Crop Protection

UPS UPSTEP REVIEW CENTER
2021 LEA REVIEW
Crop
Protection
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Checklist of Contents
DATE PRE-TEST SCORE
DATE POST-TEST SCORE
DATE CONTENT CONCEPT EVALUATION
FUNDAMENTALS OF WEED SCIENCE

Weed Science Definitions and
Related Concepts
Definition
Characteristics
General Classification of Weeds
Specific Classifications
Crop and Weed Competition
Weed Survival and Ecology
Weed Management
Introduction
Goals
Methods, Techniques
Formulation and State of
Application
Spray Supplements
Herbicide Classifications
Sprayer System
ENTOMOLOGY
Definition
Insects
Short Hist0ry and Importance
Philippine Entomology
Importance of Entomology
Basic Anatomy of Insects
General Morphology
Mouthparts
Antennae
Legs
Insect Metamorphosis
Ametabolous
Paurometabolous
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Hemimetabolous
Holometabolous
Types of Insect Larva
Eruciform
Scarabeiform
Cabodeiform
Elateriform
Vermiform
Types of Insect Pupa
Oblect
Exarate
Decticous
Adecticous
Coarctate
Classification, Nomenclature and
Identification of Insects
Insect Taxonomy
Blattodea
Coleoptera
Dermaptera
Isoptera
Lepidoptera
Mantodea
Odonata
Orthoptera
Phasmatodea
Neuroptera
Thysanoptera
Other Insect Orders
Protura
Zoraptera
Psocoptera
Ptiraptera
Strepsiptera
Mecoptera
Trichoptera
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Siphonaptera
Embioptera
Modes of Insect Production
Concept of Pest and Its Modes of
Causing Damages
Economic Injury Level (EIL)
Economic Threshold Level (TL)
Modes of Damage Caused by
Insects
Insects attacking Cultivated
Plants
Insects Attacking Stored Products
Insects Attacking Stored Food
Insects Attacking Man and
Animals
Venomous Insects
Parasitic Insects
Disease Transmission
Methods of Insect Pest Control
Cultural Methods
Mechanical/Physical Methods
Host Plant Resistance Methods
Autocidal Control Methods
Biological Control Methods
Chemical Control Methods
Quarantine/Legal Control
Methods
Integrated Pest Management
Methods
Major Pests of Important Crops
Rice
Corn
Stored Grains
Sugarcane
Vegetable Crops
Solanaceous Crops
Valvaceous Crops
Legumes
Rootcrops
Fruitcrops
Coffee
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Cacao
Non-insect Pests
Rodent Pests in the Philippines
Mollusks Pests in the Philippines
Avian Pests in the Philippines
PLANT PATHOLOGY
Definition
Short History and Importance
Prominent Plant Diseases in
World History
Threats Imposed by Plant
Diseases
Types of Crop Losses
Historical Development
Pre-scientific Period
Beginnings of Scientific Studies
Germ Theory of Disease
Etiological Period
Other Important Discoveries
Plant Pathology in the
Philippines
Concept of Plant Diseases
Plant Disease
Classification
Common Terms
Disease Triangle
Plant Disease Diagnosis
Signs vs. Symptoms
Classification of Symptoms
Symptom Terminologies
Categorization of Signs
Sign Terminologies
Koch’s Postulate of Pathogenicity
Agents of Plant Disease
Abiotic Stress/Injury
Types of Abiotic Stress
Biotic Agents of Plant Diseases
Virus
Viroids
Bacteria
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Mollicules
Parasitic Higher Plants
Fastidious Vascular Bacteria
(Rickettsia-like organisms - RLO
Plant Pathogenic Protists
Nematodes
Fungi
Variability in Plant Pathogens
Disease Cycle
Types of Disease Cycle
Stages of the Disease Cycle
Mechanisms of Pathogen
Survival
Mechanisms of Pathogenicity
Gene for Gene Theory (Flor, 1971)
Epidemiology
Four General Principles
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Fundamentals of
Weed Science
Weed Science – a body of knowledge that Before, weeds were not recognized as pests
primarily focuses on the study of weeds and because of the following reasons:
their control. It is also defined as an integrative, • their damage is not as visible as those by
applied scientific discipline typical of most insects and diseases
other pest management and production-
oriented disciplines of modern agriculture. • seldom results to total crop failure
• crops and weeds are always associated
Main Goal: the formulation of the most together
effective, economical, and satisfactory methods
of controlling weeds Characteristics
Literature suggests that the most consistent

WEED SCIENCE DEFINITIONS AND
trait of weed species is not related to their
RELATED CONCEPTS
morphology or taxonomic relationships. It is, as
Definition Baker (1965) noted, their ability to grow well in
habitats disturbed by human activity. Not all
There are numerous definitions of a weed, weeds possess every single characteristic that is
including: considered undesirable, but in addition to
• a plant out of place and not intentionally growing in disturbed habitats, all have at least
sown some of the following characteristics listed
• a plant growing where it is not wanted below:
• a plant whose virtues have not yet been 1. Rapid seedling growth and the ability to
discovered reproduce when young.
• a plant that is competitive, persistent,
2. Quick maturation or only a short time in
pernicious, and interfere negatively with
the vegetative stage.
human activity
Source: Dwight D. Ligenfelter, Extension Agronomist, 3. Many weeds are capable of tolerating and
Department of Agronomy, Penn State University growing under a wide range of climatic and
edaphic conditions (environmental
plasticity).
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b. Sedges (under the Family Cyperaceae) – the
4. Weed seeds exhibit several kinds of
easiest way to differentiate sedge from
dormancy or dispersal in time to escape the
grasses is by looking at its stem. Sedge stems
rigors of the environment and germinate
are solid and do not have nodes. Sedge stems
when conditions are most favorable for
are triangular in cross-section, three sided,
survival.
especially towards the base of the stem. In
5. Produces seed of the same size and shape general, they are tough and wiry (Figure 1B).
as crop seed, making physical separation
c. Broadleaves (under the Family
difficult and facilitates easy dispersal by
Dicotyledonae and Monocotyledonae) –
man.
characterized by shorter but wider leaves
6. Each generation can produce large with either parallel or netted venation
numbers of seed per plant, and some seed (Figure 1C).
is produced over a wide range of
environmental conditions
7. Weeds have great competitive ability for
nutrients, light, and water and can compete
by special means (e.g., rosette formation,
climbing, allelopathy).
Source: Baker, H.G. 1965. Characteristics and modes of
origin of weeds. Pp. 147– 172, in Genetics of Colonizing
species. Proc. First Int. Union of Biol. Sci. Symp. on Gen. Figure 1. Structural differences of weeds based on
Biol. H.G. Baker and G.L. Stebbins, ed. Academic Press, morphology: (A) grasses, (B) sedges, and (C)
N ew Y ork.
broadleaves. Photo Courtesy:
http://ipm.ucanr.edu/PMG/WEEDS/ID/brdlf
General Classification of Weeds
char.html
a. Noxious Weeds – plants having undesirable
characteristics that can resist control practices. Based on Life Cycle
a. Annual Weeds – weed species that complete

b. Common Weeds – these can be found in every
their life cycle in one year. They germinate
farm but are not injurious and can be readily
from seed, grow, mature, produce seed, and die
controlled by good farming practices.
in one year or less. Reproduce primarily by
seed only.
Specific Classifications
b. Biennial Weeds - weed species that complete
their life cycle in two years. The first year, the
Based on Gross Morphology
plants produce leaves and stores food. The
second year, they produces fruits and seeds.
a. Grasses (under the Family Poaceae) – range These weed species are commonly found in no-
from small, twisted, erect, or creeping till fields, pastures, and fencerows that are not
annuals and perennials. Stems are called mowed. They are easiest to control in the
culms with well-defined nodes and seedling stage.
internodes (Figure 1A).
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c. Perennial Weeds - weed species that live for iv. Off-shoots – these are small plants that
two or more years. They can reproduce by seed
usually arises from the mother plant.
or vegetative parts. In addition, they are the
most difficult weeds to control.
Source:
https://www.canr.msu.edu/ipm/uploads/file
s/FieldCrop_Chapter6.pdf
Figure 3. Different mode of asexual reproduction of weed

species by means of vegetative propagules such
as (A) rhizomes and stolons, (B) tubers, and (C)
off-shoot. Photo Courtesy:
https://www.invasive.org/
Based on Weed Growth Habit
Figure 2. Morphological difference between

monocot and dicot weed species
Based on Manner of Reproduction
a. Sexual – weed species that reproduce by

means of seeds or seed propagules (plant
part capable of regenerating its own species.
Figure 4. The following are the different forms of weed
b. Asexual – weed species that reproduce by
growth habit: (A) erect (Ex. Itchgrass), (B)
means of vegetative propagules.
ascending (Ex. Day Flower), (C) virgate, (D)
i. Rhizome – modified underground stem intricate, (E) divaricate, (F) suckers, (G)
with buds and scales. (Ex. Cogon Grass). coppice shoots, (H) lignotuber, (I) epiphytes,
ii. Stolon – modified aboveground stem that (J) decumbent (Ex. Goosegrass), (K)
creeps and having roots at the side (Ex. procumbent, (L) prostrate (Ex. Jungle rice),
Bermuda Grass). (M) stoloniferous, (N) rhizomatous and (O)
pendent. The illustration is adopted from
iii. Tuber - produced in chains, with several
http://plantnet.rbgsyd.nsw.gov.au.
on a single, horizontal, underground
creeping stem (rhizome). The perfect
example for this is Purple Nutsedge.
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Source: https://cropwatch.unl.edu/soybean-
Based on Habitat
management/dicot
1. Lowland weeds – these are weed species

that grows favorably in moist area.
2. Upland weeds – these are weed species that
grows favorably in dry area.
N ote: For the List Major Weeds in the

Philippines, please refer to Appendix Table N o.
04
Figure 5. Examples of weed species that grows well in

lowland (A – Ex. Water hyacinth) and upland
(B – Three-lobed morning glory) areas.
Based on Inflorescence
Some of the common inflorescence in weeds

(Institute of Agriculture and Natural Figure 6. Different types of inflorescence exhibited
Resources, University of Nebraska – Lincoln) by several weed species. Photo Courtesy:
Swink, F. and G. Wilhelm., 1994
• Spike - the flower is attached directly to the
stem and pedicles (stalks) are absent
CROP AND WEED COMPETITION
• Raceme - pedicels attach the flowers to the
stem Weed Survival and Ecology
• Panicle - compound or branched racemes
Establishment
• Corymb - pedicles are different lengths with
the pedicels at the base are longer than those
Soil as a seedbank. Seedbank refers to the
near the top, giving a flat to rounded top
portion of the earth where weed seeds are
• Umbel - a flat topped or convex deposited (70-90% of the total seedbank are
inflorescence with the pedicels arising from dominant species while 10 to 20% are weeds
a common point, like an umbrella
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species adopted to the area, and the remaining Steps in Seed Germination
percentage includes seeds coming from 1. Imbibition – involves the absorption of
previous seedbank, newly introduced, and water and marks the initiation and
seeds of previous cropping). progress of starch hydrolysis.
Seed Longevity. It is defined as the ability of 2. Rapid metabolic activity – cell division and
weed seeds to germinate even after a prolonged cell elongation occur in a fast rate
dormancy. supported by a rapid synthesis of materials
Dormancy of Weed Seeds. It refers to the in the seed.
inability of the seed or any vegetative propagule 3. Root Emergence – the radicle or root-like
to germinate under favorable conditions. It is structure emerges from the seeds and grow
also called the resting stage of a seed. into the soil.
• Innate – caused by endogenous factors 4. Shoot Emergence – considered the first
within a seed sign of weed growth (as shown in Figure7)
• Induced – occurs when the seeds are 5. Period of Independent growth – capable of
exposed to certain environmental conditions manufacturing its own food
• Enforced – caused by unfavorable
environmental conditions (ex. presence of
inhibitors)
Seed Germination. It refers to the resumption
of growth of the embryo of the seed or of the
young plantlet in the tuber, bulb or rhizome. It
is important for the survival of weeds.
Figure 8. Two types of seed germination. (A) Epigeal
germination – cotyledons are carried above the
ground like in the case of some leguminous species
and (B) Hypogeal germination – cotyledons
remain below or at the surface of the ground as in
grasses and sedges.
Seedling Growth and Development

• Most important stage in weed establishment
• Most sensitive stage to environmental
influences
Figure 7. General illustration of seed
germination. Photo Courtesy: • Highly demanded for nutrients and water
https://www.reliablehydroponics.ie/ • Most vulnerable and therefore is the most
grow_blog/beginners-guide-to- practical stage for control
germination
• Most susceptible to herbicide action
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Factors affecting seedling growth To have a full grasp of CTL and CPWC, the
following illustrations are shown below (lifted
and development
from Charles, G., and Taylor, I. (2008).
• soil factors Understanding the Critical Period for Weed
• availability of light Control. NSW Dept of Primary Industries):
• adaptation to microclimatic conditions
• competitive power of the weeds • Determining the Economic Threshold for
Weed Control: The decision to control weeds is
influenced by crop growth stage, the
Weed Competition availability of suitable herbicides, labor and
i. Definition. It is the demand of 2 or more equipment, the weather, and financial aspects,
organisms for a common resource that is in and the cost of weed control. The actual level of
short supply in the environment where they the economic threshold (the critical number of
weeds that triggers a grower to control a weed
exist.
infestation) is a personal choice reflecting how
much loss a grower is willing to tolerate before
ii. Indicators of Competition deciding to control the weed.
a. Critical Threshold Level (CTL). • Determining Yield Loss from Weeds: To
Economic thresholds are often used in understand how weed(s) affects yield loss, try
the decision-making process for weed to understand the given figure below:
management. The economic threshold
for weed control, or the so called “break-
even point” is defined as level of weed
infestation at which the cost of
controlling the weeds is equal to the
increase in crop value obtained as a
result of controlling the weeds.
b. Critical Period of Competition

(Critical Weed-Free Period Concept or
Critical Period for Weed Control
(CPWC)). It is defined as the minimum
length of time during which the crop
should be practically weed-free to avoid
a yield reduction. It varies with crop,
weed species, and the environment. The
critical period of weed competition is
approximately 1/3rd of the duration of
the crop.
References: (1) Coble, H.D. and D.A. Mortensen.

1992. The threshold concept and its application to
weed science. Weed Technol. 6:191-195 and (2)
Jones, R.E. and R.W. Medd. 2000. Economic
thresholds and the case for long-term term
approaches to population management of weeds.
Weed Technol. 14:337-350.
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B
Interpretation (refer to Figure 9):
• Green line across the top is the yield if there were
no weeds in the field (the weed free yield).
• Red line is the yield loss from a thorn apple
infestation where the weeds emerged with the
crop and were removed some time after
emergence.
• Blue line is the yield loss from a thorn apple
infestation where the weeds emerged after the
crop and were not subsequently controlled.
Examples:
1. If the thorn apples were controlled at 200-day
degrees, crop yield would be reduced to 93%, a
7% yield reduction (indicated by where the
orange line at 200-day degrees hits the red line).
2. If the thorn apples were removed at 500-day
degrees, the yield would be reduced to 54%, a
46% yield reduction (500-degrees days orange
line)
Impacts of Different Interventions on Yield

Loss and Establishment of Critical Period for
Weed Control
A
Figure 10. Impacts of different interventions
employed in a field infested with
thorn apples on the yield (A) and
the establishment of critical
period for weed control (B). Photo
Courtesy of Charles, G., and
Taylor, I. (2008).
• Figure 10A shows the different interventions

that can be employed in a field and the
possible shifting on the yield impact of thorn
apples that emerge with the crop.
• Figure 10B shows the critical period for weed
control where it starts at the intersection of
the first red line with the economic
threshold (yellow line) and ends with the
intersection of the blue line with the
economic threshold. The critical period for
weed control is defined by the economic
threshold chosen, the weed species and the
weed density. In the given illustration above,
the critical period for weed control for four
(4) thorn apples per meter of cotton row is
166 to 621-day degrees at a 5% economic
threshold. T horn a pples not controlled
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during this period will cause economic yield Allelopathie (The Effect of Plants on Each
loss. Other) (Willis 2010).
Important N otes: b. It refers to the beneficial or harmful

effects of one plant on another plant,
• A strength of the critical period for weed both crop and weed species, from the
control concept is that it clearly defines release of biochemicals, known as
the period during which weed control is
allelochemicals, from plant parts by the
required, and conversely, the periods following means in both natural and
during which weeds cause insufficient agricultural systems: leaching, root
yield loss to justify their control.
exudation, volatilization, and residue
• N eed to control weeds before 166-day decomposition (Fraenkel 1959; Stamp
degrees? By interpreting Figure 9B, there 2003).
is no justification for controlling them
before 166-day degrees of crop c. Example of Allelopathy: Leucaena
development. leucocephala, the miracle tree promoted
for revegetation, soil and water
• N eed to control weeds after 621-day
conservation, and livestock nutrition in
degrees? It will not cause an economic
India, contains a toxic, non-protein
yield loss (using a 5% yield loss threshold).
amino acid in its leaves that inhibits the
However, they might still need to be
growth of other trees but not its own
controlled to avoid seed production,
seedlings (Ferguson et al., 2016).
harvesting difficulties and thorn apple
problems in later seasons. SAMPLE ILLUSTRATION AND EXPLANATION ON
• Assumptions in using CPWC: Weeds are THE MECHANISM OF ALLELOPATHY
equally easily controlled at all growth
stages, that the cotton grower has the
capacity to control all weeds at the
required time, and that the weeds have no
negative impact except on crop yield.
It is very crucial in making decisions on the

need for and timing of weed control and in
achieving efficient herbicide use from both
biological and economic perspectives.
iii. Allelopathy
a. Etymology: Allelopathy is from the

Greek-derived words allelo and pathy Figure 11. Induction, production, release and
(meaning “mutual harm” or “suffering”) transport of allelochemicals and their
and was first used in 1937 by Austrian effects. Lifted from the study of M. K. Amba.,
and S. Ahluwalia (2016). Retrieved from
scientist Hans Molisch in the book Der
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/ar
Einfluss einer Pflanze auf die andere –
ticle/pii/S1672630816300166
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In the study conducted by Amba and Ahluwalia 3. Management practices must be started at the
(2016) on the allelochemicals in rice, early stages of weed development and
observations and significant findings were: sustained until the crop is able to compete
independently.
(1) Allelochemicals are present commonly in
almost all plants and any parts of the plants.
General Approaches
(2) Plants respond to different stimuli through
synthesis and release of the allelochemicals. 1. Preventive/Protective: preventing a weed
(3) It can lengthen survival in a hostile from invading an area
environment and serve as defensive weapons
2. Eradicative: measures for its complete
to prevent damage and decay of reproductive
organs. removal or elimination (vegetative parts and
propagules) of a living weed species
(4) It can be found in the rhizosphere and have
been demonstrated to show allelopathic
interactions between organisms through root Methods/Techniques ( FAO, 2003 )
to root contact.
1. Preventive methods (legal and quarantine
WEED MAN AGEMEN T procedures, and others at the farm level)
2. Cultural methods (crop rotation, land
Introduction preparation, use of cover crops, multi-
cropping, mulching, water management, hand,
Effective weed management practices are or mechanical weeding during the crop’s life
crucial when it comes to crop production. Like cycle)
pests and diseases, weed infestations if not 3. Chemical methods (use of herbicides)
controlled properly could pose serious threats
to crop growth, yield and even farmers Formulation and State of
economic returns. These practices often allow Application
the crop to utilize all available resources
necessary to achieve its yield potential. Weeds
• Dry (dust, granules, or pellets)
require many of the same resources for growth
as crop plants, and any resource utilized by the • Liquid (wettable powders, emulsifiable
weed is unavailable for use by the crop. Thus, concentrate, suspension concentrate)
proper, and immediate interventions are
• Vapor form
important.
Goals Spray Supplements
1. Reduce weed population to levels that will • Dispersing agents: operate at the spray-tank
not result in significant yield reduction level
2. Control measures must be directed to organs • Spreading agents: reduce surface tension;
responsible for reproduction and spread of increase contact between spray droplets and
weeds. sprayed surface
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• Sticking agents: improves the adhesion of
• Seedling shoot growth inhibitors
spray droplets/deposits
• Humectants: are defined as materials that Mobility in plants
increase the water content and slow the
• Contact: applied to foliage and kills only the
drying time of spray deposits.
plant part(s) that are very close to the site of
• Synergists: enhances the effectiveness of an application (generally most effective against
active agent which usually acts at the broadleaves and seedlings of perennials)
biochemical level.
• Systemic: capable of movement within the
plant to exert herbicidal effect away from the
Herbicide Classifications
site of application
Time of Application
Herbicide groupings
• Preplant: applied before the crop is planted
(please refer to Appendix Table 1)
which is usually after land preparation.
• Pre-emergence: applied before the crop and Herbicide Toxicity
weed emerge
• the level of toxicity to humans and possible
• Post-emergence: applied after the crop and impact to the environment.
weed emerge
Table 1. Categories of Herbicide Toxicity
• Post-directed: applied emergence but
(Category I-IV from left to right).
directed only to the weeds
Selectivity
• Selective: involves destruction of weeds
without damage to crops
• Non-Selective: general weed killers
Mode of action (effect on plant growth)

• Lipid synthesis inhibitors
• Amino acid synthesis inhibitors
• Plant growth regulators
• Photosynthesis inhibitors
• Nitrogen-metabolism inhibitors
• Pigment inhibitors
• Cell-membrane disruptors
• Seedling root growth inhibitors
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Figure 12. The typical 16-liters Knapsack Sprayer System of Inter by Goizper Group.
Photo Courtesy:
https://www.goizper.com/en/spraying/inter/agriculture/knapsack/inter-16-agro
(Important Note: This is not the STANDARD knapsack sprayer recommended for all type of farms.
Knapsack sprayer usually comes with different capacities (12, 16 and 20L sprayer system)
depending on the needs of farm, area, and crops planted. This is for ILLUSTRATION PURPOSES
ONLY.)
Pesticide label (Pictograms)

International Code of Conduct on Pesticide
Management. Rome,
(a) Purpose of Labelling: The purpose of the

11 label is to provide the user with all the
essential information about the product
and how to use it safely and effectively.
According to FAO, the exact content is
subject primarily to national regulations,
harmonized as much as possible with
international systems such as the Globally
harmonized system of classification and
labelling of chemicals (GHS) or the WHO
Recommended Classification of Pesticides by
Hazard, and the Code of Conduct.
Source: FAO-UN . ( 2015) . Guidelines on Good

Labelling Practice for Pesticides
( Revised) .
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Recommended Minimum Information Directions for use

on the Label (FAO-UN, 2015): (1) Field of use
• Content of the container (2) Directions for use
• Acute and chronic hazard it represents and (3) Storage and Disposal
associated safety information
Supplier Identification
• Directions for use and disposal
• Supplier identification Sprayer System
• Clear indication on the label to read the safety
Important Parts of a Spray System (Adalla
instructions and directions for use before using
et al., 2006)
the pesticide, e.g. the text: READ THE LABEL
BEFORE USE or READ ALL SAFETY a. Tank – a leak-proof storage of the spray
PRECAUTIONS AND DIRECTIONS FOR USE material
BEFORE USE b. Pump – develops the pressure which
forces the liquid materials out of the tank
Product Content Information
c. Pressure regulator – maintains pressure
• Product name at the desired level
• Product category (e.g. herbicide, insecticide, d. Pressure gauge – indicates pressure and
fungicide, etc.) at the same time tells if the other
• Type of formulation e. Boom – distributes the spray solution to
• Active ingredient name nozzles
• Active ingredient content f. Nozzle – breaks the liquid into spray

droplets
• Name/identity and concentration of hazardous
g. Strainer/filter – keeps the larger
co-formulants
particles from going to the pump or
• Net contents of the pack prevents foreign matter or dirt from
• Batch number clogging the nozzles
• Registration number Types of Sprayer (Adalla et al., 2006)
Hazard and Safety Information

• Hazard Symbol
• Signal Word
• Hazard Statement
• Precautionary Statement or Warnings
• Precautionary Pictograms
• Hazard Color Band Figure 13. The typical illustration of A)
• First aid and medical advice compressed air sprayer, B) knapsack
sprayer, and C) tractor-mounted
• Accidental spills advice sprayer
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The type of sprayer used for a particular operation manufacturer's advice may be sought to aid
usually depends upon the type of job to be
in decision-making.
performed, area involved, and kind of crop.
a. Compressed air sprayer

• Useful for spot or small area
• Very simple to operate
• Essential Parts: spray tank, plunger-
type pump, dip tube, spray hose,
extension spray tube (lance), cut-off
valve and nozzle.
• Capacity: 7.5 to 15 liters and pressure
up to 50 pounds per square inches (psa).
Figure 14. Spray pattern for a given type of nozzle.
b. Knapsack sprayer Photo Courtesy: https://qsmndksh4i-
flywheel.netdna-ssl.com/wp-
• Usually carried on the back by means of
shoulder straps content/uploads/2015/07/Spray-
distribution.jpg
• Operated by a hand lever which may be
situated at the bottom of the sprayer
• A variety of nozzles can be used with
these sprayers
• Helpful for boom spraying (series of
four nozzles or more are operating at
the same time)
c. Tractor-power sprayer or Tractor-

mounted Sprayer
• Sprayer is mounted on the tractors
• The system place a limit of about 100
gallons on the tank capacity Figure 15. Comparison of the actual and
theoretical spray width. Photo
• When larger capacities are required, the
Courtesy:https://sgs.nozzle-network.
machine is trailed, or saddle tank is
com/en/tools/know_practical_4.html
mounted on either side of the tractor.
Nozzle Type and Spray Pattern Spray angle and spray width
• Spray pattern refers to a cross-section of the • Spray angle refers to the angle at which the
main body of sprayed fluid as it disperses. In sprayed fluid fans out from the nozzle while
principle, nozzle users themselves must Spray width represents the width/diameter
choose a spray pattern that will suit their to which the sprayed fluid has fanned out at
application or purpose. A nozzle a pre-determined distance from the orifice.
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2021 LEA REVIEW
14 water it will break up into small droplets

that will remain dispersed in water to form
Important N ote: When a nozzle is positioned to an emulsion.
spray downwards, the spray width tapers off c. Wettable powders (WP) – when the active
as the distance from the orifice increases. material is not soluble in water or organic
Therefore, the theoretical spray width that solvent, the material is formulated as finely
may be obtained based on the spray angle ground powder which when mixed with
value given for a nozzle in the water in the presence of a dispersing agent
manufacturer's catalog may not match the will form a suspension.
actual spray width (Figure 14).
d. Granules (G) or Pellets – the active
Pesticide Formulation (Adalla et al., 2006) material is combined with inert ingredients
and/or carries formed into particles about
Rationale: It was noted that most of the size of coarse sugar or pellets.
pesticides are effective in a very small e. Dusts (D) - usually contains 4 to 10 percent
quantities and one thing being eyed-on active ingredient and applied in a dry form.
before is that how you will apply this small
f. Fumigants – formulated as dry solids or
quantity evenly to a large area. Thus, several
liquids which, upon mixture with another
manufacturers came up to the idea of
substance, will liberate the toxic material in
producing pesticides with practical use not
the form of gas, smoke, or finely divided
compromising the level of effectiveness by
particles.
taking into consideration the numerous
characteristics of the chemical like solubility, g. Aerosols (A) – the active ingredient is
volatility, specific gravity, and toxicity that suspended in a container under pressure.
can be altered to confer stability to the h. Flowables (F) – active material and diluent
chemical during preparation, storage and are ground to near colloidal dimensions,
application. Nowadays, there are several suspended in a small amount of liquid.
types of formulations available in the market
i. ULV concentrates – are formulations
like in the following examples:
designed to be applied at very low volumes
per hectare.
Types of Formulation and their Uses
Calibration
a. Aqueous concentrates (AC) – active
materials that readily dissolve in water but
Rationale: Calibration is defined as the
not in organic solvents. It usually creates
process of determining the amount of spray
true solutions which are homogenous
solution delivered by a specific equipment.
mixtures of 2 or more substances.
Aside from that, it can help prevent crop
b. Emulsifiable concentrates (EC) – active damage from pesticides, high pesticide
materials that do not dissolve in water are residues, and environmental contamination.
dissolved in small amounts of organic Proper calibration will also minimize, if not
solvents. Emulsifying agents are added to eliminate, left-over mixed pesticides in the
the organic solvents carrying the active
material such that if mixture is shaken with
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15
srayer tank which can be very difficult to Sample Problem 1

properly dispose of.
A grower has setup a 1000 L sprayer to spray
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS OF COMMON potatoes with a fungicide at the recommended
PESTICIDE FORMULATION rate of 2.5 kg/ha in 500 L/ha of water to control
late blight. The sprayer boom uses nozzles
spaced at 30 cm and covers 6 rows spaced at 90
cm apart. After spraying a 100 m test strip with
four runs, 105 L of water were required to refill
the tank.
a. Calculate the sprayer swath width.

= Row crop swath width = 6 rows × 90 cm =
5.40 m
Note: row width = 90 cm = 0.90 m
Source:https://www.azlca.com/uploads/documents/
b. Calculate the delivery rate (in liters per
corechpt4_pesticideformulations1.pdf hectare) of the sprayer.
= 100 m (test area) × 5.4 m × 4 runs = 2160 m2
Steps in Calibrating Sprayer System (Adopted = Delivery rate = 105 L ÷ 2160 m2 × 10,000
from GE Reviewer, 2017) m2/ha = 486.11 L/ha
1. Check the integrity of the sprayer (check

The sprayer is operating at a delivery rate of
for any leaks).
486.11 L/ha. The delivery rate is close enough
2. Look for an area in the field that will serve to the desired spray volume of 500 L/ha. Use
as “test area”. the delivery rate of 486.11 L/ha when
calculating how much pesticide to add to the
3. Place a known amount of water into the
tank.
sprayer tank.
4. Established the spray swath. c. Calculate the hectares covered with one full
5. Enter the test area and make a test run by tank of spray.
spraying the area at the recommended = Area = 1000 L ÷ 486.11 L/ha = 2.06 ha
pressure and speed. Thus, one full tank of spray will cover 2.06
hectares
6. After spraying the test area, measure the
length of the test area sprayed.
b. Calculate the pesticide must be added to a
7. Calculate the application rate in liters per full tank of water.
hectare. = 2.5 kg/ha × 2.06 ha = 5.15 L
8. Calculate the amount of pesticide needed in Add 5.15 L of pesticide to make one full
each sprayer load sprayer tank of spray mixture.
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16 instructed to apply 0.5 kg A.I. of herbicide per

hectare and the formulated pesticide is 25 EC.
Try to answer the following problems:
a. Calculate the number of sprayer loads
1. A grower has set-up a 1200 L sprayer to needed per hectare.
spray broccoli with a pesticide to control Number of Sprayer Loads = (liters of spray
aphids at the label rate of 440 L/ha. The solution per hectare) / (sprayer capacity in
grower chooses an approximate 400 L/ha liters)
delivery rate for thorough coverage. The = (320 L)/(10L) = 32 sprayer loads
broccoli is planted in beds 72 cm wide (72
cm. center to center of wheel tracks). There b. Calculate the amount of commercial
are three rows of broccoli planted in the formulation to be applied per hectare.
bed and have grown a full leaf canopy filling
Amount of Commercial Formulation = (rate
the bed. The sprayer has nozzles spaced 12
in kg/ha) / (% A.I. in the formulation)
cm apart covering 5 beds. After spraying a
= (0.5 kg)/(0.25) = 2 kg/ha
330 m test strip with two passes (to
discharge enough water from the spray
c. Calculate the amount of commercial
tank to accurately measure it), 130 L of
formulation per sprayer load.
water were required to refill the tank.
Amount of commercial formulation per
2. To demonstrate the importance of sprayer load = (amount of commercial
pesticide calculations, UPSTEP Review formulation per hectare)/(number of sprayer
Center (URC) conducted an experiment in loads)
an area of 50 square meters. The selected = (2kg)/(31) = 0.0625 kg of the
student of URC recorded the length of time commercial pesticide formulation
needed to spray the said area maintaining a per sprayer load
constant forward walking speed and
pressure. The recorded average time was Pesticide Calculations: refer to the
1.14 mins. The sprayer boom uses nozzles determination of the required amount of
spaced at 15 cm and covers 5 rows spaced at pesticide needed in an area.
100 cm apart. The amount of spray liquid
discharged from the nozzles at the time to Scenario 1: To calculate the spray volume (in
spray the area was 695 ml after making liters per hectare), the following
three runs. Using the given data in the information are needed: size of
experiment, calculate the volume of spray sprayer (liters), area of the field
solution delivered per hectare. (hectare) and the number of
sprayer load.
Sample No. 2:
Sample Problem 1:
UPSTEP Review Center has a 10-liter sprayer
Alexander has a 16-L sprayer load capacity and
and you are task to apply 320 liters of spray
he apply 13 loads to a 0.5-hectare field. Calculate
solution per hectare. In addition, you are also
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17
the spray volume (liters/ha) of Alexander in the 3. Calculate the amount of commercial
field? material per sprayer load.
= (Liters of commercial formulation x
Solution: (16 liters (size of the sprayer load) x
capacity of sprayer load (liters))/amount
13 load)/0.5 ha = 416 liters/ha
of spray required (liters)
= (3.33 liters x 20-L)/300 liters = 0.222 kg.
Sample Problem 2:
Alexander has a 16-L sprayer load capacity and Try to answer the following problems:
wishes to apply the pesticide at a rate of 150 1. You wish to apply 320 liters of spray
liters/hectare in a 0.75-hectare field. How many solution/ha to a 0.5 ha area. The
sprayer loads are needed? recommended rate of the 50% wettable
powder is 0.75 kg A.I./ha. How many
Solution: (150 liters/ha (desired spray volume) kilograms of the commercial
x 0.75 (area of the field))/16 L (size of formulation is needed to treat the 0.5-ha
the sprayer load) field. What is the volume of spray needed
= 7.03 or 7 sprayer loads for the treated area? How much
materials are applied per sprayer load if
Sample Problem 1: the farmer utilizes a sprayer load
Mang Kulas wishes to apply 400 liters of spray capacity of 20 liters?
solution per hectare to a 0.75-hectare field
using a 20-L sprayer load. The recommended 2. You wish to apply pesticide granules at a
spray concentration is 0.5% of the 45 EC rate of 0.6 kg ai/ha to a 2-ha field. The
herbicide. How many liters of the commercial granules contain 3% ai. How many
pesticide formulation is needed for the said kilograms of commercial formulation
treatment of Mang Kulas in a corn field infested are needed to treat this area?
with ACB?
4. Biological methods (classical methods
1. Calculate the amount of spray volume through the introduction of exotic natural
needed for the treated area. enemies and increasing the population of
already existing natural enemies) and;
= Volume of spray solution applied (liters) x
area to be treated (hectares) a. Devine (Abott Laboratories) – liquid
400 liters x 0.75 hectare = 300 liters formulation of chlamydospores of
Phythopthora palmivora and it is used for
2. Calculate the amount of commercial the control of milkweed (Morrenia
formulated product. odorata).
= (Spray volume required x Recommended b. Collego (Upjohn Company) - wettable

concentration)/(% AI in the Formulation) powder formulation of dried spores of
= (300 liters x 0.005)/(0.45) = 3.33 liters C ol le t o tr ic h um g loe os po ri oide s f . sp.
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18
aeschynomene sprayed post-emergence,

aerially or with land-based sprayers.
5. Other non-conventional methods (soil

solarization, use of hot water, and others in
development).
Source: FAO. 2003 b. Weed Management for

Developing Countries, Addendum I., ed. by R.
Labrada, Plant Production and Protection
Paper 120. Plant Production and Protection
Division, Rome. 277 pp.
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19
APPENDICES
Appendix Table 1. Herbicide Groupings and Site of Action Classification List
Herbicide Groupings and Site of Action Classification List

Group/Class Site of Action Herbicide Chemical Family
alloxydim Cyclohexanedione ('DIMs')
butroxydim Cyclohexanedione ('DIMs')
clethodim Cyclohexanedione ('DIMs')
Aryloxyphenoxy-
clodinafop-propargyl
propionate ('FOPs')
cycloxydim Cyclohexanedione ('DIMs')
Aryloxyphenoxy-
cyhalofop-butyl
propionate ('FOPs')
Aryloxyphenoxy-
diclofop
propionate ('FOPs')
Aryloxyphenoxy-
fenoxaprop-P
propionate ('FOPs')
Acetyl CoA Carboxylase Aryloxyphenoxy-
1(A) fluazifop-P
(ACCase) Inhibitor propionate ('FOPs')
Aryloxyphenoxy-
haloxyfop
propionate ('FOPs')
Aryloxyphenoxy-
metamifop
propionate ('FOPs')
pinoxaden Phenylpyrazoline ('DEN')
Aryloxyphenoxy-
propaquizafop
propionate ('FOPs')
Aryloxyphenoxy-
quizalofop-P
propionate ('FOPs')
sethoxydim Cyclohexanedione ('DIMs')
tepraloxydim Cyclohexanedione ('DIMs')
tralkoxydim Cyclohexanedione ('DIMs')
amidosulfuron Sulfonylurea
azimsulfuron Sulfonylurea
bensulfuron-methyl Sulfonylurea
bispyribac-sodium Pyrimidinyl(thio)benzoate
Acetolactate Synthase (ALS)
2(B) or Acetohydroxy Acid chlorimuron-ethyl Sulfonylurea
Synthase (AHAS) inhibitor
chlorsulfuron Sulfonylurea
cinosulfuron Sulfonylurea
cloransulam-methyl Triazolopyrimidine
cyclosulfamuron Sulfonylurea
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diclosulam Triazolopyrimidine
ethametsulfuron-methyl Sulfonylurea
ethoxysulfuron Sulfonylurea
flazasulfuron Sulfonylurea
florasulam Triazolopyrimidine
Sulfonylaminocarbonyl-
flucarbazone-sodium
triazolinone
flucetosulfuron Sulfonylurea
flumetsulam Triazolopyrimidine
flupyrsulfuron-methyl-
Sulfonylurea
sodium
foramsulfuron Sulfonylurea
halosulfuron-methyl Sulfonylurea
imazamethabenz methyl Imidazolinone
imazamox Imidazolinone
imazapic Imidazolinone
imazapyr Imidazolinone
imazaquin Imidazolinone
imazethapyr Imidazolinone
imazosulfuron Sulfonylurea
iodosulfuron Sulfonylurea
mesosulfuron Sulfonylurea
metazosulfuron Sulfonylurea
metsulfuron-methyl Sulfonylurea
nicosulfuron Sulfonylurea
penoxsulam Triazolopyrimidine
primisulfuron-methyl Sulfonylurea
propoxycarbazone- Sulfonylaminocarbonyl-
sodium triazolinone
prosulfuron Sulfonylurea
pyrazosulfuron-ethyl Sulfonylurea
pyribenzoxim Pyrimidinyl(thio)benzoate
pyrimisulfan Pyrimidinyl(thio)benzoate
pyrithiobac-sodium Pyrimidinyl(thio)benzoate
pyroxsulam Triazolopyrimidine
rimsulfuron Sulfonylurea
sulfometuron-methyl Sulfonylurea
sulfosulfuron Sulfonylurea
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Sulfonylaminocarbonyl-
thiencarbazone-methyl
triazolinone
thifensulfuron-methyl Sulfonylurea
triasulfuron Sulfonylurea
tribenuron-methyl Sulfonylurea
trifloxysulfuron Sulfonylurea
triflusulfuron-methyl Sulfonylurea
benefin Dinitroaniline
trifluralin Dinitroaniline
DCPA Benzoic acid
dithiopyr Pyridine
Inhibitor of microtubule ethalfluralin Dinitroaniline
3(K1)
assembly oryzalin Dinitroaniline
pendimethalin Dinitroaniline
prodiamine Dinitroaniline
pronamide Benzamide
thiazopyr Pyridine
2,4-D Phenoxy-carboxylic-acid
2,4-DB Phenoxy-carboxylic-acid
aminocyclopyrachlor Pyrimidine-carboxylic-acid
aminopyralid Pyridine carboxylic acid
clopyralid Pyridine carboxylic acid
dicamba Benzoic acid
dichlorprop Phenoxy-carboxylic-acid
florpyrauxifen Pyridine carboxylic acid
4(O) Synthetic Auxin
fluroxypyr Pyridine carboxylic acid
halauxifen methyl -
MCPA Phenoxy-carboxylic-acid
MCPB Phenoxy-carboxylic-acid
mecoprop Phenoxy-carboxylic-acid
picloram Pyridine carboxylic acid
quinclorac Quinoline carboxylic acid
triclopyr Pyridine carboxylic acid
ametryn Triazine
Inhibitor of photosynthesis at amicarbazone Triazolinone
5(C1)
photosystem II site A atrazine Triazine
bromacil Uracil
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cyanazine Triazine
desmedipham Phenyl-carbamate
desmetryn Triazine
hexazione Triazinone
metamitron Triazinone
metoxuron Urea
metribuzin Triazinone
phenmedipham Phenyl-carbamate
prometon Triazine
prometryn Triazine
propazine Triazine
pyrazon Pyridazinone
simazine Triazine
simetryn Triazine
terbacil Uracil
terbumeton Triazine
terbuthylazine Triazine
trietazine Triazine
bentazon Benzothiadiazinone
Inhibitor of photosynthesis at bromoxynil Nitrile
6(C3)
photosystem II site B ioxynil Nitrile
pyridate Phenyl-pyridazine
chlorotoluron Urea
dimefuron Urea
diuron Urea
fluometuron Urea
Inhibitor of photosynthesis at isoproturon Urea
photosystem II site A;
7(C2) linuron Urea
different behavior from
group 5 methibenzuron Urea
monolinuron Urea
propanil Amide
siduron Urea
tebuthiuron Urea
bensulide Phosphorodithioate
Inhibitor of lipid synthesis;
8(N) butylate Thiocarbamate
not ACCase inhibition
cycloate Thiocarbamate
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EPTC Thiocarbamate
esprocarb Thiocarbamate
ethofumesate Benzofuran
molinate Thiocarbamate
pebulate Thiocarbamate
prosulfocarb Thiocarbamate
thiobencarb Thiocarbamate
triallate Thiocarbamate
vernolate Thiocarbamate
Inhibitor of 5-enolypyruvyl-
9(G) shikimate-3-phosphate glyphosate Glycine
synthase (EPSPS)
Inhibitor of glutamine
10(H) glufosinate Phosphinic acid
synthetase
Inhibitor of carotenoid aclonifen Diphenylether
11(F3) biosynthesis (unknown
target) amitrole Triazole
beflubutamid -
diflufenican Pyridinecarboxamide
fluridone -
Inhibitor of phytoene
12(F1) flurochloridone -
desaturase (PDS)
flurtamone
norflurazon Pyridazinone
picolinafen Pyridinecarboxamide
Inhibitor of 1-deoxy-D-
13(F3) xyulose 5-phosphate clomazone Isoxazolidinone
sunthatase (DOXP synthase)
aclifluorfen Diphenylether
azafenidin Triazolinone
bifenox Diphenylether
butafenacil Pyrimidinedione
carfentrazone-ethyl Triazolinone
Inhibitor of flufenpyr-ethyl -
14(E) protoporphyrinogen oxidase
(Protox, PPO) flumiclorac N-phenylphthalimide
flumioxazin N-phenylphthalimide
fluoroglycofen Diphenylether
fluthiacet-methyl Thiadiazole
fomesafen Diphenylether
lactofen Diphenylether
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oxadiargyl Oxadiazole
oxadiazon Oxadiazole
oxyfluorfen Diphenylether
pyraclonil -
pyraflufen-ethyl Phenylpyrazole
saflufenacil Pyrimidinedione
sulfentrazone Triazolinone
trifludimoxazin N-Phenyl-imide
acetochlor Chloroacetamide
alachlor Chloroacetamide
anilofos -
butachlor Chloroacetamide
dimethenamid Chloroacetamide
fentrazamide Tetrazolinone
flufenacet Oxyacetamide
15(K3) Mitosis Inhibitor mefenacet Oxyacetamide
metazachlor Chloroacetamide
napropamide Acetamide
pretilachlor Chloroacetamide
propachlor Chloroacetamide
pyroxasulfone Isoxazoline
S-metolachlor Chloroacetamide
thenylchlor Chloroacetamide
Inhibitor of 7,8-dihydro-
18(I) asulam Carbamate
preroate synthetase (DHP)
Phthalamate
diflufenzopyr
Inhibitor of indoleacetic acid Semicarbazone
19(P)
transport Phthalamate
naptalam
Semicarbazone
Inhibitor of cell wall synthesis
20(L) dichlobenil Nitrile
site A
21(L) isoxaben Benzamide
site B
Photosystem I electron diquat Bipyridylium
22(D)
diverter paraquat Bipyridylium
23(K2) Inhibitor of mitosis carbetamide Carbamate
Membrane disruptor
24(M) dinoterb Dinitrophenol
(uncouplers)
26(Z) Unknown site of action dazomet -
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difenzoquat Pyrazolium
metham -
pelargonic acid -
benzofenap Pyrazole
benzobicyclon Benzoylbicyclooctanedione
isoxaflutole -
mesotrione Triketone
Inhibitor of 4-hydroxyphenyl- pyrasulfotole Pyrazole
27(F2) pyruvatedioxygenase (4-
HPPD) pyrazolynate Pyrazole
pyrazoxyfen Pyrazole
sulcotrione Triketone
tembotrione Triketone
topramezone -
DSMA Organoarsenical
28(Z) Unknown site of action fosamine -
MSMA Organoarsenical
29(L) indaziflam -
site C
cinmethylin -
30(R) Tyrosine Aminotransferase
methiozolin -
acrolein -
AMS -
benazolin -
benoxacor -
cacodylic acid -
cloquintocet-mexyl -
copper chelate -
copper sulfate -
cyprosulfamide -
NC Not Classified dichlormid -
dietholate -
dimethipin -
endothall -
fenchlorazole-ethyl -
fenclorim -
fluxofenim -
maleic hydrazide -
mefenpyr-diethyl -
mefluidide -
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metaborate -
oxaziclomefone -
sodium chlorate -
Source: Weed Science Society of America - Herbicide Site of Action (SOA) Classification List
Modified Last July 17, 2020
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27
Appendix Table 2. List of Banned Pesticides in the Philippines
List of Banned Pesticides in the Philippines

NAME OF CHEMICALS DETAILS OF RESTRICTION
(Please refer to the following circulars and resolutions)
1-Naphthylthiourea Banned as per FPA Circular No. 04, Series of 1989.
(ANTU)
2, 4, 5-T Banned as per FPA Circular No. 04, Series of 1989.
Aldrin Banned as per FPA Circular No. 4, Series of 1989 (Banned since 1989. There
are alternatives to aldrin as prescribed by UNEP).
Azinphos Ethyl Banned as per FPA Resolution No. 01, Series of 1993.
Chlordane Banned as per FPA Resolution No. 01, Series of 1999.
Chlordimeform Banned as per FPA Circular No. 04, Series of 1989.
Copper(II) Banned as per FPA Circular No. 04, Series of 1989.
Acetoaresenite
(Paris Green)
DBCP Banned as per FPA Circular No. 04, Series of 1989.
DDT Banned as per FPA Board Resolution No. 04, Series of 2005.
Deltamethrin Banned as per FPA Memorandum Circular No.1, Series of 2019. (Banning of
the use of Deltamethrin in Banana)
Dieldrin Banned as per FPA Circular No. 4, Series of 1989 (Banned since 1989. There
are alternatives to dieldrin as prescribed by UNEP).
Elemental Phosphorus Banned as per FPA Circular No. 04, Series of 1989.
(White & Yellow)
Endosulfan Banned as per FPA Board Resolution No. 01, Series of 2015.
Endrin Banned as per FPA Circular No. 4, Series of 1989 (Banned since 1989. There
are alternatives to endrin as prescribed by UNEP).
EPN Banned as per FPA Circular No. 04, Series of 1989.
Ethylene Dibromide Banned as per FPA Circular No. 04, Series of 1989.
(EDB)
Fipronil Banned as per FPA Memorandum Circular No.29, Series of 2018. (Banning
of the use of Fipronil in Banana)
Gophacide Banned as per FPA Circular No. 04, Series of 1989.
HCH/BHC Banned as per FPA Circular No. 04, Series of 1989.
Heptachlor Banned as per FPA Circular No. 4, Series of 1989 (Banned since 1989. There
are alternatives to heptachlor as prescribed by UNEP).
Leptophos Banned as per FPA Circular No. 04, Series of 1989.
Mercuric Fungicides Banned as per FPA Circular No. 04, Series of 1989.
Nitrofen Banned as per FPA Circular No. 04, Series of 1989.
Organotin Compounds Banned as per FPA Resolution No. 01, Series of 1993.
Parathion-ethyl Banned as per FPA Circular No. 04, Series of 1989.
Parathion-methyl Banned as per FPA Resolution No. 01, Series of 1993.
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2-Fluoroacetamide Banned as per FPA Circular No. 04, Series of 1989.

(1081)
Sodium Fluoroacetate Banned as per FPA Circular No. 04, Series of 1989.
Strychnine Banned as per FPA Circular No. 04, Series of 1989.
Thallium Sulfate Banned as per FPA Circular No. 04, Series of 1989.
Toxaphene/ Banned as per FPA Circular No. 4, Series of 1989 (Banned since 1989. There
Camphechlor are alternatives to toxaphene as prescribed by UNEP).
Triphenyltin Banned as per FPA Circular No. 04, Series of 1989.
Source: http://fpa.da.gov.ph/index.php/information-resources-momo/pesticide-regulatory-data
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Appendix Table 3. List of Restricted Pesticides in the Philippines
List of Restricted Pesticides in the Philippines

DETAILS OF RESTRICTION
NAME OF CHEMICALS (Please refer to the following IMPORTANT NOTES
circulars and resolutions)
(Severely Restricted)
Restricted as per FPA Circular For use in wood treatment only by
Pentachlorophenol (PCP)
No. 04 Series of 1989 FPA Accredited wood treatments
plants and institutions.
Importation not allowed except in

Restricted as per FPA Circular
Aldicarb cases of emergency as determined
No. 04 Series of 1989
by the authority.
Adequate time for aeration is
Restricted as per FPA Circular required after treatment before
Carbon Disulfide
No. 04 Series of 1989 commodities are processed into
food or feed.
Carbon Tetrachloride
food or feed.
Importation not allowed except in
Chlorobenzilate cases of emergency as determined
by the authority.
Chloroform
food or feed.
Entropop For use in banana plantations only.
Ethyl formate
food or feed.
HCN Generating Materials
food or feed.
For use by FPA Accredited wood
Inorganic Arsenicals Restricted as per FPA Circular
treatment and wood preserving
(Arsenic Trioxide) No. 04 Series of 1989
plants only.
The only allowed use to date is on
Lindane (Gamma-BHC) pineapple plantations by soil pre-
plant application.
Methidathion For use in banana plantations only.
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Methyl Bromide
food or feed.
Restricted as per FPA Resolution Allowed use is for beanfly control on
Monocrotophos
No. 01, Series of 1993. legumes only.
Restricted for institutional Use Only.
Approval of use will be based on
Paraquat strick compliance by the
imported/end-user of the
requirements act for its use.
Restricted as per FPA Circular For use in banana and pineapple
Phenamiphos
No. 04 Series of 1989 plantations.
Phosphine Generating Restricted as per FPA Circular required after treatment before
Compounds No. 04 Series of 1989 commodities are processed into
food or feed.
Source: http://fpa.da.gov.ph/index.php/information-resources-momo/pesticide-regulatory-data
Appendix Table 4. List of Major Weeds in the Philippines (It will be sent to you by URC in a separate
file together with other relevant reading materials in Crop Protection).
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ENTOMOLOGY
DEFIN ITION
Leopoldo B. Uichanco - Father of Philippine
Entomology
ENTOMOLOGY - branch of Zoology which
deals with insects and how they interact with Prof. Leo Rimando - first resident Filipino
their environment, and other species Acarologist; described two species of spider
mites, Aponychus corpuzae (1966) and A. vannus
Insects (1968)
Clare R. Baltazar - first woman entomologist

• living organisms mainly characterized by
(1947) who completed her degree; Summa cum
having the following characteristics:
laude
1. Exoskeleton
 a general characteristic of arthropods Dr. Bernardo P. Gabriel - Philippine Father of
 external skeleton that supports and Insect Pathology
protects an animal’s body
Importance of Entomology
2. Three pairs of legs
• Economically important as pests, and natural
• generally the distinguishing enemies
characteristics of insects among other • Bio-indicators
arthropods • Medical and Veterinary Importance
3. Three distinct body parts REFERENCE(s):
(1) Lifted from the UPMost Review Center ALE
• Head (bears antennae, eyes, and Reviewer (2019) authored by Dr. Adorada
mouthparts)
• Thorax (bears wings and the legs) BASIC AN ATOMY OF IN SECTS
• Abdomen (bears 11 abdominal segments,
spiracles, and reproductive system) General Morphology
SHORT HISTORY AN D
IMPORTAN CE
Philippine Entomology
Charles Fuller Baker - in 1912 spearheaded the
first collection of insects of the Entomology
Department; First UPCA Dean
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2. Piercing-sucking mouthparts
Insect Head Orientation (Mosquito, True bugs)
• Characterized by the union of mandibles
and maxillae into needle-like structure
called “stylet” and is enclosed by labium
• The labrum acts like a tongue and is used
to suck the blood
Prognathous- mouthparts projected forward; 3. Sponging mouthparts (house fly)

head horizontal • End portion of labellum terminates in a
spongy pad where the fly uses to “slurp”
Hypognathous- mouthparts located ventrally;
food.
head vertical
Opisthognathous- mouthparts directed 4. Siphoning mouthparts (Butterfly)

backwards • Common to adult Lepidopterans
Mouthparts • Proboscis is a modified maxillary galea;

union of paired galea which form a tube
Main structures during feeding used to suck up nectar.
• When not in use, proboscis coils up and
• Labrum – the “upper lip”; serves as a cover held close to the undrside of the head
• Maxillae- the “pincers”; used to steady the
food; has 5 segmented palp which is sensory
for taste
• Labium- the “lower lip”; serves as the lower
cover
• Mandibles- hard, powerful cutting jaws
Types of mouthparts
1. Chewing-sucking mouthparts (Honeybees) 5. Chewing mouthparts (Majority of Insects)

• Common to adult Lepidopterans
• Characterized by the presence of both
mandibles and proboscis. • Proboscis is a modified maxillary galea;
• MANDIBLES act as “teeth” to chew, union of paired galea which form a tube
manipulate wax, clean other bees, bite during feeding used to suck up nectar.
pests. • When not in use, proboscis coils up and
• PROBOSCIS is mainly used for held close to the underside of the head
sucking nectar, water, or for
exchanging food with other bees REFERENCE:https://www.amentsoc.org/insec
(“Trophallaxis ts/fact-files/mouthparts.html
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Antennae 5. Flabellate (Latin: flabellum [Fan])

• Similar to a folded paper fan
• actually the insects “nose”, used for the sense
of smell • Found in several insect groups
(Coleoptera, Hymenoptera, Lepidoptera)
Main segments
6. Geniculate (Latin: genu [knee])
• Similar to a knee or elbow joint
• Found in Hymenoptera (Ants, Bees)
7. LamellatE (Latin: lamella [thin plate])

• Have flattened and nested tip segments
• Found in Coleoptera (Scarab Beetles)
• Scape- first segment of the antenna, and is
attached to the head.
• Pedicel- the second segment; in 8. Pectinate (Latin: pectin [comb])
combination with the scape, it is both
responsible for the movement of antennae • Have a comb-like appearance
in any direction • Found in cardinal beetles and sawflies
• Flagellum- final segment; most variable in
morphology among insects. 9. Plumose (Latin: pluma [feather])
• Have a feather-like appearance
Types of antenna
• Found in mosquitoes and moths
1. Aristate
10. Serrate (Latin: serra [saw])
• Pouch-like, with lateral bristles
• Have a sawblade-like appearance
• Found in Diptera (Housefly)
• Found in Pulse Beetles
2. Capitate (Latin: caput [Head])

11 setaceous (Latin: seta [bristle])
• Have prominent knob at its ends
• Have a bristle-like appearance
• Found in some Lepidopterans and beetles
• Found in Odonata (Dragonflies,
Damselflies)
3. Clavate (Latin: clava [Club])
• Terminates in a gradual club/ knob 12 Moniliform (Latin: monile [necklace]
• Found in Lepidoptera (Butterflies) • Appears like strings of beads
• Found in Isoptera (Termite)
4. Filiform (Latin: filum [Thread])
• Slender and thread-like in form REFERENCE(s):
• Found in Blattodea (Cockroaches), (1) https://www.thoughtco.com/insect-
Orthoptera (Grasshoppers) antennae-and-their-forms-1968065
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2. Cursorial legs
(2) https://www.amentsoc.org/insects/fact- • Legs modified for running/ walking
files/antennae.html
• Example: All pairs of legs of
Legs cockroaches
3. Saltatorial legs
• Legs modified for leaping/ jumping
• Example: Hindlegs of grasshopper,
Flees
4. Scansorial legs
• Legs modified for climbing/ clinging
• Example: All pairs of legs of head louse
5. Fossorial legs
• Legs modified for digging/ burrowing
Main segments • Example: Fore legs of mole cricket
• Coxa – the proximal leg segment; generally
freely moveable 6. Raptorial legs
• Trochanter – Second leg segment; usually • Legs modified for predation/ grasping
small and single segmented • Example: Forelegs of preying mantis
• Femur – largest and stoutest segment
7. Natatorial legs
• Tibia – has downward projecting spines that
aids in climbing and footing • Legs modified forswimming
• Tarsi – subdivided into “tarsomere”; which • Example: Hindlegs of waterbugs and

varies from one to five; basal tarsal water beetles
segement is the largest and termed as
“bastarsus” 8. Pollen carrying legs
• Legs adapted for assembling and
Types of leg (Modifications) carrying pollen; the “basitarsus” lined
• insect legs are modified to several types and with haired is meant for carrying pollen
are based on the habitat, food habit, and termed as “corbiculum”
variety of functions. • Example: Honeybees
1. Ambulatory legs Types of wing

• Legs for walking; long femur and tibia
1. Membranous
• Example: Foreleg and middle leg of
grasshopper • Light membrane covering
• Example: Odonata (Dragonfly)
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2. Hemelytra Paurometabolous
• Half membranous, Half Leathery
• Gradual metamorphosis
• Example: Hemiptera (True Bugs)
happens
3. Fringed wings • Immature forms resemble the

adults but immature forms has
• Composed of Hairy Fringes
underdeveloped genitalia and
• Example: Thysanoptera (Thrips) has wing pads
4. Tegmen • Occurs in non-aquatic form
• Thicker than membranous wings; • Immature and Adult forms are

Leathery both destructive
• Example: Orthoptera (Grasshoppers), • Immature Stage is called
Mantodea (Preying Mantis) “Nymph”
5. Elytra • Example: Hemiptera,

Orthoptera, Blattodea
• Hard Covering
• Example: Coleoptera (Beetles) Hemimetabolous
6. Haltere • Incomplete metamorphosis

• Modification of hindwing which helps in happens
balancing and improve flight • Immature forms do not
• Example: Hindwing of Diptera (Housefly) resemble the adults
• Immature forms have different
IN SECT METAMORPHOSIS habitat compared to its adults
• Immature Stage is called
Ametabolous “Naiad”
• Example: Odonata
• No metamorphosis happens
• Immature forms resemble the Holometabolous
adults
• Immature Stage is called • Complete metamorphosis
“Juvenile” happens
• Example: primitively wingless • Have four distinct life stages:

insects (Silverfish, Springtails) Egg, Larva, Pupa, Adult
• Immature forms have the same
habitat as to its adults
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• Only immature forms are Elateriform
destructive
• Generally looks like worms, but
• Immature Stage is called “Larva” with sclerotized (hardened)
• Example: Lepidoptera bodies
• Have short legs and reduced
TY PES OF IN SECT LARVA body bristles
• Have both thoracic (true legs)
Eruciform
and abdominal legs (pseudolegs)
• Generally looks like caterpillars • Example: Coleoptera
• Cylindrical with well-developed (Elateridae)
head capsule and a short
antennae Vermiform
• Have both thoracic (true legs)
and abdominal legs (pseudolegs) • Generally looks like maggots
• Example: Lepidoptera, • Elongated bodies that may or

Mecoptera, Coleoptera may not have well-developed
head capsules
Scarabeiform • Example:Diptera, Siphonaptera,
Hymenoptera, Orthoptera,
• Generally looks like grubs
Lepidoptera, Coleoptera
• Curved or C-shaped with well-
developed head capsule
TY PES OF IN SECT PUPA
• Have thoracic (true legs) but no
abdominal legs (pseudolegs); Obtect
Slow and sluggish
• Appendages are fused to the
• Example: Coleoptera
body wall as exoskeleton
(Scarabaeoidea)
hardens.
Campodeiform • Enclosed within a cocoon
• Active and Predatory • Example: Lepidoptera, Few

• Slightly flattened, elongated Hymenoptera, Diptera (midges,
bodies craneflies)
• Have well-developed legs,

Exarate
antennae, and cerci
• Opposite of obtect pupae;
• Example: Coleoptera,
appendages are free and are
Trichoptera, Neuroptera
able to move
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• Lacks cocoon, looks like a
CLASSIFICATION ,
mummified adult
N OMEN CLATURE AN D
• Example: All insects undergoing
IDEN TIFICATION OF IN SECTS
complete metamorphosis
Objective: To accurately compare
Decticous characteristics to arrive the correct
• Have articulated mandibles identification
(used to chew pupal cell) • CLASSIFICATION- process of related
• Tend to be active, exarate with categorization, in which ideas and objects are
free appendages recognized, differentitated and understood;
• Example: Mecoptera includes grouping and ranking
(Scorpionflies), Neuroptera • NOMENCLATURE- Applying distinctive
(Lacewing), Trichoptera names to every group recognized in the
(Caddisflies) classification system
 Principles of naming vary from the
Adecticous relatively informal conventions of
everyday speech to the internationally
• Lack functional mandibles; are
agreed principles, rules, and
attached to the head rendering
recommendations that govern the
them immobile
formation and use of the specialist terms
• May be either be obtect or used in scientific and any other disciplines
exarate (Purdue)
• Example: Adecticous Obtect • IDENTIFICATION - applying deductive
(Diptera, Lepidoptera, procedures to assign individuals into
Coleoptera, Hymenoptera); previously established classes using pertinent
Adecticous Exarate keys (dichotomous) or literatures.
(Siphonaptera, Coleoptera,
Hymenoptera, Strepsiptera) REFERENCE(s):
Lifted from the UPMost Review Center ALE
Reviewer (2019) authored by Dr. Adorada
Coarctate
• Covered with a membrane Insect Taxonomy

called “puparium”, a hardened KINGDOM: Animalia
cuticle of the final instar level. PHYLUM: Arthropoda
• Example: Diptera (Brachycera) CLASS: Insecta
Note: 28 Insect orders are found in the

Philippines and 14 orders are with Agricultural
Importance
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Notes: Lay eggs at burrows; Nymphs at 4th
instar
AGRICULTURALLY IMPORTAN T
ORDERS Diptera
Blattodea Common Name: Houseflies, Mosquitoes

Antenna: Aristate (Houseflies), Plumose
Common Name: Cockroach (Female Mosquitoes), FILIFORM (Male
Characteristics: Oval-shaped, flattened, Mosquitoes)
Hypognathus Mouthpart: Sponging (Houseflies), Piercing-
Antenna: Filiform Sucking (Mosquitoes)
Mouthpart: Chewing Wings: Membranous (forewing), Haltere
Wings: Tegmen (Hindwing of housefly)
Legs: Cursorial Legs: Cursorial
Development: Paurometabolous Development: Holometabolous
Economic Status: Household Pest Economic Status: Vectors of diseases (Dengue,
Notes: Eggs contained in “Ootheca”; Feed on Malaria, Filariasis)
starches Notes: Scavenging characteristic
Coleoptera Hemiptera
Common Name: Beetles Common Name: True Bugs

Antenna: Variable; Lamellate (Scarab), Characteristics: has distinct triangular plate at
Flabellate (Blister), Filiform the back called “Scutellum”
Mouthpart: Chewing Antenna: Filiform
Wings: Elytron (Front), Membranous (Hind) Mouthpart: Piercing-Sucking
Legs: Cursorial Wings: Hemelytra (Tegmen + Membranous)
Development: Holometabolous Legs: Cursorial
Economic Status: Pest; Predatory Development: Paurometabolous
Notes: Example: Ladybird Beetle ( Economic Status: Pest
Chilomenes sexmaculata) against aphids Notes: Generates 1-3 generations per year
Dermaptera Hymenoptera
Common Name: Earwigs Common Name: Bees, Wasps, Sawflies

Characteristics: with “Cerci” at the tip of the Characteristics: Hamuli is present
abdomen Antenna: Geniculate (Bees, Ants), Filiform
Antenna: Filiform (Wasps)
Mouthpart: Chewing
Mouthpart: Chewing
Wings: Membranous
Wings: Tegmen
Legs: Cursorial, Corbicula (Honeybees)
Legs: Cursorial
Development: Holometabolous
Development: Paurometabolous
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Economic Status: Biocontrol Agent (BCA), Legs: Raptorial
Parasitoids, Pollinators Development: Paurometabolous
Notes: Trichogramma evanescens- parasitoid of Economic Status: Biocontrol Agent (BCA)
Lepidopteran Eggs Notes: Has grayish egg case; 1 generation per
Xanthopimpla punctata- Parasitic wasp of Rice year
Moth (Corcyra cephalonica)
Odonata
Isoptera
Common Name: Dragonfly, Damselfly
Common Name: Termites Characteristics: has “nodus” on wings; “stigma”
Characteristics: Front and Hindwings are of at the middle of the front margin of each wing
the same shape and size Antenna: Setaceous
Antenna: Moniliform Mouthpart: Chewing
Mouthpart: Chewing Wings: Membranous
Wings: Tegmen Legs: Cursorial
Legs: Cursorial Development: Hemimetabolous
Development: Paurometabolous Economic Status: Biocontrol Agent (BCA)
Economic Status: Pest; Decomposers Notes: Immature forms called “Naiads”
Notes: Has a caste system (Reproducers,
Workers, Soldiers) Orthoptera
Lepidoptera Common Name: Grasshoppers, Katydids,

Crickets
Common Name: Moths, Butterflies Characteristics: Leathery front wings and fan-
like hind wings
Antenna: Capitate (Butterflies), Bipectinate
Antenna: Filiform
(Moths), Clubbed with hooks (Skippers)
Mouthpart: Chewing
Mouthpart: Chewing (Larval Form), Siphoning
(Adult) Wings: Tegmen
Wings: Scaly Legs: Saltatorial
Legs: Cursorial Development: Paurometabolous
Development: Holometabolous Economic Status: Pests; Defoliators
Economic Status: Larval Stage: Pests; Adult Notes: sounds produced by rubbing body parts
Stage: Pollinators are termed as “Stridulation”
Notes: Larval forms are destructive
Phasmatodea
Mantodea
Common Name: Walking Sticks; Leaf Insects
Common Name: Preying Mantis Characteristics: wingless, striking
Characteristics: with elongated prothorax resemblance
Antenna: Filiform Antenna: Filiform
Mouthpart: Chewing
Mouthpart: Chewing
Wings: Tegmen (if present)
Wings: Tegmen
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Diplura
Legs: Cursorial
Development: Paurometabolous Common Name: Diplurans
Economic Status: Leaf Feeder Antenna: Filiform
Notes: 1 generation/ year Mouthpart: Chewing
Wings: None
Legs: Cursorial
N europtera
Development: Ametabolous
Common Name: Lacewings, Antlions
Characteristics: Net-like venation ; Longer Collembola
antennae compared to Odonata
Antenna: Filiform Common Name: Springtails
Mouthpart: Piercing-Sucking (Larva); Chewing Antenna: Filiform
(Adults) Mouthpart: Piercing-Sucking, Chewing
Wings: Membranous Wings: None
Development: Holometabolous Development: Ametabolous
Economic Status: Biocontrol Agent (BCA)
Notes: Eggs suspended in hair-like filament Thysanura
Thysanoptera Common Name: Silverfish, Brat Fire

Antenna: Filiform
Common Name: Thrips Mouthpart: Chewing
Characteristics: Mandibles modified for
Wings: None
rasping-sucking
Legs: Cursorial
Antenna: Filiform
Development: Ametabolous
Mouthpart: Piercing-Sucking
Wings: Fringed
Legs: Cursorial
Ephemeroptera
Economic Status: Pest Common Name: Mayflies
Notes: Pest of greenhouse plants, Scars fruits, Antenna: Filiform
White eggs inserted in plant tissues Mouthpart: Chewing (Naiad); Vestigial (Adult)
Wings: Membranous
Legs: Cursorial
OTHER IN SECT ORDERS
Development: Hemimetabolous
Protura
Plecoptera
Common Name: Tecson Tails
Antenna: Reduced Common Name: Stoneflies
Mouthpart: Piercing-Sucking Antenna: Filiform
Wings: None Mouthpart: Chewing (Naiad); Vestigial (Adult)
Legs: Cursorial Wings: Membranous
Development: Ametabolous Legs: Cursorial
Development: Hemimetabolous
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Zoraptera Trichoptera
Common Name: Zorapterans
Antenna: Moniliform Common Name: Caddisflies
Antenna: Filiform
Mouthpart: Chewing
Mouthpart: Chewing (Naiad); Vestigial (Adult)
Wings: Membranous Wings: Membranous
Development: Paurometabolous Development: Holometabolous
Psocoptera Siphonaptera
Common Name: Psocids, Booklice, Barklice
Antenna: Filiform Common Name: Fleas
Mouthpart: Chewing Antenna: Filiform
Wings: Membranous Mouthpart: Piercing-Sucking
Wings: None
Legs: Cursorial
Legs: Saltatorial
Development: Holometabolous
Pthiraptera
Embioptera
Common Name: Sucking Lice
Antenna: Filiform
Common Name: Webspinners
Mouthpart: Piercing-Sucking
Antenna: Filiform
Wings: None
Mouthpart: Chewing
Legs: Cursorial Wings: Membranous
Legs: Cursorial
Strepsiptera
Common Name: Twisted Wing Parasites MODES OF IN SECT

Antenna: Branched REPRODUCTION
Mouthpart: Vestigial (Reduced)
Wings: Membranous (Male)
Legs: Cursorial Bisexual Reproduction- both males and
Development: Holometabolous females are required to reproduce
Parthenogenesis- only females are required

Mecoptera to reproduce
Common Name: Scorpionflies
Paedogenesis- reproduction without
Antenna: Filiform
fertilization by a sexually mature larvae (e.g.
Mouthpart: Chewing
gall midge flies)
Wings: Membranous
Legs: Cursorial Viviparous- bringing forth live young that have
Development: Holometabolous developed inside the body of the parent
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MODES OF DAMAGE CAUSED
Oviparous- lay eggs with little or no other
BY IN SECTS
embryonic development within the mother
Ovoviviparous- embryo develop inside eggs Insects Attacking Cultivated Plants
and remain in the mother’s body until it is
ready to hatch • Plant injury by feeding (Phytophagy)
• Plant injury by oviposition (in fruits, stems,
CON CEPT OF PEST AN D leaves, twigs, terminal portion dies or may
cause fruit drop)
ITS MODES OF
• Vectors of diseases (Transmission of plant
CAUSIN G DAMAGES
diseases from plant to plant)
Pest Insects Attacking Stored Products

• Species that interfere with human activities,
property or health • Destruction by termites, powder post beetles,
• Provide conflict with human interest or carpet ants
affect their welfare • Pests of Fabric and Clothing
• Cause damage thru its feeding habits • Damage on material made from animal fibers
(furs, clothing, blankets, rugs, and upholstery)
Economic Injury Level ( EIL) • Fabric damage by dermestid beetles and
clothes moth
• Smallest number of insects (amount of injury)
that will cause yield losses EQUAL to the Insects Attacking Stored Food
insect management costs
• Contamination from tunneling/ feeding in
Economic Threshold Level ( ETL) food (meats, cheese, milk products, flour,
cereals, nuts, and fruits)
• Pest density at which management action
• Decrease in quality, decrease in marketability
SHOULD be taken to prevent an increasing
pest population from reaching the ec onomic
injury level
Insects Attacking Man and Animals
• Annoyance caused by insects to man, and

animals (cattle)
• Annoyance through secreted odors or
secretions
• Annoyance to one’s eyes or ears
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Venomous Insects
METHODS OF IN SECT
• Inject toxins to man and animals causing
PEST CON TROL
irritation, swelling, pain, and sometimes
paralysis (by biting flies, bugs etc)
Cultural Methods
• Venom from sting of bees, wasps may cause
swelling or even anaphylactic shock or death • Goal is to reduce SOURCE of inoculum or
as a result reduce the EXPOSURE of plants to infection
• Venom from stinging hairs of saddle-back • Primary objective is to prevent pest damage,
caterpillars, tussock moth etc., can cause not the destruction of an existing and
dermatitis damaging pest population
• Body fluids of blister beetle may cause
irritation Mechanical/ Physical Methods
• Toxic insects like rose chafer are toxic when
• Using physical barriers (fences, electric wires)
accidentally ingested
• Includes weeding and change of temperature
Parasitic Insects to control pests
• Insects may live inside on bodies of man or Host Plant Resistance Methods
animals as parasites and cause irritations,
damages to tissues or even death • Focused on plants’ ability to resist insect
invasions (damaging)
• External parasites of birds, and mammals
which feeds on feathers, hair, and dermal • Some plants use their physical appearance as
scales a deterrent such as plants that have hairs
covering their leaves of plants with thick
cuticle
• Irritation from bites of fleas, bed bugs, and
other biting forms
Autocidal Control Methods
• Larvae of botflies on nasal passages of sheep;
alimentary tracts of horses, and damage on • Introduction of sterile or genetically altered
mucous membrane individuals into the wild population
• Use of Sterile Insect Technique (SIL)
Disease Transmission
Biological Control Methods
• Annoyance caused by insects to man, and
Insects as vectors of diseases in plants,
• Employment of any biological agent for
animals, or in humans
control of a pest
• Mechanical transmission of houseflies or
• Natural Enemies- are beneficial organisms
blowflies feeding on fecal matter and
that attack or feed on other organisms to keep
contaminating food fed by man causing
them under control and prevent them from
typhoid fever, cholera, and dysentery
causing further economic damage
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 Predators-
◊ Diadegma semiclausum/insulare –
 feed on several pest to complete its life preys on diamond back moth (DBM)
cycle ◊ Cotesia glomerata/plutellae (small
cark colored wasps) preys on DBM,
 type of natural enemies which keep the Asian corn borer
population of their prey in check
 Pathogens-
Example:  Fatal or debilitating disease causing
◊ Coccinelid beetle (Coleoptera): microorganisms (fungi, bacteria, virus,
Cheilomenes sexmaculatus and protozoans, nematodes, and other
Micraspis discolor – feed on aphids microbes)
◊ Brown lacewing (Neuroptera): Examples:

Pseudomicromus igorotus – feeds on
aphids ◊ Metarrhizium anisophilae – a fungus
that infects rhinoceros beetle grubs
◊ Wolf spiders (Araneae): Lycosa
(pest of coconut)
pseudoannulata – preys on aphids,
leafhoppers, planthoppers, larvae ◊ Bacillus thuringiensis – a bacterium
◊ Earwigs (Dermaptera): Eurorellia that produces toxins that kill larvae
annulata – presys on eggs, larvae and of diamond back moth (pest of
pupae of lepidopterans, coleopterans cabbage)
and dipterans
◊ Flower bug (Hemiptera): Orius Chemical Control Methods
tantillus – preys on eggs and larvae of
• Control based on substances that are toxic to
lepidopterans
the pests at target
◊ Preying mantids (Mantodea): Tendora
• Should be the last resort in Integrated Pest
sp. – preys on other insects
Management (IPM) unless severe pest
incidence occurred as insects may develop
 Parasitoids- resistance
 Lay eggs in or on other insect species, in
this case, their host • Examples:
 The larval stage kills the host as it feeds
 Organochlorides
on it and develops within the host
 Usually smaller than their host  MODE OF ACTION: Opens Na ion
channels in neurons, causing to fire
Example
spontaneously
◊ Trichogramma evanescens
 Inhibits chloride flow in neurons
(Hymenoptera) – parasitizes eggs of
the corn borer  Example: DDT, Endrin, Endosulfan,
◊ X anthopimpla stemmator Chlordane, Heptachlor, Mirex
(Hymenoptera) – parasitizes larvae of
striped stem borer
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 Organophosphates
Pesticide Toxicity Categorization Table
 MODE OF ACTION: disrupts
acetylcholinesterase
 Leads to overstimulation of muscarinic
and nicotinic receptors
 Nerve Poisons
 Esters of Phosphoric/ phosphorichloric
acid
 Example: Phosdrin, Malathion,
Parathion
 Carbamates
 MODE OF ACTION: similar action to

organophosphate but more degradable
 Example: Carbofuran, Aldicard,
Furadan, Sevin Quarantine/ Legal Control Methods
• Control spread of diseases within their
 Pyrethroids borders
 MODE OF ACTION: Disrupt insects’ • Follows laws to enforce the use of isolation
nervous system; axonic excitotoxins and quarantine
 From pyrethrum flowers; safe to
operators; Non- systemic Integrated Pest Management Methods
 Example: Cypermethrin, Bioremethrin • Ecosystem-based strategy that focuses on
long-term prevention of pests or their
 Insect growth regulators damage through a combination of techniques
such as biological control, habitat
 MODE OF ACTION: Juvenile hormones
manipulation, modification of cultural
inhibit the molting process/ chitin
practices, and use of resistant varieties.
synthesis of insects
 Inhibits chloride flow in neurons Reference( s) :
 Example: Methoprene, Phenoxycarb, • Lifted from the UPMost Review Center ALE
Diflubenzuron, Chlorfluazon Reviewer (2019) authored by Dr. Adorada
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MAJ OR PESTS OF Stored Grains
IMPORTAN T CROPS
1. Rice weevil (Sitophilus oryzae) [Coleoptera]
Rice 2. Corn weevil (Sitophilus zeamais)

[Coleoptera]
1. Green leafhopper (Nephotellix 3. Rice moth (Corcyra cephalonica)
virescens/Nephotellix nigropictus) [Coleoptera]
[Homoptera] – transmit tungro virus
2. Brown planthopper (Nilaparvata lugens) Sugarcane
[Hemiptera] – causes “Hopperburn”,
1. Root grub (Leucopholis irrorata) [Coleoptera]
transmits grassy (excessive tillering and
stunted growth) and ragged stunt 2. Sugarcane dead heart borer (Tetramoera
(ragged/twisted) virus schislaceana) [Lepidoptera]
3. Rice bug (Leptocorisa oratorius) [Hemiptera] 3. Yellow tip borer (Chilo infuscatellus)
[Lepidoptera]
4. Stemborers [Lepidoptera]: “Deadheart
symptom” of young leaves and growing
Vegetable Crops
point, “Whitehead” empty panicles
a. Striped stem borer – Chilo suppressalis Crucifers (pechay, cabbage, cauliflower, radish
etc)
b. Yellow stem borer – Scipophaga incertulas
1. Diamond backmoth (Plutella xylostella)
c. Pink stem borer – Sesamia inferens
[Lepidoptera]
d. White stem borer – Scirpophaga innotata
2. Cabbage worm (Crocidolomia binotalis)
5. Golden apple snail (Pomacea canaliculata) [Lepidoptera]
[Megastropoda]
3. Cutworm (Spodoptera litura) [Lepidoptera]
Corn
Cucurbits (bottle gourd, ampalaya, squash,
1. Asiatic corn borer (Ostrinia furnacalis) patola)
[Lepidoptera] 1. Yellow squash beetle (Aulocophora similis)
2. Corn semi-looper (Chrysodeixis chalcites) [Coleopterea]
3. Corn seedling maggot (Atheriogona oryzae) 2. Melon fruitfly (Bactrocera cucurbitae)

[Diptera]
Solanaceous crops
4. Corn earworm (Helicoverpa armigera)
(tomato, eggplant, pepper, etc)
[Lepidoptera]
• Tomato fruitworm (Helicoverpa armigera)
5. Whitegrub (Leucopholis irrorata)
[Lepidoptera]
[Coleoptera]
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• Tomato lady beetle (Epilachna • Philippines fruitfly (Bactocera
vegintisexpunctata philippinensis) philippinensis) [Diptera]
[Coleoptera]
3. Mango twig borer (Niphonuciea
3. Eggplant fruit and shoot borer
albata/Niphonuciea capito)
(Leucinoides orbonalis) [Lepidoptera]
Banana
Malvaceous crops
(cotton, okra, kenaf) 1. Banana leafroller (Erionatha thrax)
[Lepidoptera]
1. Cotton stainer (Dysdercus cingulatus) 2. Banana weevil (Cosmopolitus sordidus)
[Hemiptera] [Coleoptera]
2. Cotton bollworm (Helicoverpa armigera) 3. Abaca aphid (Pentalonia nigronervosa)
[Lepidoptera] [Hemiptera]
Legumes Coconut
(cowpea, mungbean, soybean, bush sitao)
1. Asiatic palm weevil (Rhynchoporus
ferrugineus) [Coleoptera]
1. Beanfly (Ophiomyia phaseoli) ]Diptera]
2. Coconut rhinoceros beetle (Oryctes
2. Aphids (Aphis craccivera) [Homoptera] rhinoceros) [Coleoptera]
3. Bean pod borers (Marucca testulalis and
Etiella zinckinella) [Lepidoptera] Coffee
4. Leaffolders (Homona coffearia) [Homoptera] 1. Coffee berry borer (Hypothenemus hampei)
[Coleptera]
5. Leafhopper (Empasca ricei) [Homoptera]
2. Leaffolder (Homona caffearia) [Lepidoptera]
6. Bean Lycaenid (Euchrysops cnejus)
[Lepidoptera]
Cacao
Rootcrops 1. Pachyrrynchcid beetle (Pachyrrhynchus
moniliferus) [Coleoptera]
1. Sweet potato weevil (Cylas formicarius
2. Pink mealybugs (Planococcus lilacinus)
formicarius) [Coleoptera]
[Hemiptera]
3. Cacao pod borer (Conopomorpha cramerella)
Fruitcrops
[Lepidoptera]
Mango 4. Mosquito bugs (Helopeltis collaris/Helopeltis
bakeri) [Hemiptera]
• Leafhopper (Idioscopus
niveosparus/Idioscopus clypealis)
[Hemiptera]
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N ON -IN SECT PESTS  Omnivorous, consuming food wastes
 Adults eat 8-10% of their weight
Rodent Pests in the Philippines
A .Ecological and social importance C. Population Growth

• High reproductive rate
Pests
• Young develop rapidly
•Major competitor for food
• Pregnancy period (19-21 days)
•Cause significant loss to crops
• Give birth every three weeks
•Prefers Rice •Cuts tillers and panicles
• Yong mature at about 6 weeks of age
•Pulls rice seedlings
• Average litter size of 12
Human Disease Carrier • One female can produce 36 young/rice
•Bubonic Plague seasons
•Salmonellosis • Cropping seasons affect breeding and

population size
•Leptospirosis
•Rat-bite fever D. Rodent Species in the Philippines
•Oriental Schistosomiasis
1. Rattus tanezumi (Oriental house rat)
Social importance Zoologist, Year: Temminck, 1844
Habitat: - Throughout the country;
•Important place in history
Croplands and storage
•Experimental animals
• Tail to body ratio: Uniformly dark tail
•Used for drug testing longer than head plus body
•Important pests • Special characteristics: Common rice
•Serves as food pest; Medium sized averaging about
175g
Ecological importance • Mammary formula: 2+3=10
• Integral part of ecosystem
2. Rattus argentiventer (Rice field rat)
•Important food source
Zoologist, Year: Robinson and kloss,
•Can be predators or scavengers 1916
Habitat: - Mindanao and Mindoro -
B. Food and feeding behavior Crop areas
 Commensals have taste patterns similar • Tail to body ratio: Tail shorter than head
to humans plus body
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• Special characteristics:Tuft of orange
public health; food storage; structural
hair near base of ear; Generally smaller
damage; garbage disposal
than R. tanezum
• Mammary formula: 3+3=12
• Mammary formula: 3+3=12
E. Rodent Management
3. Rattus exulans ( Polynesian rat)
Zoologist, Year: Peale, 1848 1. Cultural Control
Habitat: - Grasslands, houses,
• Clean cultivation
Warehouses
• Habitat reduction
• Tail to body ratio: Tail nearly as long as
head plus body • Synchronous planting
• Special characteristics: Agile climber;

2. Physical/Mechanical Control
smaller than R. tanezumi and R.
argentiventerthan R. tanezum • Digging burrows
• Mammary formula: 2+2=8 • Smoking and watering

• Irrigation and plowing after harvest
4. Mus musculus castaneus (Southeastern
• Community trap barrier system
Asian house mouse)
Zoologist, Year: Waterhouse, 1843
3. Biological control
Habitat: - Houses and wood structures
• Predators
• Tail to body ratio:Tail length equal to
longer than head plus body • Birds & Mammals
• Special characteristics: Common house

4. Chemical control
mouse and important pest in urban
areas; gnaws wood structures and feeds • Acute poison
on grains; smaller than R. exulans; • Chronic poison/Anticoagulants
Weighs 12 g
• Fumigants/Toxic gas
5. Rattus norvegicus (Common rat) • Repellents

Zoologist, Year: Berkenhout, 1769
Habitat: - Found throughout the Acute poison
Philippines • Highly toxic
• Tail to body ratio: Thick tail, shorter • Single dose killer
than head plus body; Long vibrissae on
• Kills within few hours
snout
• Zinc phosphide, barium carbonate,
• Special characteristics: Commensal
arsenious oxide
with man; Classified urban pest in
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• Baits with less the 2% zinc phosphide Mollusks Pests in the Philippines
• Rats develop poison aversion of bait

Golden Apple Snail (Pomacea canaliculata L.)
shyness
1. Economic Importance
Chronic poison/ Anticoagulants
1. Pest of agricultural crops
• Interfere with blood clotting mehcnaism
2. Golden kuhol as an important pest of
• Rodents die due to internal bleeding
rice and other aquatic plants
• Slow acting bait this bait shyness does not
3. 14 to 24 day old seedlings are more
develop
susceptible to golden kuhol snail attack
• Warfarin, Fumarin, Calciferol
4. Beyond 6 weeks, seedlings are hardly
• Saturation baiting and sustain baiting is eaten
necessary
5. Snails carry parasites of man and
• Bait point needs to be replenished until animals
feeding stopped
6. Hosts of internal fluke, lungworm and
other parasites
Fumigants/Toxic gas
• Fumigants produce lethal gas • Management of Golden Apple Snail
• Calcium cyanide, ethylene dichloride, • Chemical control – Use of registered
carbon tetrachloride methyl bromide, molluscicides
aluminum phosphide
• Mechanical control – Wire screens to
• Effective only in airtight situations prevent field transfer
• Needs special equipment for application • Biological control – Using ducks and
other agents
• Not suitable for field use
• Use of botanical extracts
• Repellents Endrin as a rodent repellent to
protect seeds
Avian Pests in the Philippines
• Malathion may act as a repellent against
R. rattus
House Sparrow (Passer domesticus)
• Rats avoid areas with Cycloheximide
• significant pest to the food industry due to
• Baiting is dangerous for domestic the risk of contamination from their
animals, birds, and humans droppings and damge done to damaged
goods
• Special precautions are needed while
using rodenticides • less than 6” long
• Lives for 4-7 years, with 5 breeding seasons
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Other avian pests:
Eurasian Tree Sparrow (Passer montanus)
Chestnut Munia (Lochura malacca)
Scaly-Breasted Munia (Lonchura punctulata)

• rice-eating birds that chew the rice grains
during the MILKY PHASE, or eat the entire
grain once mature
• a damage indicator is the presence of
milky-white substance covering the grains
• great loss in crop yield
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Plant Pathology
DEFIN ITION
Pathos - (suffering); Logos - (to study) • Devastated Northeastern Europe as potato is

its staple crop
Study of the organisms and of the • 1845 - observed in Belgium, Holland,
environmental factors that cause disease in England, and Ireland (25% losses incurred)
plants; of the mechanisms by which these
• 1846 - total crop failure in Ireland caused the
factors induce disease in plants; and of the
Irish Famine
methods of preventing or controlling disease
and reducing the damage it causes
Coffee Rust in Ceylon (now Sri Lanka)
Defined as a SCIENCE because it seeks to (Hemilea vastatrix)
understand the NATURE of plant diseases • 1835 British people planted 200 hectares
a. Disease characteristics
• 1875 booming economy (200,000 hectares;
b. Agents, Host pathogen interaction
50M kg/ year)
c. Disease development, and its Control
measures • Destroyed coffee plantations; tea was
planted instead
Defined as an ART because it is the application
of knowledge gained from studying the nature Ergot of Rye (Claviceps purpurea)
of plant diseases (process where science is • From the french word “argot” meaning
made useful) “spur”
d. Diagnosis and assessment
• Produces alkaloids including lsd (Lysergic
e. Forecasting and prevention
Acid DiethylamideL, a well-knowm
f. Pesticide application and pest management
hallucinogenic drug
Ultimate Goal: Control or manage plant • Caused abortion, tingling sensation, fever,
diseases so that losses will be brought at gangrene, convulsions, halucinations
minimum • 1722 - influenced the outcome of a war in
Astrakhan, the army of Peter the Great of
SHORT HISTORY AN D Russia (20,000 soldiers) died from
IMPORTAN CE consuming bread made from severely
infected wheat
Prominent Plant Diseases
in World History Bengal Famine (Helminthosporium oryzae)
• Brown Spot of Rice
Late Blight Disease of Potato (Phytophthora • Bangladesh; 50% yield loss for early
infestans) maturing varieties; 75-90% yield loss for late
maturing varieties
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Prominent Plant Diseases in DISEASE CAUSAL AGENT HOST IMPACT

Philippine History Ergotism Claviceps Triticum Sickness
purpurea aetivum and
Cadang-Cadang Disease of Coconut disease
• Caused by a viroid in
humans
• First observed in 1918; loss amounted to Late Phythopthora Potato Irish
>$200M; killed 15M trees Blight infestans Famine
Coffee Hemeleia Coffee Switch
Downey Mildew of Corn Rust vastatrix to Tea
Cadang Cadang Cadang Coconut 200 M
• Caused by a Peronosclerospora philippinensis
Cadang Viroid USD in
• Annual yield loss reached 95% amounting to losses
P170M Rice Rice Tungro Rice 1.22 M
Tungro Bacilliform Virus cavans
• Controlled by the seed treatment using
Rice Tungro lost,
Metalaxyl
Spherical Virus 30M php
in losses
Rice Tungro
Downy Peronosclerospora Corn 170 M
• Caused by a Rice Tungro Bacilliform Virus Mildew philippinensis Php
(RTBV) and Rice Tungro Spherical Virus losses
(RTSV) annually
• Affected 70,000 hectares in 1971

• Losses of 1.22M canvas of rice valued at more Threats Imposed by Plant Diseases
than P30M
• Endanger Food Supply
Coffee Rust • Reduce quantity and quality of plant produce
• Caused by a Hemileaia vastatrix • Cause financial losses
• Destroyed Coffee Industry in Batangas • Limit the kinds of plants and industries in an
area
Citrus Decline • Make some infected plants poisonous to
• Caused by a Tylenchulus semipenetrans humans
• Wiped out Citrus plantations in Batangas • Increase cost of production due to control
measures
Types of Crop Losses

• Yield reduction
• Postharvest losses
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• Quality reduction
that he would not send the rusts to destroy
• Toxin Contamination their crops
• Susceptibility/ Predisposition of host attack
 Ergot of Rye and Wheat Epidemic in
• Increase in production cost and handling Europe- also known as the Holy Fire or St.
Anthony’s Fire due to the initial burning
HISTORICAL DEVELOPMEN TS sensation felt by the persons afflicted with
Ergotism; believed as punishment of man’s
Pre-Scientific Period sins
Fossil Records Beginnings of Scientific Studies
Ancient Writings • Theory of Spontaneous Generation

(Autogenetic Theory of Disease)
• HOMER- 1000 BC; mentione therapeutic
properties of Sulfur in plant diseases  FRANZ UNGER
• BIBLE (stated)- 750 BC; time of Joseph the  “When plants are in the declining phase,
dreamer- Wheat Rust; the cellular constituents CALL FORTH
 Egypt- warm and windy Mildews, Blasts, NEW FORMS OF LIFE by vital force
and Blights of Cereals
 The pathogen is a result and not the cause
Great Philosophers of the disease
 Some beliefs in the origin of life:
• DEMOCRITUS- 470 bc, noted Plant Blights  Frogs are from mud in the ponds
and described ways to control it
 Maggots are from decaying meat
• PLINY THE ELDER- wrote about blights and
rusts in Historia naturalis  Yeasts are from fermented grape juice
• THEOPHRASTUS0 370-286 bc, Father of  Rats are from piles of old clothing
Botany
• Experiments to Disprove the Theory of
 First to make plants and plant diseases as
Spontaneous Generation
subjects of systematic study
 Wrote The Nature of Plants( morphology  REDI (1688)- covered mouth of vessel
and anatomy of plants, descriptions of wild containing meat with a screen; maggots
and cultivated plants, and Reasons of develop only from eggs of flies and never in
Vegetable Growth meat when flies where kept away.
• GREEKS and HEBREWS- 500-280 BC;  SPALLANZANI (1777)- bacteria did not
diseases are punishments to sins due to bad develop in food materials that have been
weather and unfavorable conditions boiled for sometime and sealed away from
• ROMANS- 320 bc-475 AD; held an annual air; air is essential for spontaneous
festival called Robigalia in an attempt to generation
please and pacify the Rust God, Robigus, so
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Etiological Period
 SCHULZE (1836)- passed air through
Sulfuric Acid; introduction of air did not • Microorganism were discussed to be
induce development of bacteria associated with plant diseases
 SCHWANN (1837)- passed air through hot
tubes  NEEDHAM (1743)- observed nematodes
 SCHRODER and DUSCH (1854)- filtered

(Anguina tritici) in Wheat Kernels
air through sterile cotton  TARGIONI-TOZZET (1766) and FONTANA
(1767)- studied cereal ust and concluded
Germ Theory of Disease that rust fungi is associated with the
disease
• Louis Pasteur  HEINRICH ANTON de BARY (1853)- Father
 “All living things must come from pre- of Plant Pathology; studied Phytophtora
existing parents” infestans, causal organism of Potato Late
Blight; proved that stem rust of wheat
 “Micro-organisms cause the disease and
(Puccinia graminis f.sp. tritici) needs an
not the effect of the disease”
alternate host (Barberry; where fruiting
• PIER ANTONIO MICHELLI (1729)- described bodies are formed) to complete its life
many genera of fungi; believed that fungi cycle
arose from their own spores; used bunt
 THOMAS JONATHAN BURILL (1978-
infected wheat seeds
1883)- studied Apple and Pear Blight
• ROBERT HOOKE (1660)- invented early (Erwinia amylovora)
compound microscope (double-lensed);
 MAYER (1886)- found out that Tobacco
examined thin slices of cork and called it
Mosaic (Tobacco Mosaic Virus) can be
“cell”; findings published in Micrographia
reproduced by inoculating sap of diseased
• THOULLIER (1670)- observed that Ergotism plant to a healthy plant
did not spread from one person to another
 IVANOWSKI (1892)- demonstrated the
but seemed to be associated with the
filetrable nature of TMV
consumption of contaminated grains
 BEIJERINCK (1898)- coined the name
• ANTOINE van LEEWUENHOEK (1683)- first
“Tobacco Mosaic Virus”
to describe bacteria from teeth scrapings and
protozoans from pond water  BAWDEN (1935)- crystallized TMV
• TILLET (1755)- noted that dust from smutted  DOI, TERENAKA, YORA, and ASUYAMA
wheat mixed with healthy seeds resulted in (1967)- discovered the association of
smutted wheat plants; noted that he could mycoplasma-like organisms (MLOs)/
reduce the number of smutted wheat plants Phytoplasmas in mulberry dwarf, potato
produced by treating the smut-treated witches’ broom and aster yellows
kernels with Copper Sulfate  DAVIS, WHOELEY, WHITCOMB,
• PREVOST (1807)- repeated Tillet’s ISHIYAMA, STEERE (1972)- observed
experiment and had the same results; spiroplasmas associated with Corn Stunt
observed and treated smut spores under the Disease
microscope
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Other Important Discoveries
• 1963- formation of Philippine
• PIERRE MARIE ALEXIS MILLARDET, Phytopathological Society
ULYSSE GUYON(1882)- discovered the • 1970- establishment of the Surveillance and
Bordeaux Mixture, a fungicide made from Early Warning Systems by the Bureau of
Copper Sulfate + Lime, used to control the Plant Industry (BPI)
downy mildew of grapes
• 1978- Exconde et al- controlled the Corn
• 1960- start of mycotoxin research due to the Downey Mildew by seed treatment using
death of turkey poults in London, England Metalaxyl
(Turkey X Disease); caused by Aspergillus
flavus • 1983- Romulo Davide- developed biocon
Paecilomyces lilacinus against nematodes
Plant Pathology in the Philippines
CON CEPT OF PLAN T
• 1910 – first course in Plant Pathology was DISEASES
taught as Botany 4 under the Agronomy
Department
Plant Disease
• 1914- Baker- published The Lower Fungi of the
Philippines, a review of Philippine Plant • -“Physical malfunction caused by animate
Diseases
agents” (Whetzel, 1929)
• 1917- Department of Plant Pathology was born
• “Any deviation from normal growth or
and the course offered was Plant Pathology
structure of plants that is efficiently
• 1917- Otto Reinking- first department head pronounced and permanent to produce
• 1933- Gerardo Ocfemia- Dean of Filipino visible symptoms to impair quality or
Plant Pathologists; First Filipino Department economic value.” (Stakman & Harrar, 1957)
Head
• A malfunctioning process caused by
• 1885-1890- Batangas Coffee Rust (Hemileia continuous irritation.” (Horsfall & Dimond)
vastatrix)
• “Any malfunctioning of host cells and tissues
• 1908- E.B. Copeland- Coconut Bud Rot that results from continuous irritation by a
(Phytophtora palmivora)
pathogen or an environmental actor and leads
• 1911- Robinson- Corn Leaf Blight ( to the development of symptoms
Helminthosporium maydis)
• 1912- Baker; 1920-1923-Weston- Downy Classification
Mildew of Corn (Peronosclerospora
philippinensis) • rational grouping of plant diseases is helpful
• 1920-1940- G.O. Ocfemia- Abaca Bunchy Top in the identification and subsequent of a
particular disease
• 1950-1960- studies on the etiology and
control of leaf and seedling diseases;
development program in upgrading staff and
physical facilities
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58 Saprophyte - an organism that lives on dead

organic or inorganic matter
Affected plant organ
Facultative Saprophyte - an organism which
 root diseases, foliage diseases, fruit
has the ability to become a saprophyte but is
diseases
ordinarily a parasite
Symptom
Facultative Parasite - an organism which has
 leaf spots, rusts, smuts, anthracnoses, the ability to become a parasite but is ordinarily
mosaic, wilts, rots a saprophyte
Type of affected plant/host Obligate Parasite - an organism that subsists

 vegetable diseases, diseases of field crops, only in living organisms and attacks only living
diseases of ornamentals tissues
Obligate Saprophyte – an organism that only
Type of pathogen subsists on and attacks dead tissue
 Infectious/Biotic
Pathogenicity - capacity of a pathogen to cause
 Viral, Bacterial; caused by viroids, disease
protozoa, parasitic flowering plants
Pathogenesis - disease development in the
 Non-infectious/Biotic
plant
 Extremely high temperatures, air
pollution, pesticide toxicity Virulence - quantitative amount of disease that
an isolate of a given pathogen can cause in a
Common Terms given group of plants in terms of size or
number of lesions
Pathogen - any agent (biotic or abiotic) that
causes a disease. The term is generally used to Aggresiveness - measures the rate of virulence
refer to a living organism. expressed by a pathogenic isolate
Host - a plant being attacked by a parasite. A Susceptibility - inability to overcome the

food relationship with a parasite (pathogen) is effects of a pathogen; Opposite of resistance
implied
Disease resistance - inherent ability of an
Suscept – a plant that is susceptible to a disease organism to overcome effects of a pathogen
whether or not the pathogen is parasitic
Disease tolerance -ability of a plant to
Parasite - an organism which depends wholly withstand the severe effects of the pathogen
or partly on another living organism for its without experiencing a severe reduction in
food. Most parasites are pathogens. yield
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Masked symptoms - symptoms not expressed
due to unfavorable condition Classification of Symptoms
Symptomless carrier - host that does not show Term Keyword Example
symptoms irrespective of environment Plesionecroti Pre-necroticSilvering,
c “near dead” yellowing
, wilting
Disease Triangle
Necrotic Death of tissues Spot,
Blight,
Canker,
Die-back,
Hypoplastic Developmental Stunting,
failure Chlorosis
, Curling,
Mosaic
Hyperplastic Overdevelopme Gall
nt or formatio
enlargement n, scab,
fruit
drop,
greening
-Hypertrophy Increase in cell size
- Hyperplasia Increase in cell number
PLAN T DISEASE DIAGN OSIS
Symptom Terminologies
• Identification of specific plant disease
through their characteristic symptoms and • Abscission – Early laying down of the
signs including other factors that may be abscission layer causing premature falling of
related to the disease process leaves, fruits or flowers
• Blast – Sudden death of young buds,
Signs vs. Symptoms
inflorescence or young fruits (Ex: Pyricularia
oryzae- Rice Blast)
Symptom: Expression; Sign: Structures
• Blight – Sudden and extensive death of
Primary: Immediate and direct
tissue(Ex: Fire Blight of Apple)
SecondarY: distant and uninvaded
• Blotch – Necrotic injury of epidermal cells
Localized: Distinct; Systemic: Generalized seen as irregular, large spots in leaves or
Histological:Internal fruits
Morphological: Visible to naked eye • Canker – a sunken necrotic area with cracked
border(Ex: Nectria Canker)
Macroscopic- can be seen by the unaided eye
• Chlorosis – yellowing caused by infection of a
Microscopic- seen under a microscope
biotic factor such as a virus or mycoplasma
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due to injury causing rough, brownish
• Curling – abrnormal bending of leaves appearance of the skin
caused by overgrowth on one side or localized
• Sarcody – Abnormal swelling of the bark
growth in certain portions (Ex: Tomato Yellow
above wounds due to accumulation of food
Leaf Curl)
materials
• Damping off – rotting of seedlings prior to
• Savoying – Cupping or pocketing of leaf parts
emergence or rotting of seedling stems at an
due to underdevelopment of leaf veins or leaf
area just above the soil line (Ex: Pythium sp.-
margins
Damping Off of Seedlings)
• Scab – Overgrowth of epidermal and cortical
• Dieback – A drying of the leaves that happens
tissue accompanied with rupture and
from the tip of twigs (Papaya Dieback)
suberization of cell walls causing slightly
• Etiolation – Yellowing of normally green raised, rough, ulcer-like lesions.
tissues caused by inadequate light
• Shothole – perforated appearance of a leaf as
• Fasciation/Fasciculation – clustering of the dead areas of local lesions drop out (Ex:
roots, flowers, fruits, or twigs around a Colletotrichum gloeoisporioides; Mango
common focus Anthracnose)
• Gumming/Gummosis – Oozing out of viscid • Spot – localized necrotic area that may be
gum from wounds in bark circular, angular, or irregularly shaped (Ex:
• Leak – Host juices exude or leak out from Gray Leaf Spot of Tomato)
soft-rotted portions • Streak/Stripe – Long, narrow, necrotic
• Mosaic – the presence of variegated patterns lesions on leaves or stems (Ex:
of green and yellow shades with sharply Helminthosporiun Stripe of Barley
defined borders (usually in leaves) (Ex: • Vein clearing – Leaf veins are translucent or
Tobacco Mosaic) pale yet the rest of the leaf is normal in color
• Mottling – The variegation is less defined • Virescence/Greening – Development of
than mosaic and the boundaries of light and chlorophyll in tissues or organs where it is
dark areas are more defused normally absent.
• Mummification – The infected fruit is
converted to a hard, dry, shriveled mummy Categorization of Signs
• Phyllody – Metamorphosis of sepals, petals,
Vegetative Absorption and
stamens, or carpels into leaf-like structures
structures nutrient storage
• Pitting – defined depressions or pits found in Reproductive Reproduction,
surfaces of fleshy organs that appear like structures multiplication and
pokes and holes transfer of genetic
• Resetting – Shortening of shoot internodes material
and stems forming a foliage crowd in the Disease products Gases and exudation
shape of a rose/rosette products resulting
from the disease
• Rotting – Disintegration and decomposition
of host tissue
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Sign Terminologies • Pseudothecium – Fruiting body bearing asci
in locules within a stroma
• Felt – Densely woven mat of mycelium
• Pycnidium – Asexual, hollow fruiting body
• Haustorium – Absorbing organ of fungus that containing conidia
penetrates a host cell without penetrating the
plasma membrane • Seed bearing plants – higher plants that
parasitize trees
• Mycelium – Mass of fungal threads or hyphae
• Sorus – mass or cluster of spores borne on
• Pathogen cells – masses of bacterial cells short stalks
• Plasmodium – Naked mass of protoplasm • Sporangium – enlarged tip of specialized
• Rhizomorph – cord-like strand of fungal hyphal branch in which sporangiospores are
hyphae borne
• Sclerotium – A hard, compact, resting body • Spore – General name for a single to several-
composed of fungal hyohae celled propagative unit in fungi and other
• Acervulus – mat of hyphae, forming lesions lower plants
with short, densly packed conidiophores • Sporodochium – Cushion-shaped stroma
• Apothecium – Open, cuplike, ascus- covered with conidiophores
containing fruiting body • Stroma – Compact mass of fungal hyphae on
• Ascus – sac-like structure containing or within which fruiting structures are
ascospores formed as a result or karyogamy formed
and meiosis • Worms – Generally nematodes which are
• Basidium – club-shaped structure on which microscopic, wormlike animals that can cause
basidiospores are produced as a result of disease
karyogamy and meiosis • Odor – Characteristic smell associated with
• Cleistothecium – closed ascus-containing some host-pathogen interactions
fruiting body • Ooze – Viscid mass made up of plant juices
and often pathogen cells
• Conidiophore – specialized hyphal branch on
which conidia are produced Koch’s Postulate of Pathogenicity
• Conk – woody shell-like structure
characteristic of many woody-rotitng fungi 1. Association
• Mildew – cobwebby or powdery growth - Pathogen or its signs must be found
usually on leaves associated with the diseases in all the
• Mold – Woolly of furry surface growth of diseases plants examined
mycelium
2. Isolation
• Mushroom (toadstool) – Umbrella-shaped
fruiting structure of many Basidiomycetes - Pathogen must be isolated and grown in
pure culture on utrient media and its
• Perithecium – Fruiting body bearing asci in characteristics described
locules within a stroma
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62 Sunscald Prolonged Light colored

- Obligate parasites must be isolated and exposure to and blistered
grown on a healthy but susceptible host high T ° tissue
plant, and its characteristics described Heat Potato Yellow or
necrosis growing in brown
3. Inoculation light soils; discoloration
hot and dry in the
- Pathogen from the pure culture must be condition vascular
inoculated on healthy plants of the same system
species or variety on which the disease
appears, and it must produce the same Air pollutants
disease on the inoculated plants
Ozone (O 3) Released NO2  Most destructive
4. Re-isolation combines with Air Pollutant
O2 in the  Stippling, Mottling,
- Pathogen must be re-isolated from the sunlight > O3 Leaf Chlorosis,
inoculated plants and grown once more in Premature
pure- culture. Defoliation,
Stunting
- Its characteristics must be exactly like
those observed in Step 1 and 2
AGEN TS OF PLAN T DISEASE Peroxyacyl

Nitrates
Gasoline
vapors/
 Plasmolyze spongy
mesophyll cells and
(PANS) Incompletely lower epidermal
Abiotic Stress/ Injury burned cells
gasoline + O3+  Bronzing, Silvering,
NO > PANS Glazing in lower
• Non Living leaf
• Not contagious/ infectious
• Knowledge of environmental factors before Nitrogen Combustion of  Bleaching and
and during disease occurrence necessary for Oxides coals, gasoline, bronzing of plants
correct diagnosis (NO 2) natural gas, plus brown and
and fuel white lesion along
leaf margins
Types of Abiotic Stress
Physical factors Chlorine -  Bleaching,

(Cl2) and Interveinal
Hydrogen necrosis,
Freezing T ° below 0 Ice crystals Chloride scorched leaf
injury °C form within (HCl) margins,
or between premature
cells dropping of leaves
Chilling Low T °; Pitted and

injury slightly water-
above soaked
freezing symptoms
(below 12.5
°C)
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Ethylene -  Premature 63
(CH 2CH 2) senescence,
etiolation,
stunting, flower
Virus
drop, sepal
necrosis, leaf Characteristics:
malformation
• obligate parasites
Particulate Dusts  Necrotic lesions
Matter in covered areas, • ultramicrospic
leaves fall off
Structure:
Stress caused by Mineral Deficiencies • Most plant pathogenic viruses have single
stranded RNA genomes
Macroelements: CHONNaPKMgS
Microelements: FeCuZnMoBClMnNi Types:
• Bacteriophages:
Stress caused by improper
 Viruses that attack bacteria
Agricultural Practices
• Satellite Virus:
• Unfavorable Soil pH- controlled by adding
lime to increase pH level  Viruses that must be associated with an
autonomous virus before it can cause
• Lack of or excess moisture- zoospores infection
present with excess moisture, causing it to
swim from plan to plant to attack crucifers  Shapes:
• Improper use of pesticides  Isometric
How to prevent Abiotic  Spherical

Stress/ Injuries  Rigid
 Filamentous
• Avoid the factor
 Flexous and long
• Protect the plants
 Geminate
• Supply the factor
 twinned isometric particles
• Good crop management
 Baciliform
BIOTIC AGEN TS OF  short, round-ended rods

PLAN T DISEASES
Classification and Detection
• Agents that cause infectious diseases of plants
• Transmission studies using indicator
• Include the viruses, viroids, bacteria, hosts:
mollicutes, fungi, nematodes, parasitic
 Electron microscopy
flowering plants, insects, protozoa, and few
other minor parasites  Serological tests (ELISA)
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virus and Pea early browning virus
 Symptomatology & host range
 Physical properties
• Soil-borne fungi
 Root-infecting Fungal-like organisms
• Thermal inactivation point (TIP)  Plasmodiophoromycetes: Polymyxa,
 Lowest temperature by which the virus is
Spongospora
inactivated  Chytridiomycete: Olpidium
• Virus longevity in vitro • Mites

 Family Eriophyidae
• Dilution end point (DEP)
 can transmit Wheat Streak Mosaic
 Dilution of a virus that can still cause
and several Rymoviruses affecting
infection cereals
Common Symptoms
• Insects
1. Mosaic  Non-Persistent (Stylet-borne)
2. Ring spot  Transmit virus within seconds or
3. Vein clearing minutes after acquisition then
4. Color breaking
losses the ability to transmit it (Ex:
5. Stunting Vector are some aphids)
6. Chlorosis
7. Leaf Curling
 Semi-Persistent(Foregut-borne)
8. Excessive branching (Witches’ broom)
 Virus can stay in the foregut of the
Mode of Transmission insect for several days
1. Infected Planting materials (Pollen, Seeds)  Persistent

2. Grafting  Transmits the virus after a latent
3. Mechanical period has elapsed after
4. Vectors acquisition; vector is capable of
transmission for days
• Nematodes
 Circulative- replicate only in plants
 Soil inhabiting ectoparasitic but passes through the gut into the
nematodes haemolymph and then the salivary
 Genera Longidorus, Paralongidorus, glands
Xiphinema can transmit several  Propagative- replicate both in
polyhedral- shaped virus known as plants and vectors
Nepovirus (Grape-fanleaf, Tobacco
ringspot etc.) Control
 Genera Trichodorus and
Paratrichodorus are able to transmit 2 1. Preventive Measures
• Quarantine
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• Certification Common symptoms
• Virus-free planting materials • Yellowing of leaves

• Stunting
2. Eradication • Rolling and twisting of leaves
3. Protection • Mottling and chlorosis
• Vertical breaking of bark
4. Cross protection
5. Genetic Engineering Mode of transmission
6. Early detection • Infected sap
 Contaminated tools and hands
Examples of Diseases
 Chewing insects
• Tobacco mosaic virus
• Vegetative propagules
• Cucumber mosaic virus
• Tomato Leaf Curl
Control
• Tungro virus
• Thorough disinfection of tools used
Viroids • Viroid-free seedlings
• Early detection
Characteristics: Viroids are resistant to heat, so hot water
• Stable “naked (no protein coat)” RNA that treatment is not applicable
infects plants
Examples of diseases
• Smaller than viruses
• Cadang-cadang disease of coconut
• Closely associated with nuclei of infected
cells especially the chromatin • Chrysanthemum stunt disease
• Potato spindle tuber
Classification and detection
• Chrysanthemum chlorotic mottle
• Particle morphology
• Citrus exocortis
 Particle size
 Viroid shape Bacteria
• Genome properties
Characteristics:
 Genome nature
 Number of genes • Rod-shaped
 Translation strategy • Aerobic
• Flagellated
• Biological properties
• Gram negative
 Type of host • Non-spore forming
 Mode of transmission
• Serological properties Exceptions:
 Relatedness of proteins • Streptomyces spp.

 Antigen – Antibody relations
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 Filamentous like a mold but their  Xanthomonas
biochemical and physiological properties  Corynebacteria (now invalid)
like bacteria
• Corynebacterium • New Genera (after 1980)
 Gram positive  Acidovorax

 Clostridia  Burkholderia
 Anaerobic and spore-forming
 Ralstonia
Distinctive characteristics  Pseudomonas
• Plasmids
• From Erwinia
 Extracellular, closed, circular genetic
 Brenneria
components
 Enterobacter
 Self-replicating, can be integrated into
bacterial chromosome  Pantoea
 Carry elements for:  Pectobacterium
 drug resistance
 phage resistance
 Erwinia
 UV resistance Survival in secondary
habitats
• From Corynebacteria
 pathogenesis
 Anthrobacter
Shapes  Clavibacter
• Spherical (cocci)  Cutobacterium
• Rod-shaped (bacilli)  Leifsonia
• Spiral-shaped (spirilla)  Rathayibacter
 Rhodococcus
Flagellation
• Monotrichous(one flagellum) • From other genera
• Lophotrichous (2 or more flagella at one  Acetobacter
side/ pole)
 Agrobacterium
• Amphitrichous(flagella on both sides)
 Bacillus
• Peritrichous(flagella on all surfaces)
 Clostridium
Genera of plant pathogenic bacteria  Gluconobacter
• Old Genera (before 1980)  Nocardia
 Agrobacterium  Rhizobacter
 Pseudomonas  Sphingomonas
 Erwinia  Serratia
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 Spiroplasma • Molecular Techniques
 Streptomyces  DNA Base Comparison
 Xylella  DNA-DNA Homology- for bacterial

species identification
 Xylopilus
 DNA-rRNA Homology detect
Common symptoms similarities between families
• Leaf spot –bacteria in sub stomatal cavities  Restriction Fragment Length

and parenchyma cells of leaves causing Polymorphism- for strain
localized lesions identification
• Soft rot –bacteria produce hydrolytic Gene transfer

enzymes that degrade the middle lamella
and cell walls of the host resulting to soft, • Transformation -Change in cell through
slimy, watery decay uptake and expression of additional genetic
material
• Blight – General necrosis due to rapid
growth and advance of bacteria • Transduction- Transfer of genetic material
from one bacterium to another by means of
• Gall – Due to hyperthrophy and hyperplasia a bacteriophage
of meristematic and parenchymatous
tissues • Conjugation – Transfer of genetic material
from a donor cell to a recipient cell through
• Canker – Phloem and parenchyma tissues direct cell to cell contact
become sunken, dry up and die
• Wilting – A result of vascular disorders, Control
bacteria multiply and block normal water
flow • Cultural
 Sanitation to reduce inoculum
Mode of reproduction and
bacterial classification  Crop rotation for pathogens with limited
host range
• Binary fission  Proper irrigation and drainage to control
moisture levels
• Traditional methods of characterization
to group bacteria into genera • Seed treatment
 Morphological size, shape, flagella  Seed soaking in weak acid
 Cultural- growth characteristics in solution/sodium hypochlorite
media
• Antibiotics
 Biochemical- reactions in substrates
(catalase, urease, oxidase  -Streptomycin, Oxytetracycline
 Physiological – Carbon and Nitrogen  resistance as disadvantage

Requirements
 Pathological- pathogenicity to plants
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 Reproduce by budding and by binary
Example of Diseases transverse fission of cells
• Xanthomonas campestris pv. Vesicatoria –
leaf spot of tomato • Spiroplasmas
• Xanthomonas axonopodis pv. dieffenbachiae –  Helical or spiral-shaped during certain
bacterial blight of anthurium phases of growth
• Xanthomonas oryzae pv. oryzae- Bacterial  Relatively easy to grow
leaf blight of Rice  Require sterol for growth
• Pectobacterium carotovorum subsp.  Larger than phytoplasmas
carotovorum - Soft rot of vegetables
• Psedomonas syringae pv. tabaci - Tobacco Common symptoms and transmission
wildfire • Blocks translocation in the phloem
• Agrobacterium tumefaciens –crown gall of • Interferes with plants’ hormonal balance
roses
Common symptoms
Mollicutes
• Yellowing
Characteristics • Virescence
• Prokaryotic • Stunting
• No cell walls • Phyllody
• With 9-12 nm thick unit plasma membrane • Production of axillary shoots and
• Contain both RNA & DNA adventitious roots
• Pathogenic on plants, arthropods, and man Transmission

• Pleomorphic – sensitive to osmotic change • Insect vectors
• Resistant to penicillin but sensitive to  Insects acquire mollicutes via the phloem
tetracycline and chloramphenicol sieve tubes
 10-45 days incubation period from
Pathogenic species
acquisition feeding
• Phytoplasmas
 Formerly called mlos or mycoplasma- • Mechanical
like organisms
Control
 Generally found in the phloem
• Use of resistant cultivars or hybrids
 Generally spherical or ovoid
• Proper control of insect vectors
 May appear mucoid or filamentous
• Use of mollicute-free planting materials
 Nutritionally fastidious
• Eradication of alternative hosts(i.e. Weeds)
 Very difficult to culture in artificial media
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• Use of tetracycline as antibiotic  Greening disease – Citrus plants
• Sanitation and pruning
• 1973
Examples of diseases caused  Xylem limited bacteria
• Lethal yellowing of coconut trees  Xyllela fastidiosa

 A Phytoplasma that causes death of ◊ Pierce’s disease – Grapes
flowers and leaves, kills the trees in less ◊ Alfalfa dwarf – Alfalfa
than 6 months
• Citrus stubborn disease Characteristics
 A Spiroplasma that affects leaves, fruits, • Fastidious - Cannot be grown in simple
and stems by stunting, die-back, bunchy culture media in the absence of host cells
growth of twigs, mottling, and leaf  Generally rod-shaped
chlorosis
 Measures 0.2 to 0.5 µm in length
• Corn stunt
 Bounded by a cell membrane and a cell
 A Spiroplasma causing leaf chlorosis, wall
stunting, and bunchy top appearance
(Doi, 1967)  No flagella
 observed the association of mollicutes  Undulated/ rippled cell structure

with aster yellows, mulberry dward and  Nearly all RLOs are gram negative
potato witches’ broom
 Sensitive to the ff:
Parasitic Higher Plants  Tetracycline

 Penicillin
• Hemiparasites – contains chlorophyll but  High temperature
without roots
Plant pathogenic species
i.e. Witchweed; True Mistletoe; Leafy
Mistletoe; Loranthus Isp • Xylem-limited bacteria
• True parasite – Have little or no chlorophyll  Several are placed in the genus Xylella
and no roots
 Can be grown in culture in complex
i.e. Dodder, Broomrapes, Aeginetia indica nutrient media but growth is slow and
colonies produced are tiny (1-2 mm)
Fastidious Vascular Bacteria
 All are gram negative except the ff:
(Rickettsia-like organisms – RLO)
 Leifsonia xlyi
History  Sugarcane ratoon stunting (Leifsonia
• 1972 xyli subsp. xyli)
 Phloem limited bacteria  Bermuda grass stunting (Leifsonia xyli
 Clover Club Leaf disease – Clover and subsp. cynodontis)
periwinkle plants
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glucan
• Phloem-limited bacteria
 None has been grown in culture Plant Pathogenic species
• Protozoa-like protists
Diseases caused
 Phylum Myxomycota (slime molds)
• Fastidious xylem-limited gram negative
bacteria: (caused by forms of Xylella  Phylum Plasmodiophoromycota
fastidiosa) (endoparasitic slime molds)
 Pierce’s disease of grapes  Flagellate protozoa (sieve tubes)
 Citrus variegation chlorosis

• Fungal-like protists
 Phony peach disease
 Pythiaceae – Damping-off
 Almond leaf scorch
 Peronosporaceae- Downy mildews
 Plum leaf scald
 Albuginaceae – White rust
• Fastidious cylem-limited gram positive Examples of Diseases caused

bacteria:
• Protozoa-like protists
 Ratoon stunting disease of sugarcane –
caused by Clavibacter xyli subsp. Xyli  Mucilago, Fuligo, Physarum
 Fastidious phloem-limited bacteria –  Plasmodiophora brassicae (clubroot of

cause of important citrus greening crucifers)
disease and minor diseases of clover and  Spongospora subterranean (Powdery scab
periwinkle of potato)
 Phytomonas leptovasorum (Phloem
Plant Pathogenic Protists necrosis of coffee)
History • Fungal-like protists

• Previously considered as fungi due to their  Pythium
cell wall structure
 Phythophtora infestans (Potato Late
• Reclassified as protozoalike or fungi-like Blight)
Characteristics
N ematodes
• Protozoa like protists
 Unicellular Characteristics
 Plasmodial • Thread-like, cylindrical, elongated in shape
 Very simple multicells • Unsegmented
 Phagotrophic (engulfs food) • Saprophagous

• Predaceous
• Fungal-like protists
• Plant parasitic
 Have mycelia and conidia
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• Odontostylet
• Feed on all forms of plant life, some feed on  Hollow spear
fungi and bacteria
 Ex: Order Dorylaimida; Xiphinema,
• Mostly obligate parasites Longidorus, Paralongidorus
Parts of the outer tube of nematodes • Onchiostylet

 Bent, solid needle-like stylet
• Cuticle
 Ex: Order Triplonchida; Trichodorus,
 semipermeable outermost covering of
the nematode body Paratrichodorus
 made up of protein (keratin and collagen) Phytonematology – study of nematodes that

 shed off at molting to allow growth parasitize plants
• Epidermis- • Turbatrix aceli (Wheat gall nematode)
• thin layer which functions mainly for  First plant parasitic nematode described
secretion of new cuticle during molting • Caenorhabditis elegans– model organism for
• Muscles genetic and physiological studies
 allow movement by alternate
Biology
contractions and relaxations of dorsal
and ventral muscles
• Life cycle 1st
Molt
J2
Parts of Inner Tube of Nematodes (hatches)
Egg J1 (inside J2 (inside
• the digestive system of the nematode egg) egg) 2nd
Molt
• from the mouth opening to the anus (for
females) or cloaca (for males) J3
Stylet Adult J4
4th 3rd
• protrusible structure in the mouth

Molt Molt
• distinguishes plant parasitic from free- • Reproductive stage

living nematodes
 Amphimixis
• for puncturing plant cells and withdrawing
 males are needed
their contents
• Parthenogenesis
Three types of stylet  only females are produced and offspring
• Stomatostylet are clones of the female
 with distinct cone, shaft, and knobs;  Sex reversal

hollow  observed in juvenile stage during
 Ex: Order Tylenchida unfavorable condition
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 Semiendoparasites
Survival strategy  Feed by burying the front part of the

 Dormancy – lowered metabolism
body into the host cells while posterior
portion is outside the host
Types
 Diapause-state of arrested development  Endoparasites
which persist until specific requirements  The entire nematode body enters the
for development are satisfied even if plant cells while it feeds
favorable conditions return
 Quiescence- spontaneous reversible • According to movement while feeding
response to unpredictable unfavorable  Migratory
conditions
 Move from one part of the plant to
another
STATE ADVERSE COND’N  Move from the plant to the soil and
Cryobiosis Low Temperature back
Thermobiosis High Temperature
 Sedentary
Anoxybiosis Lack of Oxygen
Osmobiosis High Osmotic  Attach and burrow themselves to the
Pressure roots
Anhydrobiosis Dehydration
• Examples of combining two classifications
1. Migratory Ectoparasite
 Egg stage – the survival stage of nematode
 Longidorus
 Survival strategies
 Xiphinema
 Egg Sac/ Gelatinous Matrix-
Meloidogyne spp  Trichodorus
 Cysts- Globodera spp.  Paratrichodorus
 Coiling/ Clamping- Ditylenchus, 2. Sedentary Ectoparasite

Anguina  Criconemoides
Groups Classifications  Hemicyclophora
• According to feeding position 3. Semi-Ecto, Semi-Endo
 Ectoparasites  Tylenchulus
 Feed from the outside  Rotylenchulus
 Only the stylet enters the plant 4. Sedentary Endoparasite
 Do not enter the roots  Meloidogyne
 Feed mainly on root hairs and tips  Globodera
 Naccobus
 Hirschmaniella
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Sampling Theories • Apelenchoides besseyi
• Spatial Distribution  Ufra disease of rice
 Distribution within the field is generally
• Hirschmaniella oryzae
patchy due to their small size and slow
movement  Rice root knot
• Vertical Distribution
Fungi
 Dispersal of nematodes in a soil profile
• Temporal/Seasonal Distribution Characteristics
 Influenced by climatic patten and • Form a mycelium

availability • Cell walls contain chitin and glucan
*Nematode density is highest during near • No chloroplast
harvest stage of crop
• Heterotrophic
Extraction techniques • Penetration and entry:
• Motility Dependent/ Active Methods:  uses an Appresorium to attach to the host
 Extract slender and active stages of

Nutrition
nematodes
• Derive food from organic matter
a. Baermann funnel
b. H2O incubation Method • Haustoria: structure used to take food
needed for its growth
• Motility Independent/ Passive Methods:
 Extracts even slow moving nematodes Reproduction
a. Wet-Sieving Method • By spores, which are small seed-like
b. Elutriation Method structures that germinate and produce
c. Centrifugal Floatation threadlike filaments through the plant’s
natural opening like the stomates,
Examples of diseases caused hydathodes, and lenticels
• Radopholus similis
Survival
 Spreading decline of citrus
• Through spores o mycelia in decaying
 Toppling disease of banana
materials
 Yellow dwarf disease of black pepper
• Meloidogyne incognita Plant pathogenic species
 Root knot
1. Phylum Chytridiomycota – has motile cells
(zoospores with posterior flagellum)
• Tylenchulus semipenetrans
a. Order Chytridiomycetes
 Slow decline of citrus
 Physoderma maydis – Brown spot of
• Radinaphelencus cocophilus Corn
 Red ring disease of coconut
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 Synchytrium psopocarpi – Orange gall
a. Order Agaricales – Mushrooms
of Winged Bean  Basidium without crosswalls
 Olpidium brassicae - root disease of  Produce radiating gills/ lamellae

crucifers  Many are mychorrizal fungi
2. Phylum Zygomycota – have asexual spores  Armillaria- cause root rot of
in sporangia; produce zygospores trees
a. Order Mucorales  Crinipellis- witches’ broom of
 Rhizopus nigricans; Rhizopus cacao
stolonifer – Soft rot of fruits and  Masmius- fairy ring disease of
vegetables turfgrasses
 Choanephora cucurbitarum – Fruit
 Pleurotus- white rot on logs
rot
 Pholiota- brown wood rot of
b. Order Glomales (mycorrhiza) deciduous forest trees
3. Phylum Basidiomycota – Club and b. Order Aphyllophorales – Bracket
mushroom fungi; Produce Basidiospores Fungi
a. Order Ustilaginales – Smut fungi  Athelia- root and stem rot of many
 Ustilago maydis – Corn Smut plants
 Urocystis cepulae – Onion smut  Chondrostereum- silver leaf disease
b. Order Uredinales – Obligate rust fungi of trees

 Corticium- red thread disease of
 Puccinia graminis f.sp. tritici – Attacks
wheat only turf grasses
 Ganoderma- root and basal stem rot
 Puccinia graminis f..sp. hordei –
Attacks barley only of trees
 Polyporus- heart rot of living trees
 Uromyces phaseoli – Bean Rust
and rot of dead trees
 Hemileia vastatrix – Coffee rust
4. Phylum Ascomycota – Sac fungi; produce
 Puccinia polysora – Peanut rust ascospores within an ascus
a. Class Archiascomycetes
Fruiting Spore Forms
Structures b. Class Saccharomycetes
Basidium Basidiospores (n) c. Class Pyrenomycetes
Spermagonium Spermatia (n)
Claviceps purpurea - Ergot of Rye
Aecium Aeciospores
(n+n) Magnaporthe grisea – Rice blast
Uredinium Uredospores d. Class Plectomycetes
(n+n)
e. Class Loculoascomycetes
Telium Teliospores (2n)
Mycosphaerella fijiensis – Black
sigatoka leafspot of Banana
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f. Class Discomycetes
 Teleomorph – sexual/perfect stage
 Anamorph – asexual/imperfect stage
g. Class Deuteromycetes or Imperfect

Fungi
Imperfect stage or Phylum Ascomycota

• Hypomycetes
 Produce conidia on conidiophores
Alternaria; Bipolaris – leaf spot

• Coelomycetes
 Produce acervuli or pycnidia
 Systemic and curative fungicide
Diplodia – fruit rots
 Absorbed by roots and distributed
• Mycelia sterilia within the plants to control certain
 No asexual or sexual spores diseases; applied to seeds or soil
Rhizoctonia – Rot of leaves, stems, roots  Benlate
Sclerotium – Seed, root, stem rot  Apron 35
Control VARIABILITY IN PLAN T

• Kinds of fungicide: PATHOGEN S
 Protective fungicide
Biotype-
 as foliage and fruit sprays or dusts to
Population of life forms that is identical in all
keep disease-causing fungi from
inheritable traits
penetrating plants
 Zineb Pathovar
 Eradicant fungicide A strain or group of strains at infra
subspecies level, with identical or similar
 Kills or inhibits fungi after they have characteristics based on pathogenicity,
penetrated the plants symptoms, or signs and host range
 Mercury Chloride
 Protective and eradicant fungicide
Pathogenic Race-
Based on the ability to attack different
 Controls foliage and fruit diseases, as genera of crop plants
seed treatment
 Captan DISEASE CY CLE
• Sequence of events that lead to, and involved

in disease production
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• Activities of pathogen away from and in the Mechanisms of Pathogen Survival
host
Formation of specialized structures
• DIFFERENT from the LIFE CYCLE of
pathogen • Nematode cysts, teliospores, oospores,
sclerotial bodies, cleistothecia, zygospores
• Continuous process
Dormancy
Types of Disease Cycle
• Rest period interrupting development
Monocyclic • Long enough for the pathogen to resume
parasitic activity
• One disease cycle in one cropping season or
one year • Synchronized with renewed host activity
• FAST build-up in Rate of Inoculum
Fungistasis
• 50-100% increase in Rate of Disease
• Control mechanis, which restricts the
• Cause epidemics germination of fungal propagules deposited
• Ex: Late blight of Potato, Grain Rusts, Rice in the soil
Blast, Leaf Spot of Mungbean, Viruses with
Insect Vectors Survival in hosts or vectors
• Quiescent vegetative condition in host
Polycyclic tissues
• Repeating disease cycle in one cropping • Can also be in ALTERNATE HOST(S)
season or one year
• SLOW build-up in Rate of Inoculum Survival as saprophytes
• SLOW increase in Rate of Disease • Degrade and make use of a wide range of
organic matter
• Ex: Soil borne diseases (Bacterial/ Fusarial
Wilt, Rusts of Trees, Smuts)
Pathogenic phase
Stages of the Disease Cycle • Dissemination

• Inoculation
Saprogenesis phase
• Penetration
• Survival Phase
• Infection
• WEAKEST link in the disease cycle
• Colonization
• Pathogen population at LOWEST
• Incubation
• TARGET of most control strategies
• Symptom Development
• Production of 2o inoculum
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Inoculation • LATENT INFECTION: state in which the host
• Contact of pathogen with the host is infected with the pathogen but does not
• Deposition of the INOCULUM into an show any symptoms (Ex: Anthracnose
INFECTION COURT (Colletotrichum gloeospirioides)
• “Inoculum” any part of the pathogen that can Colonization (Invasion)

initiate a disease
• Growth/ Multiplication or movement of the
 Fungi: Spores/ Conidia, Mycelial pathogen in or through host tissues
Fragments, Sclerotial Bodies
• Pathogens produce chemicals like enzymes,
 Nematodes: Eggs, Larvae, Adults toxins, hormones, and other pathogenicity
 Phanerogams: seeds related factors
\
 Bacterial Cells, Phytoplasma Cells, • Example:

Protozoan Cells  Fungi: produce mycelia and spores
 Virus and Viroid particles  INTERCELLULAR INVASION: hyphae
are in BETWEEN cells; spores and
Penetration (Ingress) hyphae in Xylem Vessels
• Entrance of pathogens into the host (via  INTRACELLULAR INVASION: hyphae
wounds or natural openings) punctured and inside host cell
• PASSIVE: pathogens play no active part  Bacteria: multiplication of more bacterial
(vectors carry the pathogen into the plant cells
cells)
 Virus: multiplication of virus particles
• “Inoculum” any part of the pathogen that can (Always intracellular)
initiate a disease
• ACTIVE: pathogen plays an active role Mechanisms of Pathogenicity
through flagellar movement, spore
germination, appressorium, and • Interference with the uptake of water and
penetration pegs inorganic elements from the soil
• Avenues for Penetration • Interference with translocation of organic
 Natural Openings: Stomata, Lenticels,
compounds
Hydathodes, Nectarthodes • Reduction of plants’ photosynthetic capacity
 Wounds:Mechanical Wounds
• Increased transpiration
Infection • Changes in the growth of the suscept
• Occurs when the pathogen has become

Gene for Gene Theory ( Flor, 197 1)
ESTABLISHED in the plant tissues after
penetration and obtain nutrients from the
For every gene conferring resistance in the
hosts
host, there is a corresponding gene conferring
• Penetration alone doen’t inply successful avirulence to the pathogen
infection
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78  Levels of genetic resistance or

susceptibility of the host
- Avr avr  Degree of uniformity of host plants
R - +
 Type of crop
r + +
 Age of host plants
+ : Compatble reaction; Disease will occur
- : Incompatible reaction; No disease
• Pathogen factors
Epidemiology  Levels of virulence
 Quantity of inoculum near host

• Study of Disease Development in plant
 Ecology of the pathogen
population
 Mode of spread of the pathogen
• Epidemics- increase in disease incidence
within the plant population with time
• Environmental factors
• Epiphytotics- epidemics of plant disease
 Moisture
• Endemic Disease- disease that is native or
 Temperature
indigenous
 Human factors
• Exotic Disease- Disease which is introduced
from some area  Site selection and preparation
• Pandemic Disease- disease of worldwide or  Selection of propgative materials

widespread occurrence throughout a  Cultural practices
continent
 Disease control measures
Dissemination of inocula  Introduction of new pathogens
• By wind
Four General Principles
 Airborne pathogens take off, fly into the
air, and deposit in any area of the plant
1. Exclusion
• By rain
• Quarantine – regulatory actions to
 Fungal spores and bacterial cells are prevent the introdcution or dispersal of
carried by rain splashes non-native organism (exotic diseases),
• By insects legal methods
 Plant to plant via insects through injury • Inspection and seed certification
• By seed and planting materials • Use of pathogen-free propagating materials
• By man 2. Eradication
 carry through agricultural mechanics
• Elimination of pathogens established
and products within the plant or in an area
Factors affecting epidemic development Methods:

• Host factors  Cultural
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 Roguing, Crop Rotation etc
 Biological
 Use of Natural enemies

 Chemical
 Fumigants, Fungicides, Pesticides,

Insecticides
 Physical
 Heat Treatment, Irradiation,

Drying
3. Protection
• Prevention of infection through the
following:
 Chemical barrier
 Biological control
 Crop Management
 Manipulation of environment
• Putting a chemical barrier between the

pathogen and the host:
 Before inoculation
 Prevent spore germination
 Kill germinating spores
4. Resistance/immunization methods
• Modifying certain physiological or
physical features of the host so that it can
repel infection
 Selection
 Gene pyramiding
 incorporation of several resistance

genes in one host variety
 Multiline varieties
 Mixture of several lines with
agronomic characteristics but with
different genes for resistance
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References
AMBA, M. K. and S. AHLUWALIA. 2016. https://www.canr.msu.edu/ipm/uploads/files/
Induction, production, release and transport FieldCrop_Chapter6.pdf
of allelochemicals and their effects. From
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article http://plantnet.rbgsyd.nsw.gov.au.
/pii/S1672630816300166
https://www.reliablehydroponics.ie/grow_blog/be
BAKER, H.G. 1965. Characteristics and modes of ginners-guide-to-germination
origin of weeds. Pp. 147–172, in Genetics of
Colonizing species. Proc. First Int. Union of https://qsmndksh4i-flywheel.netdna-
Biol. Sci. Symp. on Gen. Biol. H.G. Baker and ssl.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/07/Spray-
G.L. Stebbins, ed. Academic Press, New York. distribution.jpg
CHARLES, G., and I. TAYLOR. 2008. https://sgs.nozzle-network.

Understanding the Critical Period for Weed com/en/tools/know_practical_4.html
Control. NSW Dept of Primary Industries):
https://www.azlca.com/uploads/documents/core
COBLE, H.D. and D.A. MORTENSEN. 1992. The
chpt4_pesticideformulations1.pdf
threshold concept and its application to weed
science. Weed Technol. 6:191-195
JONES, R.E. and R.W. MEDD. 2000. Economic
FAO. 2003 b. Weed Management for Developing thresholds and the case for long-term term
Countries, Addendum I., ed. by R. Labrada, approaches to population management of
Plant Production and Protection Paper 120. weeds. Weed Technol. 14:337-350.
Plant Production and Protection Division,
Rome. 277 pp. LIGENFELTER Dwight D. Extension
Agronomist, Department of Agronomy, Penn
FAO-UN. 2015. Guidelines on Good Labelling State University
Practice for Pesticides (Revised)
UPMost Review Center ALE Reviewer. 2019.
http://ipm.ucanr.edu/PMG/WEEDS/ID/brdlfch authored by Dr. Adorada
ar.html
https://cropwatch.unl.edu/soybean-
management/dicot
https://www.amentsoc.org/insects/fact-
files/mouthparts.html
https://www.invasive.org/
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UPS UPSTEP REVIEW CENTER

2021 LEA REVIEW

DATE CONTENT CONCEPT EVALUATION

FUNDAMENTALS OF WEED SCIENCE

DATE CONTENT CONCEPT EVALUATION

DATE CONTENT CONCEPT EVALUATION

DATE CONTENT CONCEPT EVALUATION

DATE CONTENT CONCEPT EVALUATION

Literature suggests that the most consistent

a. Annual Weeds – weed species that complete

Figure 3. Different mode of asexual reproduction of weed

Based on Weed Growth Habit

Figure 2. Morphological difference between

Based on Manner of Reproduction

a. Sexual – weed species that reproduce by

1. Lowland weeds – these are weed species

N ote: For the List Major Weeds in the

Figure 5. Examples of weed species that grows well in

Some of the common inflorescence in weeds

Seedling Growth and Development

b. Critical Period of Competition

References: (1) Coble, H.D. and D.A. Mortensen.

Impacts of Different Interventions on Yield

• Figure 10A shows the different interventions

Important N otes: b. It refers to the beneficial or harmful

It is very crucial in making decisions on the

a. Etymology: Allelopathy is from the

Goals Spray Supplements

Mode of action (effect on plant growth)

Pesticide label (Pictograms)

(a) Purpose of Labelling: The purpose of the

Source: FAO-UN . ( 2015) . Guidelines on Good

Recommended Minimum Information Directions for use

• Active ingredient content f. Nozzle – breaks the liquid into spray

• Registration number Types of Sprayer (Adalla et al., 2006)

Hazard and Safety Information

a. Compressed air sprayer

c. Tractor-power sprayer or Tractor-

14 water it will break up into small droplets

srayer tank which can be very difficult to Sample Problem 1

a. Calculate the sprayer swath width.

1. Check the integrity of the sprayer (check

16 instructed to apply 0.5 kg A.I. of herbicide per

= (Spray volume required x Recommended b. Collego (Upjohn Company) - wettable

aeschynomene sprayed post-emergence,

5. Other non-conventional methods (soil

Source: FAO. 2003 b. Weed Management for

Appendix Table 1. Herbicide Groupings and Site of Action Classification List

Herbicide Groupings and Site of Action Classification List

Appendix Table 2. List of Banned Pesticides in the Philippines

List of Banned Pesticides in the Philippines

2-Fluoroacetamide Banned as per FPA Circular No. 04, Series of 1989.

Appendix Table 3. List of Restricted Pesticides in the Philippines

List of Restricted Pesticides in the Philippines

Importation not allowed except in

Adequate time for aeration is

Clare R. Baltazar - first woman entomologist

Prognathous- mouthparts projected forward; 3. Sponging mouthparts (house fly)

Opisthognathous- mouthparts directed 4. Siphoning mouthparts (Butterfly)

Mouthparts • Proboscis is a modified maxillary galea;

1. Chewing-sucking mouthparts (Honeybees) 5. Chewing mouthparts (Majority of Insects)

Antennae 5. Flabellate (Latin: flabellum [Fan])