CHAPTER TEN

TURNING MOMENT DIAGRAMS AND FLYWHEEL

10.1 Introduction

The graphical representation of the turning moment or crank-effort for various positions of
the crank effort diagram is known as the turning moment diagram. This graphical
representation is plotted on Cartesian co-ordinates where crank angle is plotted against the
turning moment as shown in figure 10.1.

10.2 Turning moment diagram for a single cylinder double acting steam engine

A steam engine is usually double acting, the difference between the pressure on the cover end
side and the crank of a steam engine gives its net pressure. A turning moment diagram for a
double acting steam engine is depicted in figure 10.1. If the net pressure on the piston is p and
A is the area of the piston, the steam force (Fp) on the piston will be given by:

Fp = p×A

The force Fp produces a turning moment on the crankshaft, this turning moment is given by:

T = Fp* +
√

Where

T - The turning moment on the crank shaft

r - The crank radius

θ - The angle rotated by the crank shaft from inner dead centre

n - The ratio of concentrating rod length to radius of crank

it is clear from the above expression that T is zero when θ is zero, also, T is maximum when
θ is 90° and zero when θ is 180° as shown in figure 10.1.
 Figure 10.1

The area of the turning moment diagram is equal to the product of the turning moment and
the angle turned, this implies that the area of the turning moment diagram is equal to the work
done by the piston per revolution. The work done by the engine is meant to overcome the
mean resisting torque (Tmean)

10.3 Turning moment diagram for a four stroke internal combustion engine

In a four stroke internal combustion engine, there is one working stroke after the crank has
turned through 720° or 4π radians, this is equivalent to two revolutions. Unlike the diagram
for single stroke engine, the diagram for a four stroke internal combustion engine repeats
itself after every two revolutions instead of one as shown in figure 10.2.
 Figure 10.2

From figure 10.2, it is evident that during suction stroke a negative loop is obtained since the
pressure on the working side of the piston is less than atmospheric pressure; it therefore
means that work is done on the piston. During compression a bigger negative loop is formed,
this because the piston does work on gases and therefore energy is spent. During working, the
expanding gases do work on the piston and a large positive gas torque loop is formed. In the
exhaust stroke, work is done by the piston on gases thus a small negative loop is formed.

10.4 Turning moment diagram for a multi-cylinder engine

A multi-cylinder engine is a type of engine with two or more cylinders working at the same
time. Consider a turning moment diagram for a compound steam engine having three
cylinders as shown in figure 10.3. Note that the first, second and third cylinders are the high
pressure, intermediate pressure and low pressure cylinders respectively. In addition, the
resultant turning moment diagram is the sum of the turning moment diagrams for the three
cylinders and the three cylinders’ cranks are placed at an angle of 120° to each other.

Generally, the turning moment diagram for a multi-cylinder engine is obtained by first
obtaining the turning moment diagram for each cylinder followed by combining all of them
 Figure 10.3

10.5 Flywheel

A flywheel is a device used in accumulating and storing energy in machines. This device
stores energy when the supply is high compared to the requirement, and releases it when the
requirement of energy is more than supply. Figure 10.4 shows a typical flywheel.

Figure 10.4
A flywheel has no effect on has no influence on the mean speed of the prime mover neither
does it influence the varying load demand prime mover. The speed of a flywheel would
increase during period of excess torque during the cycle and it would fall during the period of
deficit torque during the cycle thus, a flywheel controls the speed variations caused by the
fluctuation of the engine turning moment during each cycle of operation.

Shearing machines, punching machines, crushers and other machines whose operation is
intermittent have flywheels that store energy from the source during the greater portion of the
operating cycle and gives it up during a small period of the cycle.

The difference between the functions of a flywheel and a governor is that a flywheel
determines the slight permissible variation of speed in one cycle of operations of an engine
and acts as a store of energy whereas a governor controls the fuel supply to balance the
average energy output with the load, as it keeps the mean speed constant over a period of
time.

10.6 Fluctuation of energy and speed in a flywheel

The speed of a flywheel increases during a period of excess torque and decreases during the
period of deficit torque during the cycle. The fluctuation of energy may be determined by the
turning moment diagram for a complete cycle of operation. Consider figure 10.1, a turning
moment diagram for a single cylinder double acting steam engine, from the diagram, the
mean resisting torque (Tmean) cuts the turning moment diagram at B, C, D and E. When the
crank moves from a to p, the work done by the engine is equivalent to the area under aBp, the
energy required is instead represented by the area under aABp. This implies that the the work
done by the engine is less than the required work, this amount of energy is extracted from the
flywheel and therefore the speed of the flywheel would decrease. When the crank moves
from p to q, the work done by the engine is equivalent to pBbCq while the energy required is
equal to the area under pBCq. Thus, the engine has done excess work than the requirement,
the extra work that has been done by the engine is stored in the flywheel leading to the
increase of the flywheel speed as the crank moves from p to q
10.7 Determination of maximum fluctuation of energy

Figure 10.5 shows a turning moment diagram for a multi-cyclinder engine. The horizontal
line A, B, C, D, E, F and G represents the mean torque line. If a1, a3, and a5 are areas above
the mean torque line while the areas a2, a4 and a6 are areas below the mean torque line,
these areas would either be added or subtracted from the energy of the moving parts of the
engine since they represent to a scale a given quantity of energy.

Figure 10.5

Using figure 10.5, let the kinetic energy in the flywheel at A = E, this would imply that:

Energy at B = E + a1

Energy at C = E + a1 a2

Energy at D = E + a1 a2 + a3

Energy at E = E + a1 a2 + a3 a4

Energy at F = E + a1 a2 + a3 a4 + a5

Energy at G = E + a1 a2 + a3 a4 + a5 a6

= Energy at point A

If point B is chosen to be the point of maximum amount of energy( E1) and F be a point with
the least amount of energy (E2), it would imply that:
Maximum energy in flywheel E1 = E + a1

Minimum energy in flywheel E2 = E + a1 a2 + a3 a4 + a5

maximum fluctuation of energy ∆E= E1 E2

=[ ] [ ]

∆E =

10.8 Coefficient of fluctuation of speed

The ratio of the maximum fluctuation of speed to the mean speed of a flywheel is called the
Coefficient of fluctuation of speed whereas the difference between the maximum and
minimum speeds during a cycle is called the maximum fluctuation of speed.

For a given flywheel,let:

N1 -Maximum speed in r.p.m during the cycle

N2 -Minimum speed in r.p.m during the cycle

Mean speed N in r.p.m during the cycle is given by:

N=

The coefficient of fluctuation of speed Cs is therefore given by:

Cs =

( )
=

If ω is the mean angular speed, then the coefficient of fluctuation of speed Cs is

expressed in terms of angular speed as:
 ( )
Cs= =

Similarly, if V is the mean linear speed of the flywheel, then the coefficient of fluctuation of
speed Cs is expressed in terms of linear speed as:

( )
Cs= =

The reciprocal of the coefficient of fluctuation of speed is known as the coefficient of

steadiness m and is given by:

10.9 Energy stored in a flywheel

When a flywheel absorbs energy its speed increases, and when it gives up energy, its speed
decreases. Using the flywheel shown in figure 10.4, let:

m -Mass of the flywheel, Kg

k -Radius of gyration of the flywheel, m

I -Moment of inertia of flywheel about its axis of rotation,Kg-m2

N1 -Maximum speed during the cycle, r.p.m

N2 -Minimum speed during the cycle, r.p.m

ω1 - Maximum angular speed during the cycle,rad/s

ω2 - Minimum angular speed during the cycle, rad/s

N -Mean speed in r.p.m during the cycle =

ω - Maximum angular speed during the cycle,rad/s =

 Cs -Coefficient of fluctuation of speed = or

The mean kinetic energy E of the flywheel is given by:

E =

joules

As the speed of the flywheel changes from ω1 to ω2, the maximum fluctuation of
energy ∆E will be given by:

∆E = Maximum kinetic energy – Minimum kinetic energy

( )

( ( ))

( )

But ω =

∆E = ( )

Multiplying and dividing by ω we have:

∆E Cs but I= m.k2

m.k2 Cs joules.

If the thickness of the rim R is very small as compared to the diameter of the rim, the radius
of gyration k may be taken to be equal to the mean radius R of the rim. Therefore, ∆E may be
written as:

∆E m.R2 Cs, joules. Since k = R

 = mV2 Cs, V is the mean linear velocity at the mean radius.

10.10 Coefficient of fluctuation of energy

The coefficient of fluctuation of energy (Ce) of flywheel is the ratio of the maximum
fluctuation of energy during a cycle to the work done during the cycle, that is:

Ce =

The work done per cycle = Mean torque during cycle (Tmean) × Crank angle (θ) turned

during one cycle, radians

= Tmean × θ

In case of a steam engine or a two stroke internal combustion engine, θ = 2π. For a four
stroke internal combustion engine, θ = 4π

The mean torque, Tmean is given by:

Tmean

Where P -Power transmitted, W

ω -Angular speed, rad/s

N -Speed in r.p.m
Worked Examples

10.1 Determine mean speed of flywheel, maximum fluctuation of energy and the
coefficient of fluctuation of a flywheel whose maximum and minimum speeds are
1020 r.p.m and 1000 r.p.m respectively. Take the mass and radius of gyration of the
flywheel to 25kg and 10 cm respectively.

Solution

Mean speed, N of a flywheel is given by:

N =

= 1010 r.p.m

Maximum fluctuation of energy ∆E = Maximum kinetic energy, E1 – Minimum

kinetic energy, E2

But I = m.k2 since m = 25 Kg and k = 10 cm= 0.1m,

I = 25 × 0.12

= 0.25 kgm2

ω1 =

= 106.81 rad/s

ω2 =

= 104.72 rad/s
 E1 – E2 = ( ) ( )

= 1426.05 1370.78

= 55.27 joules

The coefficient of fluctuation of speed Cs, of the flywheel is given by:

( )
Cs= =

( )
=

= 0.0198

10.2 A steam engine has a 3000kg flywheel whose radius of gyration is 1 metre, if the
starting torque of the engine is constant and equal to 1600 N-M in magnitude;
determine the angular acceleration and the kinetic energy of the flywheel after 12
seconds from the start.

Solution

Since I = m.k2, we have:

I = 3000 × 12

= 3000 Kg m

The starting torque T, of the engine is given by:

T = Iα

Where α -Angular acceleration of the flywheel

But 1600 = Iα

= 3000 × α , making α the subject of the formula:

α =
 = 0.53 rad/s2

In order to determine the kinetic energy of the flywheel, the angular speed of the
flywheel after 12 seconds from rest is determined while the acceleration is assumed to
be uniform.

Let t -Time, seconds

ω1 - Angular speed at rest = 0

ω2 - Angular speed after 12 seconds

From the equations of linear motion, ω2 = ω1 + αt

= 0 + 0.53 × 12

= 6.36 rad/s

The kinetic energy of the flywheel therefore becomes

K.E =

= × 3000 × 6.362

= 61kJ

10.3 The turning moment diagram for an engine is designed to the following scales:
Turning moment, 1 mm = 5 N-m: crank angle, 1 mm =1°. The turning moment
diagram repeats itself at every half revolution of the engine and the areas above and
below the mean turning moment line taken in order are: 295, 685, 40, 340, 960, 270
mm2.The rotating parts are equivalent to a mass of 36 kg at a radius of gyration of
0.15m. Determine the coefficient of fluctuation of speed when the engine runs at 1800
r.p.m

Solution

Given that the turning moment scale is 1 mm = 5 N-m, the crank angle scale is

1 mm = rad,
 1 mm2 on the turning moment diagram = 5 × N-m

Figure 10.6

Referring to the turning moment diagram shown in figure 10.6, let the total energy at
A = E, therefore:

Energy at B = E + 295 This is the maximum energy

Energy at C = E + 295 685 =E

Energy at D =E E

Energy at E =E 340 =E – 690 (Minimum amount of energy)

Energy at F = E – 690 + 960 =E + 270

Energy at G = E + 270 – 270 =E = Energy at point A

Maximum fluctuation of energy ∆E = Maximum energy – Minimum energy

=[ ] [ – ]

= 985 mm2

=985 ×

= 86 joules

From the relationship ∆E .k2 Cs , we have

 86 joules =m .k2 Cs

=36 × (0.15)2( ) 2 Cs

Cs =

=0.003

Revision Exercise

10.1 The horizontal steam engine 0.2 m diameter by 0.4 m stroke , connecting rod 1 m
makes 160 r.p.m. The mass of the reciprocating parts is 50 Kg. When the crank has
turned through an angle of 30°, the steam pressure is 4.5 bar. Calculate the turning
moment of the crankshaft. If the mean resistance torque is 30 N-m and the mass of
flywheel is 50 Kg and and the radius of gyration 0.7m,calculate the acceleration of the
flywheel.

[Answers: 1378 N-m, 44.3 rad/s]

10.2 Discuss the inertia forces due to piston and connecting rod in a reciprocating engine

10.3 A cross compound steam engine rated at 300000 W runs at 100r.p.m . The speed of
the engine is to be maintained within 1% of the speed . The flywheel has a mass of 2
tonnes with radius of gyration of 100cm.Determine the co-efficient of fluctuation of
energy .

[Answer: 0.024]

10.4 Derive an expression for displacement, velocity and acceleration of the piston of a
reciprocating engine in terms of crank radius, connecting rod length, crank angle θ
from the inner dead centre and the angular velocity ω of the crank.