohols, acids, pyridine and other oxidisable materials.
Straight chain compounds and acetic acid are oxidized more effectively in the presence of Silver ions
(added as Silver Sulphate) as catalyst. However, the silver ions become ineffective in presence of
halide ions (present in Waste water) owing to the precipitation of Silver halide. This difficulty is
overcome by treating the waste water with Mercuric Sulphate before the analysis for COD. Mercuric
Sulphate binds the halide ions and makes them unavailable.
A known volume of the waste water sample is treated with excess of acidified Potassium
Dichromate solution. Unreacted Potassium dichromate solution is titrated with standard Ferrous
Ammonium Sulphate solution using Ferroin indicator. A blank titration without the waste water
sample is performed. COD of the waste water sample is determined from the difference in the titer
values.
Procedure:
Back Titration: Pipette out 25 cm3of the Waste water sample into a 250 cm3 conical flask . Add
cm3 of standard Potassium dichromate solution using a different pipette followed by one
test tube of 1:1 Sulphuric acid (containing Silver Sulphate) with constant shaking of the
contents of the flask. Add boiling chips to the flask. Attach a reflux condenser and reflux the
mixture for half an hour and cool. Wash the condenser with ion exchange water and transfer
the washings to the flask. Add 2-3 drops of Ferroin indicator and titrate against the standard
Ferrous Ammonium Sulphate solution until the colour changes from blue green to reddish
brown.
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Dept of Chemistry,
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Blank Titration: Transfer 25 cm3of Potassium dichromate solution using a pipette. Add one test
tube of 1:1 sulphuric acid (containing silver Sulphate) followed by 2 or 3 drops of Ferroin indicator
and titrate against the Ferrous Ammonium Sulphate solution until the colour changes from blue
green to reddish brown. Repeat for concordant values.
Observations and Calculations:

Normality of FAS solution = 'Z
Volume of FAS required in Back Titration = 'Y' cm3
Volume of FAS required in Blank Titration = 'X' cm3
Volume of FAS equivalent to the oxidisable impurities = (X - Y) cm3
1000 cm3 of 1 N FAS solution = 1 equivalent of Oxygen = 8 g of oxygen.
(X - Y) cm3 of 'Z' N FAS solution = 8(X-Y)Z = ................... g of Oxygen
1000
1000 cm3 of Waste water sample = 8(X - Y)Z =.................. g of Oxygen
25
COD of Waste water sample = 8000 (X - Y)Z = .............. mg of Oxygen
25
Result: COD of the Waste water sample is found to be mg of Oxygen/dm3
Important Statements to be Remembered:
1000 cm3 of 1.0 N FAS Solution = 1 equivalent of oxygen = 8g of oxygen

1000 cm3 of 1M solution of K2Cr2O7 = 48 g of Oxygen
Numerical problems on Chemical Oxygen Demand

1. 25ml of the waste water sample was mixed with 25ml of acidified K2Cr2O7 and refluxed. The
unreacted K2Cr2O7 required 10.2ml of FAS. In a blank titration 25ml of acidified K2Cr2O7
required 25.4 ml of FAS. The strength of FAS is 0.1N, calculate COD of waste water.
Solution:
Volume of waste water Sample: 25ml
Volume of FAS required for unreacted K2Cr2O7(y): 10.2ml ( Back Titter Value)
Volume of FAS required for 25ml K2Cr2O7(x): 25.4ml(Blank Titter Value)
Normality of FAS: 0.1N
Volume of FAS required to react with 25ml of waste water sample =(x-y)
=(25.4-10.2)ml
= 15.2ml
1000ml of 1.0 N FAS Solution = 1 equivalent of oxygen = 8g of oxygen
15.2 ml of 0.1 N FAS solution = 15.2 x 0.1 x 8 = 0.01216 g of Oxygen

1000
25ml of waste water sample = 0.01216 g of Oxygen.
1000ml of waste water sample = 1000 x 0.01216 = 0.4864 g of Oxygen

25
COD of waste water sample = 0.4864 g of oxygen per liter
= 0.4864 x 1000 mg 0f oxygen per liter
Result: COD Of waste water sample is 486.4 mg of oxygen per liter
Page 10 of 25
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Dept of Chemistry,
KSIT, Module-V
2. In a COD test 28.1cm3 and 14.0 cm3 of 0.05N FAS solution were required for blank and
sample titration respectively. The volume of test sample used is 25 cm3,. calculate COD of the
sample
Solution:
Volume of FAS required for unreacted K2Cr2O7 (y): 14.0ml ( Back Titter Value)
Volume of FAS required for 25ml K2Cr2O7 (x): 28.1ml (Blank Titter Value)
Normality of FAS: 0.05
=(28.1-14.0)ml
= 14.1ml
1000ml of 1.0 N FAS Solution = 1 equivalent of oxygen = 8g of Oxygen
14.1 ml of 0.05N FAS solution = 14.1 x 0.05 x 8 = 0.00564 g of Oxygen

1000
1000ml of waste water sample = 1000 x 0.00564= 0.2256 g of Oxygen

25
= 0.2256 x 1000 mg of Oxygen per liter
Result: COD Of waste water sample is 225.6 mg of Oxygen per liter
3. Calculate COD of the effluent sample when 25 cm3 of the effluent sample requires 8.5 cm3
of 0.001M K2Cr2O7 solution for complete oxidation.
Solution:
Volume of effluent (Waste Water Sample) = 25cm3.
Volume of K2Cr2O7 required for compete oxidation of 25cm3 effluent =8.5 cm3
Molarity of K2Cr2O7 = 0.001
8.5 cm3 of 0.001M solution of K2Cr2O7 = 48x0.001x8.5 = 0.000408g of Oxygen

1000
25 cm3 of effluent =0.000408g of Oxygen
1000 cm3 of effluent = 0.000408x1000 = 0.01632 mg of Oxygen per liter

25
Result: COD Of waste water sample is 16.32 mg of Oxygen per liter.
Page 11 of 25
KSIT
Dept of Chemistry,
KSIT, Module-V
4. Calculate COD of the effluent sample when 20cm3 of the effluent sample requires 7.8 cm3
of 0.002M K2Cr2O7 solution for complete oxidation.
Solution:
Volume of K2Cr2O7 required for compete oxidation of 20cm3 effluent = 7.8 cm3
7.8 cm3 of 0.002 M solution of K2Cr2O7 = 48x0.002x 7.8= 0.0007488g of Oxygen

1000
20cm3 of effluent =0.0007488g of Oxygen
1000 cm3 of effluent = 0.0007488x1000 = 0.03774g of Oxygen per liter

20
= 0.03774x 1000 mg of Oxygen per liter
Result: COD Of waste water sample is 37.74 mg of Oxygen per liter
5. 50ml of an industrial effluent is allowed to react with 100ml of K2Cr2O7 solution. The
unreacted K2Cr2O7 consumed 25ml of 0.05N FAS solution. The blank titration of the same
consumed 35ml of FAS. Calculate COD of effluent.

Solution:
Volume of effluent Sample: 50ml
Volume of FAS required for unreacted K2Cr2O7 (y): 25ml ( Back Titter Value)
Volume of FAS required for 25ml K2Cr2O7 (x): 35ml (Blank Titter Value)
=(35-25)ml
= 10ml
10 ml of 0.05N FAS solution = 10 x 0.05 x 8 = 0.0004 g of Oxygen

1000

50
COD of waste water sample = 0.008g of oxygen per liter
Result: COD Of waste water sample is 8 mg of Oxygen per liter
6. In COD experiment 20 cm3 of waste water sample consumes 30 cm3 of 0.01 M K2Cr2O7 for
oxidation of impurities. Calculate COD value of water sample.
Solution:
Volume of K2Cr2O7 required for compete oxidation of 20cm3 effluent = 30 cm3
Page 12 of 25
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Dept of Chemistry,
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30 cm3 of 0.01M solution of K2Cr2O7 = 48x0.01x30= 0.0144g of Oxygen
1000
20cm3 of effluent =0.0144g of Oxygen
1000 cm3 of effluent = 0.0144g x1000 = 0.72 mg of Oxygen per liter

20
Result: COD Of waste water sample is 720 mg of Oxygen per liter
7. In a COD experiment 25 cm3 of polluted water was allowed to react with 25 cm3of K2Cr2O7.
The K2Cr2O7 left over after oxidizing the impurities require 11.5 cm3 0.025 N FAS solution.
In a blank titration, 25 cm3 of K2Cr2O7 solution was consumed 18.5 cm3 of 0.025 N FAS
solution. Calculate COD of Waste water.
Solution:
Volume of FAS required for unreacted K2Cr2O7 (y): 11.5ml ( Back Titter Value)
Volume of FAS required for 25ml K2Cr2O7 (x): 18.5ml (Blank Titter Value)
=(18.5-11.5) ml
= 7.0 ml
7.0 ml of 0.05N FAS solution = 7.0 x 0.025 x 8 = 0.0014 g of Oxygen

1000

25
COD of waste water sample = 0.0056g of oxygen per liter
Result: COD Of waste water sample is 56 mg of Oxygen per dm3.
8. 50 cm3 of industrial sewage has consumed 11.5 cm3 0.04 N K2Cr2O7 solution for complete
oxidation organic and inorganic impurities. Calculate COD of industrial sewage.
Solution:
Volume of K2Cr2O7 required for compete oxidation of 25cm3 effluent = 11.5 cm3
11.5 cm3 of 0.04M solution of K2Cr2O7 = 48x0.04x 11.5= 0.02208g of Oxygen

1000
3
50cm of effluent =0.02208g of Oxygen
1000 cm3 of effluent = 0.02208x1000 = 0.4416g of Oxygen per liter
50
Result: COD Of waste water sample is 441.6 mg of Oxygen per liter.
Page 13 of 25
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Dept of Chemistry,
KSIT, Module-V
9. 20ml of sewage sample was reacted with 25cm3 of K2Cr2O7 solution and the unreacted
K2Cr2O7 requires 9.0 cm3 of N/4 FAS solution. Under similar conditions, in blank titration
15.0 cm3 of FAS was require for 25 cm3 of K2Cr2O7. Calculate the COD of the sample.
Solution:
Volume of waste water Sample: 20 cm3
Volume of FAS required for unreacted K2Cr2O7 (y): 9.0 cm3 ( Back Titter Value)
Volume of FAS required for 25 cm3 K2Cr2O7 (x): 15.0ml (Blank Titter Value)
Normality of FAS: N/4 = 0.25
=(15.0 – 9.0) cm3
= 6.0 cm3
1000 cm3 of 1.0 N FAS Solution = 1 equivalent of oxygen = 8g of Oxygen
6.0 cm3 of 0.25N FAS solution = 6.0 x 0.25 x 8 = 0.012 g of Oxygen

1000
3
20 cm of waste water sample = 0.012 g of Oxygen.
1000 cm3 of waste water sample = 1000 x 0.012= 0.6 g of Oxygen

20

Result: COD Of waste water sample is 600 mg of Oxygen per dm3
Methods of Chemical Analysis
Volumetric Analysis:
The volumetric analysis is quantitative analytical method of estimation of unknown substances.
In this method unknown concentration of a substance in a solution is estimated by adding exactly the
same number of equivalents of known concentration solution. It is also called as titrimetric analysis.
Basic principles of volumetric (titrimetric) analysis:

Volumetric analysis is based on the law (principle) of chemical equivalent which states that “the
substances react in the proportion of their equivalent weights”.
i.e., one gram equivalent of an acid would be neutralised by one gram equivalent of the base.
1 gram equivalent of HCl (36.46g) = 1 gram equivalent of NaOH (40.0g)
1000 cm3 of 1N solution of HCl = 1000 cm3 of 1N solution of NaOH
Thus, Volume of acid x Normality of acid = Volume of base x Normality of base
V HCl x N HCl = V NaOH x N NaOH
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Dept of Chemistry,
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Requirements of volumetric analysis:
1. The reaction between analyte and titrant must be quantitative, with a high equilibrium
constant.
2. The reaction must be rapid. If the reaction is slow, the time of determination is extended,
possibly leading to an inaccurate determination.
3. The reaction should proceed stoichiometrically, in order to calculate the amount of analyte
present.
4. The exact concentration of the titrant must be known.
5. Only one specific reaction should occur between the titrant and the analyte. There should be
no side reaction.
6. The endpoint of the reaction should be detectable precisely with the help of an indicator.
Standard Solution: The solution whose concentration or strength is known is called a standard
solution. The strength of a solution is expressed in Normality, Molarity, Molality, Mole fraction and
ppm.
There are two types of standard solution namely,

1. Primary standard solution
2. Secondary standard solution.
1. Primary standard solution: The substance whose standard solution can be prepared directly by
dissolving a known weight of the substance in fixed volume of the solution is known as primary
standard solution.
A Primary standard is a chemical substance that remains stable for a long period of time and
its solution and is not affected by atmospheric CO2.
Ex: Silver nitrate solution, Potassium dichromate solution, Potassium hydrogen phthalate
solution, etc.
Requirements of primary standard solution:
1. The substance used must be available in pure form and should be non toxic.
2. It should not be hygroscopic (ability to absorb moisture) or deliquescent (turns to solution).
3. It should have high molecular weight or equivalent weight so as to minimize the weighing
error.
4. It should be readily soluble in water.
5. It should be stable and should be easily available at modest cost.
2. Secondary standard solution. The substance whose standard solution can be standardized with
the help of primary standard solution is known as secondary standard solution. A secondary
standard substance cannot be used for preparing the standard solution by direct weighing.
A secondary standard is a chemical substance that does not remain stable for a long period of
time and its chemical composition changes due to absorption of atmospheric CO2.
Ex: NaOH, HCl, KMnO4, FeSO4, etc.
Units of Standard Solution: The strength of solution is expressed in Normality,

Molarity,Molality, Mole fraction and ppm.
Normality (N): Normality of a solution is defined as the number of gram equivalents of the
solute present in one liter of the solution.
Page 15 of 25
KSIT
Dept of Chemistry,
KSIT, Module-V
Molarity (M): Molarity of a solution is defined as the number of gram moles of the solute
present in one liter of the solution.
Molality (m): Molality of a solution is defined as the number of gram moles of the solute
dissolved in 1kg (1000grams) of the solvent.
Mole fraction ( X): The ratio of the number of moles of one component (solute) of a
Solution to the total number of moles representing all of the components in a mixture.
Number of Moles of Solute
Mole fraction of solute (X) =
Total Number of Mole of Solution
Number of Moles of Solute (A)

Mole fraction of solute (XA) =
Total Number of Mole of Solution (A+B)
Number of Moles of Solute (B)

Mole fraction of solute (XB) =
Total Number of Mole of Solution (A+B)
Parts Per Million (ppm): One part per million (ppm) is one part of solute per one million
parts of solvent or 10-6. It can be explained as one milligram of substance dissolved in one
liter of water (mg/l) or 1 milligram of substance present in one kilogram of other substance
(mg/kg).
Page 16 of 25
KSIT
Dept of Chemistry,
KSIT, Module-V
Instrumental methods of analysis

Estimation of Copper Colorimetrically:
Theory: When a beam of monochromatic light of intensity I0 is incident on a transparent
medium, a part Ia is absorbed, a part Ir is reflected and the remaining part It is transmitted.
Io= Ia+ Ir+ It

For a glass-air interface Ir is negligible. Therefore,
Io= Ia+ It
, where T is called the transmittance.
, where A is called the absorbance.
The relation between Absorbance(A), concentration 'c' (expressed in mol lit–1) and path
length(expressed in cm) is given by Beer - Lambert's law,
Where is the molar extinction co-efficient and is a constant for a given substance at a given
wavelength. If the path length is kept constant, then, A = c. Hence a plot of absorbance against
concentration gives a straight line as shown in figure (calibration curve). The absorbance is measured
using a spectrophotometer at a wavelength corresponding to maximum absorbance. A series of
standard solutions containing cupric ions are treated with ammonia to get deep blue colored
cuprammonium sulphate complex and diluted to a definite volume using distilled water.
Procedure:
Take the given copper sulphate solution in a 50 cm3 burette and transfer 5,10,15,20 and 25
cm of the solution into 5 separate, labelled 50 cm3 volumetric flasks. Add 5 cm3 of ammonia solution
3
to each of them and dilute up to the mark with distilled water. Stopper the volumetric flasks and
shake well for uniform concentration. To the test solution (containing unknown volume of copper
sulphate) taken in a separate 50 cm3 volumetric flask, add 5 cm3 of ammonia solution, dilute upto the
mark with distilled water and shake well for uniform concentration. Prepare the blank solution by
taking only 5 cm3 of ammonia solution in a separate 50 cm3 volumetric flask, diluting upto the mark
with distilled water and shaking well for uniform concentration. After 10 minutes, measure the
absorbance of the standard solutions as well as the test solution against the blank solution (at 620
nm) and tabulate the readings as shown. Draw a calibration curve by plotting concentration of copper
(in mg per cm–3) or volume of copper sulphate solution (in cm3) against absorbance. Using the
calibration curve determine the concentration of copper in the test solution and calculate the amount
of copper in the test solution.
Note : Ammonia should be added to all the solutions including the test solution at the same time.
Page 17 of 25
KSIT
Dept of Chemistry,
KSIT, Module-V

Concentration of
CuSO 4 Solution Absorbance
Blank Solution
0.1M
0.2M
0.3M
0.4M
0.5M
Brass Solution
1000 cm3 of stock solution contains 4.2 g of CuSO4

X cm3 of solution contains = 'y' g of CuSO4

249.68 g of CuSO4 contains 63.54 g of Cu.
y g of CuSO4 contains = 'z' g of Cu.
Applications:
Colorimeters have many practical applications such as testing water quality by screening chemicals
such as chlorine, fluoride, cyanide, dissolved oxygen, iron, molybdenum, zinc and hydrazine. They
are also used to determine the concentrations of plant nutrients such as ammonia, nitrate and
phosphorus in soil or hemoglobin in blood. Colorimetry is also used in color printing, textile
manufacturing and paint manufacturing for precise quality inspection.
Estimation of FAS Potentiometrically using standard K2Cr2O7 solution.
Theory: Redox titrations can be carried out Potentiometrically using platinum- calomel
electrode combination similar to acid-base neutralizations. For the reaction:
Reduced form → oxidized form + n electrons
The potential is given by Nernst equation:
Where E0 is the standard potential of the system. The potential of the system is thus
controlled by the ratio of the concentration of the oxidized to that of the reduced species present. As
the reaction proceeds, the ratio of concentration of the oxidized to that of the reduced species varies
and hence the potential change more rapidly in the vicinity of the end point of the titration. This may
be followed Potentiometrically and a plot of change in potential against volume (titration curve) is
characterized by a sudden change of potential at the Equivalence point. The sudden change in the
potential at the Equivalence point is explained as follows:
Page 18 of 25
KSIT
Dept of Chemistry,
KSIT, Module-V
The reaction that takes place in the determination of Fe2 +is:
Fe2 + Fe3 ++ e– - Oxidation
Cr2O72–+ 14 H ++6 e– 2Cr3++ 7H2O - Reduction.
Prior to addition of K2 Cr2 O7 to the acidified FAS in beaker the potential will be low due to Fe2 +
ions. On addition of K2 Cr2 O7 oxidation of Fe2 + to Fe3 + takes place and potential increases
progressively.
E Fe3+ / Fe2 + = E o Fe3+ / Fe2 + + 0.0591 log [Oxidized Form]
n [Reduced Form]
E Fe3+ / Fe2 + = E o Fe3+ / Fe2 + + 0.0591 log [Fe3+]

n [Fe2+]
E Fe3+ / Fe2 + = 0.44V + + 0.0591 log [Fe3+]

n [Fe2+]......................... (1)
At equivalence point all Fe2 + will completely oxidize to Fe3 + and potential increases rapidly. And
hence e.m.f of the cell also increases.
The e.m.f of the cell is given by the equation:
Ecell = ECathode – EAnode.
Ecell = E Fe3+ / Fe2 + – ESCE
Ecell = E Fe3+ / Fe2 + – 0.242V ......................... (2)
Ecell = E Fe3+ / Fe2 + = 0.44V + + 0.0591 log [Fe3+] – 0.242V

n [Fe2+]
Beyond the Equivalence point the potential is because of Cr2O72–/Cr3+.
Thus an abrupt increase in the potential of the solution in the vicinity of the equivalence point is
observed. This marks the equivalence point. In the experiment, the potential of the cell is determined
with reference to Saturated Calomel Electrode.
Procedure
Transfer 25.0 cm3of ferrous ammonium sulphate solution into a clean 250 cm3 beaker with the
aid of pipette. Add two test tubes of dilute Sulphuric acid. Immerse the Calomel-Platinum electrode
assembly into the solution in the beaker and connect the electrode assembly to potentiometer.
Measure the potential (E). Fill the burette with potassium dichromate solution. Add 0.5cm3 of K2Cr2O7
solution to the beaker at a time. Stir the solution carefully and measure the potential after 30 seconds.
Continue the addition of K2Cr2O7 till there is a sudden rise in potential (At this stage wait for 5
minutes). Continue the titration in the same way till 10 ml. Determine the end point by differential
method ( that is by plotting a graph of against volume of K2Cr2O7 as shown in the figure).
Calculate the normality and amount of FAS in the given solution.
Page 19 of 25
KSIT
Dept of Chemistry,
KSIT, Module-V
Observations & Calculations

Volume of E ∆E ∆V ∆E/∆V
K2Cr2O7 (mV) (mV) (cm ) (mV/ cm3)
3
(cm3)
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
Up to 10.0
Equivalence Point = VK2Cr2O7 = ………cm3 1000
Δ E/ Δ V (mV/ml)
800
600
400
Number of grams of FAS in 1000cm3=

Equivalence point
200
Note: Equivalent mass of FAS = 392.13 0
Volume of K2Cr2O7 (cm3)

0 2 4 6 8 10
Result: (a) …………….
Amount of FAS in 1000 cm3 of the solution = …g
Conductometric Estimation of a) Strong Acid Vs Strong base b) Weak Acid Vs

Strong Base and c) Mixture of Strong Acid & Weak Acid Vs Strong Base.
Theory: Measurement of conductance can be employed to determine the end point in acid-
base titrations. In conductometric titrations, there is a sudden change in the conductance of the
solution at the equivalence point. The principle underlying conductometric titration is the
substitution of ions of one mobility by ions of another mobility. Therefore, the conductance of a
solution depends on the number and mobility of ions. The equivalence point is determined
graphically by plotting conductance (ordinate) against the titre values (abscissa).
Conductometric titration may be applied for the determination of acids present in a mixture. In the
titration of a mixture of weak acid (CH3COOH) and a strong acid (HCl) with a strong base (NaOH),
the conductance decreases upon adding NaOH to the acid mixture owing to the substitution of the
highly mobile H+ ions (mobility = 350 mho per meter) by the less mobile Na+ ions (mobility = 50
mho per meter). This trend continues till all the H+ ions of HCl are replaced (that is, strong acid is
completely neutralized). Continued addition of NaOH rises the conductance moderately, as the weak
acid (CH3COOH) is converted into its salt (CH3COONa). Further addition of NaOH rises the
conductance steeply due to the presence of free OH– ions (mobility = 198 mho per metre). The
titration curves in the graph given depict the location of the equivalence points.
Page 20 of 25
KSIT
Dept of Chemistry, Dr. Kiran Kumar S. R, Assistant Professor,
KSIT, Module-V BENGALURU
a) Strong Acid with a Strong Base, e.g. HCl with NaOH:

Before NaOH is added, the conductance is high due to the presence of highly mobile hydrogen
ions. When the base is added, the conductance falls due to the replacement of hydrogen ions by
the added cat ion as H+ ions react with OH− ions to form undissociated water. This decrease in
the conductance continues till the equivalence point. At the equivalence point, the solution
contains only NaCl. After the equivalence point, the conductance increases due to the large
conductivity of OH- ions.
HCl + NaOH NaCl + H2O
b) Weak Acid with a Strong Base, e.g. acetic acid with NaOH:
Initially the conductance is low due to the partial ionization of acetic acid. On the addition of base,
there is decrease in conductance not only due to the replacement of H+ by Na+ but also suppresses
the dissociation of acetic acid due to common ion acetate. But very soon, the conductance increases
on adding NaOH as NaOH neutralizes the un-dissociated CH3COOH to CH3COONa which is the
strong electrolyte. This increase in conductance continues raise up to the equivalence point. The
graph near the equivalence point is curved due the hydrolysis of salt CH3COONa. Beyond the
equivalence point, conductance increases more rapidly
with the addition of NaOH due to the highly conducting OH− ions.
CH3COOH + NaOH CH3COONa + H2O
c) Mixture of a Strong Acid and a Weak Acid vs. a Strong Base:

In this curve there are two break points. The first break point corresponds to the neutralization of
strong acid. When the strong acid has been completely neutralized only then the weak acid starts
neutralizing. The second break point corresponds to the neutralization of weak acid and after that the
conductance increases due to the excess of OH− ions in case of a strong base as the titrant. However,
when the titrant is a weak base, it remains almost constant after the end point.
HCl + NaOH NaCl + H2O
CH3COOH + NaOH CH3COONa + H2O
a) Strong Acid with a Strong Base

b) Weak Acid with a Strong Base
C) Mix ture of a Strong Acid and a Weak Acid vs. a Strong
Page 21 of 25
KSIT
Dept of Chemistry, Dr. Kiran Kumar S. R, Assistant Professor, KSIT,
Procedure:
Fill a 10 cm3micro burette with the standard (1N) NaOH solution. Pipette out 50 cm3 of the
Strong Acid/ Weak Acid / Acid mixture into a clean 100 cm3 beaker. Immerse the conductivity cell
into the acid mixture. Connect the conductivity cell to the conductivity bridge; adjust the cell
constant and measure the conductance (when the volume of NaOH is zero). Now add NaOH solution
from the burette in increments of 0.5 cm3. After each addition of NaOH, mix the solution well and
record the conductance of the solution. As the titration proceeds, the conductance first gradually
decreases, then rises gradually and finally rises sharply.
Plot a graph of conductance (Y - axis) against volume of NaOH (X - axis). The graph consists of
three straight lines. The volume corresponding to the point of intersection of the first and the second
line gives the neutralization point for only HCl. The volume corresponding to the point of
intersection of the second and third line gives neutralization point for both HCl and CH 3COOH.
Calculate the normality and amount of HCl and CH3COOH in one 1000cm3 of the acid mixture.
Observations and Calculations:
1. Estimation of HCl
Amount of HCl present in 1 dm3of the acid mixture = NHCl x Equivalent mass of HCl.
2. Estimation of CH3COOH
Amount of CH3COOH present in 1 dm3 of the acid mixture = NCH3COOH x Equivalent mass of
CH3COOH
Volume of NaOH Conductivity

(cm3) (ohm1cm1) Note: Equivalent mass of HCl = 36.5
0.0 Equivalent mass of CH3COOH = 60.05
0.5
1.0 Result: Normality of HCl = ……………
1.5 Amount of HCl /dm3= ………
2.0
2.5 Normality of CH3COOH = …………….
3.0 Amount of CH3COOH /dm3= …
3.5
Page 22 of 25
KSIT
Estimation of Sodium and Potassium in the given sample of Water using Flame
Photometer.
Theory: Flame photometry is an atomic emission technique used for the detection of metals. If a
solution containing metallic salts is aspirated into a flame, a vapour containing the metallic atoms
will be formed. The electrons from the metallic atoms are then excited from the ground state (E1) to
the higher energy state (En) where n = 2, 3, 4, ……7 by making use of the thermal energy of the
flame. From the higher energy states, these electrons will return to the ground state by emitting
radiations (En – E1 = hυ where n = 2, 3, 4, ……7) which are characteristic of each element.
Na*
Exciting
energy hυ (emission)
NaCl(s) NaCl(g) Na(g) + Cl(g)
Flame photometer correlates the emitted radiations with the concentration of these elements. It is
simple and rapid method for the elements that can be easily excited. The metals sodium, potassium,
calcium and lithium can be studied by flame photometry.

A flame photometer is composed of the pressure regulator and flow meter for the fuel gases, an
atomizer, burner, optical system, photosensitive detector and out put recorder. A filter of the element
whose concentration is to be determined is inserted between the flame and the detector. Propane gas
is used as fuel and air or oxygen is used as oxidant. Combination of these two will give a temperature
of about 19000C. the whole analysis depends on the flow rate of the fuel, oxidant, the rate of
introduction of the sample and the droplet size.
Recorder
Flame Lens Photo Detector
Filter
Atomizer
Air
Fuel
Liquid sample from the Aspirator

The method is employed when the concentrations are in the level of 1 ppm to 10 ppm. Air at a
pressure of about 0.55kg/cm2 is passed into the atomizer, where it joins with air stream to form
aerosol/mist. Fuel gas (LPG or propane) is supplied through the burner at a regulated speed and
mixed with the mist in a small mixing chamber and the mixture is burnt in the top of the burner. The
emitted radiation is passed through the lens and then through the optical filter which separates the
various wavelengths and permits only the radiation characteristic of the element to pass through the
photocell. The output is seen in the display. The emission spectrum for each metal is different and
the intensity of the spectrum depends on the concentration of the atoms in the flame.
Procedure:
Page 23 of 25
KSIT
1. Estimation of Sodium
Switch on the flame photometer and regulate the flow of gas and air supply. Send distilled water first
and start ignition. After the instrument is warmed up for about 10 minutes, adjust the display for zero
reading (do not make any adjustment after this). Take standard solutions of NaCl of known
concentrations such as 2,4,6,8 and 10 ppm and measure the intensity of each, one by one. Finally,
measure the intensity of the unknown sample. Plot a graph of the intensity of the emitted light
against concentration of Na+ (in ppm). From the graph and the intensity of the unknown sample,
calculate the amount of sodium in the given sample of water.
2. Estimation of Potassium
Switch on the flame photometer and regulate the flow of gas and air supply. Send distilled water
first and start ignition. After the instrument is warmed up for about 10 minutes, adjust the display for
zero reading (do not make any adjustment after this). Take standard solutions of KCl of known
concentrations such as 2,4,6,8 and 10 ppm and measure the intensity of each, one by one. Finally,
measure the intensity of the unknown sample. Plot a graph of the intensity of the emitted light
against concentration of K+ (in ppm). From the graph and the intensity of the unknown sample,
calculate the amount of sodium in the given sample of water.

1. Estimation of Sodium / Potassium
Sl. Volume of NaCl Flame photometer Concentration of
No /KCl (cm3) reading sodium
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6. Unknown volume
25
Flame photometer reading
20
15
10
Unknown volume
5 10 15 20 25
Volume of NaCl (cm3)

3
Voume of NaCl /KCl cm
Page 24 of 25
KSIT
3
1000 cm of NaCl /KCl solution contains 100 ppm of Na
5 cm3 of NaCl /KCl contains = .................. ppm of Na
10 cm3 of NaCl /KCl NaCl contains = .................. ppm of Na
X cm3 of NaCl /KCl contains = .................. ppm of Na

Most likely questions and scheme of answers.

1. What are sources of water and impurities? Write a brief note on sources and impurities of
water.
2. What is potable water and its characteristics? List out WHO Drinking Water Specifications.
3. What is hardness of water? Explain Determination of Total Hardness of a sample of water
using disodium salt of EDTA By Complexometric Method.
4. What is chemical oxygen demand? Explain Determination of Chemical Oxygen Demand
(COD) of Waste water.
5. What is Volumetric analysis? Explain basic principle and requirements.
6. Define the following units of standard solution.
i) Molarity ii) Normality iii) ppm.
7. Explain the theory, instrumentation and applications of flame photometry.
8. Explain the theory and instrumentation of conductometry.
9. Explain the theory and instrumentation of Potentiometry.
10. Explain the theory and instrumentation of colorimetry.
Page 25 of 25

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KSIT

Natural Sources of Water

WHO Drinking Water Specifications

1. Temporary Hardness: Temporary Hardness of water is caused by the presence of

Determination of Total Hardness of a sample of water using disodium salt of

EDTA has the following structure:

HOOC H2C CH2 COOH

The ionization in solution is represented as follows:

where M2 + represents Ca2 + and Mg2 + ions.

Part B: Determination of total hardness of water sample

Observations and Calculations

25 cm3 of the Hard Water sample contains 'a' g of CaCO3

Therefore, 106 (1 million cm3) of Hard Water sample contains

Hardness type Hardness causing ions Hardness causing salts

Temporary Bicarbonates of Ca & Mg Ca (HCO3)&Mg (HCO3)

Amounts equivalent to CaCO3 (mg/Lit) =

Numerical Problems on Hardness of Water

CaCl2 111 111

Temporary hardness= Mg(HCO3)2+ Ca(HCO3)2= 50 + 50 = 100mg/Lit.

2. Calculate the temporary and permanent hardness of water sample containing

Mg(HCO3)2 7.3 146

Ca(HCO3)2 16.2 162

CaSO4 13.6 136

Temporary hardness= Mg(HCO3)2+ Ca(HCO3)2= 5 + 100 = 15mg/Lit.

Mg(HCO3)2 16.8 146

MgSO4 29.6 120

NaCl does not contribute any hardness to water

Temporary hardness= Mg(HCO3)2= 11.50 mg/Lit.

Permanent hardness = MgCl2 +MgSO4 = 12.63 + 24.66 = 37.29 mg/Lit.

Total Hardness of the water sample:

Total Hardness = ppm of CaCO3 equivalent

= ppm of CaCO3 equivalent

Permanent Hardness of the water sample:

= ppm of CaCO3 equivalent

Temporary Hardness of the water sample:

5. In an estimation of hardness of water by EDTA titration, 250 ml of a sample of water

Total Hardnessof the water sample:

Total Hardness = ppm of CaCO3 equivalent

= ppm of CaCO3 equivalent

Total Hardness of the water sample:

Total Hardness = ppm of CaCO3 equivalent

= ppm of CaCO3 equivalent

Permanent Hardness of the water sample:

= ppm of CaCO3 equivalent

7. 50 ml of sample water consumed 15 ml of 0.02 M EDTA before boiling and 5 ml of the

Total Hardness of the water sample:

Total Hardness = ppm of CaCO3 equivalent

= ppm of CaCO3 equivalent

Permanent Hardness of the water sample:

Permanent Hardness = ppm of CaCO3 equivalent

= ppm of CaCO3 equivalent

Temporary Hardness of the water sample:

Temporary hardness= Total hardness − Permanent hardness

Dissolved Oxygen (D.O)

BOD – Biological Oxygen Demand

COD – Chemical Oxygen Demand

Determination of Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) of Waste water

Observations and Calculations:

Important Statements to be Remembered:

1000 cm3 of 1.0 N FAS Solution = 1 equivalent of oxygen = 8g of oxygen

Numerical problems on Chemical Oxygen Demand

15.2 ml of 0.1 N FAS solution = 15.2 x 0.1 x 8 = 0.01216 g of Oxygen

1000ml of waste water sample = 1000 x 0.01216 = 0.4864 g of Oxygen