Running head: GERM THEORY OF DISEASE 1

Germ Theory of Disease

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GERM THEORY OF DISEASE 2

Germ Theory of Disease

Introduction

The news media regularly highlight various microorganisms that cause disease, including

notable ones such as HIV, Salmonella, H. Pylori, Tuberculosis, and Malaria. New outbreaks

occur each year, and scientists help to identify the causative organism. It is now common

knowledge that germs cause many diseases, including notable ones such as HIV/AIDS,

tuberculosis, and Ebola (Gillen & Oliver, 2009). For many centuries, however, people did not

know that germs exist. For many years the concept of microbes was strange, although diseases

like leprosy, plagues, and pestilence caused havoc in the world. Today, the germ theory has been

widely accepted, and it notes that some diseases are caused by microbes, the pathogens (Egger,

2012). It has become a central theme in biology, and it has guided the course of research into the

cause, progression, and treatment of various ailments. The germ theory of disease is an important

concept that helps to understand the etiology and pathogenesis of diseases.

The antecedents to the germ theory include the disproving of spontaneous generation as

the origin of microorganisms, the discovery of the microscope, and its improvement to observe

small agents; the proving of biogenesis; studies on food and wine to demonstrate fermentation,

and the demonstration that microorganisms cause disease. Joseph Lister, Louis Pasteur,

contributed to the ushering in the Golden Age of Microbiology.

Different Concepts on Disease Causes

The society has always been concerned about health and diseases. As a result, there has

been constant research on public health and how to improve the quality of life. Consequently,

there have been various concepts about treatments, diseases, and health. The Germ Theory and

the emergence of biomedicine have changed how to view disease and health, and there is
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constant scientific research for correlation between the causes of illnesses. Human beings cannot

find remedies without first understanding the cause of infections and diseases.

Today, it is commonly accepted that bacteria, fungi, viruses, protozoa, and other

microbes are responsible for several diseases such as pneumonia, chickenpox, and influenza

(Gillen & Oliver, 2009). However, before the 19th Century, people did not know that

microorganisms cause disease. In ancient Greece, people thought that there were infectious seeds

in the air and food that caused disease. They also observed that the seeds could stay in the body

of the infected, even after recovery, so that they can cause a relapse at a later time.

The concept of Contagium animatum is highlighted in the Bible, meaning that close

contact can lead to the spread of disease. The Mosaic Law has many texts that discuss contagious

diseases and infections such as pestilence, plague, and leprosy. It is recorded in the Bible that

people learned how to clean hands and distinguish between the clean and the unclean (Leviticus

11:47). Moreover, God, through Moses, instructed people about disease prevention and control

methods such as disinfection, sanitation, and quarantine. However, the idea of contagious disease

was developed further only recently, first by Girolamo Fracastoro in 1546. He postulated that

Syphilis is caused by a contagious agent, although he did not see it (Gillen & Oliver, 2009).

Medicine, philosophy, and religion have always been vital elements in all civilizations. In

the primitive age, there was a prevalent concept that evil spirits enter the body and cause disease.

The demonic theory holds that gods sent diseases to men as a warning. Also, some diseases were

caused because of enmity between people and the gods. Moreover, it was also believed that some

dead ancestors came back to haunt the family members through diseases. The demonic theory is

closely related to the punitive theory, which originates from religion. Even to the present time,
GERM THEORY OF DISEASE 4

there are many people, including Christians, who believe that sickness is a punishment from

God.

According to the Ancient Greeks, through the humoral theory, the matter is made up of four

elements, Water, Fire, Air, and Earth, all these have corresponding theories of being Cold, Hot,

Moist, and Dry. The body represents these elements through the humor: blood, black bile, yellow

bile, and phlegm. A person is healthy only when there is an equilibrium among the humor, and

any disequilibrium leads to illness. Moreover, there was the Miasmatic theory, which explained

that air from some places caused disease.

Girolamo Fracastoro was a physician, mathematician, poet, and author in the 16 th

Century. He is considered as the founder of the germ theory due to his publication about

Syphilis. He noted that the causes of disease were small, transmissible, and unique for each

disease. Besides, he correctly observed that the agents were capable of reproduction, although he

did not have any evidence for his assertions. It was until the 17 th Century that the microscope

helped to explore the microscopic world, and knowledge about microbes became apparent. Most

physicians and scholars in the 19th Century shared Hippocrates' theory that disease resulted from

an imbalance in the body due to noxious environmental influences. Therefore, they vehemently

resisted any attempt to attribute disease to germs or microbes. They categorized the germ theory

in the same group as ancient superstitions.

Various Scholars who Contributed to the Germ Theory of Disease

It is frequently indicated in the news and media services that diseases are caused by

germs. The word 'germ' simply means pathogen, and it is the central focus of the germ theory of

the disease. The historical background dates back to over 150 years down the line, and many

scholars, including the Jews and scientists who were not linked to any religion, linked the disease
GERM THEORY OF DISEASE 5

to pathogens (Alan and Douglas, 2009). Experimental analysis by different scholars greatly

impacted on the justification that germs cause infectious diseases. Among the pioneers who

performed practical analysis which developed germ theory are Antonio van Leeuwenhoek, Louis

Pasteur, and Robert Koch (Alan and Douglas, 2009).

1. Antonio van Leeuwenhoek Discovered Bacteria

Antonio Leeuwenhoek did the discovery bacterium as small and microscopic agents that

exist and live in other organisms. The first invention of the microscope was done by Robert

Hooke. However, Leeuwenhoek improved the microscope by using home-made lenses to

visualize microorganisms. Through microscopy, Antonio Leeuwenhoek became the first person

to describe bacteria and other microscopic organisms like protozoa, which the human eye has

never seen in the year 1663 (Porter, 1976). He used the term ‘minute eels’ as he was in the

process of writing about the spiral-shaped bacterium scientifically named, Spirillum volutans.

The advances by Leuwenhoek in the year 1675 revealed the secret for grape juices to

change into wine when left to stand for some time. Moreover, the explanations proceeded into

knowing the reason behind food spoilage and milk changing into cheese. The discoveries of

Leuwenhoek encountered conflicts of interest from the letters he issued to the Royal Society in

1674 (Porter, 1976). His observations at Lake Berkelse Mere with cloudy water on summer made

him describe the microorganisms as 'animalcules' and associated them with attachment to other

small organisms that are visible. Later in the year 1683, he observed the plague in his mouth and

the family members and discovered that the animalcules were moving and were large in

numbers. His writings to the Royal Society of England reveal the link between dental plaque and

bacteria (Lane, 2015). The relationship between dental plaque and bacteria first directly shows

the backs up the germ theory. Leuwenhoek used a simple microscope to study microbes, molds,
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and spermatozoa. He investigated semen and seminal fluid from an individual suffering from

gonorrhea, and he observed that the animalcules found in the infected person were different from

those of a healthy individual.

2. Louis Pasteur Proved that Germs Causes Diseases

Louis Pasteur is pronounced the founder of immunology following his investigations and

analysis on diseases in the latter days of the 19 th Century. Through his experiments, the germ

theory was popularized, and hope was built on the way out to disease menace through

vaccination (Berche, 2012). His involvement in infectious disease research came as a result of

silkworm epidemics in Southern France. Throughout his studies, he distinguished two different

diseases in which he believed that is associated with the proliferation of bacteria. From the

findings, he proposed the appropriate remedy and hypothesized the germ theory of all infectious

diseases (Kendall, 2012). The results from Pasteur’s studies convinced Joseph Lister that

suppuration of lesions is linked with germ contamination.

Through the hunt for remedies against cholera in the fowl, Pasteur developed a vaccine

against the catastrophic chicken disease. Thousands of fowl locked in the same room could

develop the disease through the transmission of the pathogen and die within a very short period

(Berche, 2012). By successfully culturing the cholera bacteria and naming it Pasteurella

multocida, he observed that preserved colonies that had stayed for a long period did not induce

disease upon inoculation in healthy chicken. Moreover, he realized that chicken inoculated with

old culture was also not developing the disease and concluded that they are protected against the

wild type pathogen. The chicken, which survived the subsequent inoculations with wild type

pathogen still excreted wastes with pathogenic bacteria (Ernst, 1995). He embraced the term
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vaccination in honor of Edward Jenner, who performed the first experimental analysis on

vaccination against smallpox with attenuated cowpox.

The disease burden became a concern from anthrax, which was a plague attacking the

cattle. Robert Koch, who was a physician, had already cultured the bacterium Bacillus anthracis

and successfully prevented disease progression upon performing sub-culturing eight times.

Through innovative thinking, Pasteur developed a procedure for attenuation of the bacterium,

which was preferred using potassium bichromate (Berche, 2012). His procedure was tested and

proved effective and reduced cattle mortality to 0.3 percent, saving the lives of French herds.

While in pursuit of good health, Pasteur successfully rescued lives through vaccination with

attenuated bacteria and viruses. The idea of vaccination has been instrumental in modern science.

More important, by developing the concept of germ theory, attenuation became the tool of

rescue; thus, Louis Pasteur considered the father of modern-day immunology (Kendall, 2012).

Although Girolamo Fracastoro is considered the father of the theory, it was Louis Pasteur

who proved that germs cause disease. He conducted experiments on wine spoilage and milk to

develop his ideas of disease and fermentation. Before Pasteur, the connection between microbes

and disease was not apparent, and many people considered that microorganisms were beneficial,

and so they could not harm people. It was through experimentation and the microscope that the

contagion was fully understood.

3. Robert Koch Developed Postulates for Germ Identification

The researches performed on infectious diseases were on infectious diseases intending to

alleviate disease burden in his country. Robert Koch was a physician in the 19 th Century and a

pioneer in the discovery of etiological agents of infectious diseases. In the year 1882, Koch

exposed that tuberculosis is caused by the tubercle bacillus, which can be transmitted from
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unhealthy organisms to another, which is healthy (Rogers, 1895). Through his brilliant ideas in

explaining that diseases are linked to exogenous agents by elaborating how TB is caused by the

bacterium nullified, the idea which was initially held that diseases are endogenous. On

subsequent analysis, he successfully cultured Bacillus anthracis and opened the gate to the

identification of many pathogenic bacteria that are associated with infectious diseases (Berche,

2012).

Taking keen interest to know what exactly leads to other diseases, Koch and his assistant

researcher managed to identify diphtheria and typhoid fever bacteria in the year 1884. Intense

efforts to map out the causative agents of killer diseases led to their identification of gonorrhea,

plague, and pneumonia, and tetanus bacteria within a 20 year period (Lakhtakia, 2014). Koch

developed bacterial staining techniques that are applied even in the current day research in the

identification of bacterial pathogens. The accuracy of Koch's identification followed the

postulates in the protocol he used all through.

Koch developed an idea for a series of experiments to justify that a particular

microorganism is the causative agent of infection. The issue of pathogen identification puzzled

many researchers, and upon postulation by Robert Koch, the procedure was universally accepted

and also backs the germ theory of diseases (Lakhtakia, 2014). The initial step in Koch's postulate

is that the suspected germ must be associated with all disease cases. The subsequent procedure is

to isolate the pathogen from an infected organism and cultivate it in pure culture. Healthy hosts

are then inoculated and must present with clinical symptoms as the initial case. The same

pathogen must then be re-isolated and must have the initial features as the first isolate (Allyson

and Julia, 2016). The rules by Robert Koch have been used to identify pathogens and justifies

that diseases are caused by pathogenic microorganisms.

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4. Joseph Lister and Antiseptic Medicine

Anesthesia was introduced in the 1840s, and it revolutionized surgery, although post-operation

infections killed many who had survived the painless procedure. In the 1860s, Joseph Lister, a

British surgeon, introduced the antiseptic system (Gillen & Oliver, 2009). He based his studies

on the work done by Pasteur, focusing his research on the surgical infection. He tested many

chemicals and settled on carbolic acid, which he found to be effective since it did not damage the

tissue. He was at first ridiculed by the conservative physicians, but he later won their recognition

when his methods worked.

The Contribution of Germ Theory to Disease Treatment and Prevention

The germ theory gave rise to health reform towards the end of the 19 th Century. For

instance, Ellen G. White, the spiritual leader of the Seventh-Day Adventist, incorporated it in her

gospel of wellness. She advocated for biologic leaving, vegetarianism, and natural therapies such

as exercise and fresh air. Besides, she warned her followers that urbanization and rapid

industrialization were dangerous, and it would cause disease, corruption, overcrowding, filth, and

pollution. Generally, health reformers advocated for wellness practices, which included bathing

regularly, exercise, and cleanliness. It was at the time understood that germs grew in an

environment that is unclean, leading to disease and death.

Besides, the germ theory led to the development of another branch of science,

immunology (Ernst, 1995). Scientists began to investigate ancient beliefs about the ability of the

body to heal itself. It was generally accepted that the body has a mechanism to protect against the

microbes because they are ubiquitous. The science of immunology was established through the

successful use of vaccination for rabies, anthrax, and smallpox. However, at the time, it was not

yet clear whether immunity was attributed to cellular agents of humoral. By the 1880s, antiserum
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and antitoxins had already been developed for diseases such as tetanus and diphtheria. Scientists

inoculated animals with the organisms and developed immune serum by separating the liquid

component of blood from the cells. Later, Elie Metchnikoff discovered white blood cells which

destroy microbes by engulfing them, thus supporting the cellular immunology theory. Therefore,

it was understood that both humoral and cellular components contribute to immunity.

The preceding discussion has highlighted the profoundly important role of germ theory in

understanding disease and its treatment. The knowledge about microbes has helped the effort of

preventing infection that is caused by contact, water, and food. Besides, it is the origin of various

practices, such as proper food preparation, personal hygiene, sterilization, and disinfection.

Particularly, the knowledge that microbes can spread from one individual to another has led to

various approaches to minimizing the transmission. For instance, asepsis has been developed as a

way off treating surfaces to prevent the growth of germs. Similarly, the understanding that water

can spread some organisms that occur in the gut has led to sanitation strategies such as the

treatment of sewage and drinking water.

Furthermore, various techniques that are applied in molecular biology are based on germ

theory. Infection control is now more efficient and rapid due to the use of genetic techniques to

identify target microbial sequences. Moreover, antibodies are now used to prevent microbes from

lining and non-living surfaces (Ernst, 1995). Besides, various disciplines have emerged which

are rooted in germ theory, such as epidemiology. A major milestone in germ theory was the

discovery of antimicrobial agents at the turn of the 20 th Century. The powerful medication has

saved many lives, and they have greatly reduced the burden of illness. Antibiotics are separated

from microorganisms to control other microbes. Basically, the treatment of infection has been
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impacted greatly by antimicrobial drugs, although re-emerging diseases. Some microbes have

developed resistance to the drugs.

According to Maloy and Schaechter (2006), microbiology research increased in the

second half of the 20th Century, uncovering missing links in biochemistry, environmental

science, and medicine. For instance, the discovery of biochemical genetics in viruses and

bacteria has given rise to stellar advances, and they have contributed to the understanding of

human genetics. For instance, microorganisms were instrumental in the discovery of DNA

(Colwell, 2017), the polymerase chain reaction (PCR), (Garibyan & Avashia, 2013), and other

novel molecular biology discoveries.

Finally, the process through which microbes cause disease has now been fully

understood. Pathogenesis refers to the progression of an infectious disease over time. The

process begins with exposure to a germ (microorganism) in sufficient quantities and at the

correct portal of entry into a susceptible individual. During the incubation period, the organism

multiplies without causing any clinical symptoms. The clinical disease has symptoms and signs.

Without treatment, an individual either recovers or dies, depending on the Body’s immunity and

the virulence of the germ.

The role of Vaccinations and Antibiotics

Antibiotics and vaccines function similarly but, in some ways, opposites. While

antibiotics kill indiscriminately, vaccinations are highly targeted. Both antibiotics and vaccines

play a crucial role in combating infections. Antibiotics treat severe infections, and vaccines

prevent those infections from becoming established. Antibiotics have defenses that originate

from the microbes to hinder them from bacteria; hence, they are not natural defenses to the

human body. Further, the human body is not used to cope will with antibiotics. In contrast,
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12

vaccines invoke the long-term defense mechanism of the human body, making them less

invasive.

Antibiotics are substances produced by microorganisms such as fungi and bacteria, which

inhibit the growth of other microorganisms (American Chemical Society, 2018). The first person

to discover antibiotics was Alexander Fleming, who developed penicillin by accident. In the

Golden Age, various antibiotics were discovered based on the ideals of the germ theory of

disease. Nowadays, diseases that used to kill many people before have been effectively

controlled by using agents such as streptomycin, tetracycline, and chloramphenicol (Penesyan,

Gillings, & Paulsen, 2015). Moreover, some uses of antibiotics are not therapeutic, such as for

the promotion of growth in animals, in veterinary medicine, and in aquaculture.

Today, hundreds of antibiotics have been prescribed by physicians and caregivers based

upon the suspected bacteria. In cases of serious infections, physicians recommend a broad-

spectrum of antibiotics to be used initially. After that, a narrow-spectrum antibiotic can be used

once the infection bacteria have been identified. Additionally, antibiotics are prescribed

prophylactically in cases of high risk to prevent infections. For instance, HIV patients can be

prescribed antibiotics to curb secondary bacterial infection. While antibiotics prevent infections,

vaccines target specific infections to exert pressure on them. As a result of herd immunity,

people who cannot be vaccinated receive protection from the use of vaccines. Also, since

vaccines prevent replication of targets in the host, there is no presence of bottleneck. As the host

becomes rare, the pathogen lies low to avoid harming the host; it takes a while before it spreads

to a new host. Further, the vaccine does not harm human biota; hence, it does not disrupt the

immune system. Consequently, the long-term effect of vaccines is that they do not affect non-
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targeted strains, and the usage of vaccines has been termed as one of the safest in the medical

interventions.

Antibiotics target a wide range of bacteria when they are used. Naturally, the antibiotics

either kill the bacteria or stop them from spreading. This allows the body’s natural defense to get

rid of the pathogens. Hence, when used properly, antibiotics save lives. However, there is a

growing resistance of antibiotics, which is curbing its effectiveness. Taking antibiotics as

recommended even when the symptoms disappear is the key to preventing any development of

bacteria resistant. In the same breath, vaccines safeguard children from deaths and illnesses

caused by infections. Vaccines also help prepare the bodies of children to fight severe and deadly

diseases. In essence, a child is born having a full immune system that helps the child to fight

viruses and bacteria

Vaccines protect diseases related to targeted diseases. For instance, in the US, influenza

vaccinations help protects from acute otitis in children. Measles vaccination protects multiple

complications such as bacteria, pneumonia, and malnutrition. Usually, the antibodies disappear

when they destroy the invading antigens. Also, vaccinations against pathogens such as Chronic

Hepatitis B can help in the prevention of cancer. The reduction of cervical cancer can be

achieved through the use of HPV vaccines. Both vaccines and antibodies are life-saving

inventions that have saved countless lives as well as spared humanity hurt and misery. However,

vaccines are vastly used to antibiotics; hence, it is recommended to use vaccines freely and

antibiotics only when the need arises.

Reasons why some infections are not easily controlled.

Eradicating some infections can be a daunting task. There are viral diseases that are

impossible to eradicate, due to particular characteristics of the virus. For instance, the Herpes
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simplex virus is found latent in the neurons, where infections tend to reactivate. A person cannot

identify latently infected people clinically but can be infective as soon as the virus reactivates.

Also, Influenza A is an RNA virus with antigens that are persistently changing as a result of the

antigenic drift. Antigenic drift is a point mutation in neuraminidase genes, which reduces the

affinity of antibodies. This explains why some people are easily re-infected with the influenza

virus.

Based on scientific grounds., infections such as malaria are not easy to eradicate either.

Human malaria has four species, and two of them are more common-the Plasmodium vivax and

Plasmodium falciparum. The P. falciparum is alleged to be the most dangerous out of the four

species, and it is also responsible for causing many deaths, especially in Africa. P. Vixax is also

common among the four species but is seldom fatal. Consequently, the two species respond to

medicines differently while exhibiting drug resistance differently. Also, to find a malaria

vaccine is near to impossible.

Further, another challenge for malaria resisting treatment is through the cause. The

single-cell parasite causes malaria, and it can evolve and evade the immune system. The parasite

can evolve, which enables it over time to be resistant to medicines. As a result, even if a person

recovers from Malaria, he or she is not guaranteed from Malaria infections in the future. This

fact alone makes it challenging to find a vaccine for malaria. Moreover, it is not only the

parasite that can evolve and adapt, but also the Anopheles mosquito, which has resistance to

insecticides, over a prolonged period.

Moreover, the war against HIV has been shifting over the years, as humans persevere in

the search for a cure despite the continued setbacks. HIV is difficult to control because when it

comes to most viruses, the DNA has to be transcribed to RNA, which is then converted to
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protein. However, HIV is a retrovirus, meaning it carries a single strand of RNA in its genes

rather than carrying a DNA strand (Colwell, 2017). To the people infected, HIV attacks the cells

of the body with a reverse transcriptase enzyme, which creates a DNA version that invades the

cell.

The other factors that are hinder the eradication of infectious diseases are political

instability, war, and conflict. These causes have halted the global efforts of eradicating parasitic

diseases. Also, there is a breakdown in various health systems resulting in resurgence, such as

Malaria. Next to political instability, the absence of a political will is the most corrosive factor

hampering public health efforts against infectious diseases. Perhaps the saddest thing about

infections and disease control getting out of hand are instances of deliberate attempts to block

vaccination exercises. Currently, the transmission of polio has been halted almost everywhere

except Pakistan, where some religious extremists vow to assassinate vaccine workers.

Moreover, now, the United States and Europe are alleging to have anti-vaccine groups linking

vaccines and autism. Massive scientific studies have conclusively confirmed that there is no

plausible vaccine causing autism.

Another public concern is the reemergence of measles, which the most contagious among

the vaccine-preventable-diseases. The concern stems from the decline of vaccine rates. Also,

worldwide polio eradication is not going according to plan, as the first eradication year of 2000

was missed. This can be attributed to instability, hard-to-reach areas, and political unrest. In

countries like Pakistan and Nigeria, there is a struggle to achieve massive vaccination coverage

that is needed to eliminate the disease. Also, health workers risk their lives working in hostile

communities.

Conclusion
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As shown herein, this is the theory that is widely accepted for many diseases. According

to the theory, some germs can cause disease. The organisms are too small to be seen by a naked

eye, and they are ubiquitous, including living in bodies of other living things. They cause disease

by growing and reproducing within their hosts. Germs include viruses, bacteria, fungi, protozoa,

and other microscopic agents. Moreover, it has been noted that apart from the pathogen being the

principal cause, hereditary factors, and environment all contribute to influencing disease severity.

Basic forms of the theory came from earlier researchers, such as Girolamo Fracastoro. However,

it is Leuwenhoek, Pasteur, Lister, and Koch, who helped to establish the theory and promote its

wide acceptance. Although for a long time, the cause of disease had been a mystery, the

development of germ theory has helped to generate insights about various infections. By

understanding the cause of a disease, it becomes easier to treat and control. Therefore, the germ

theory of disease is an important concept that helps to understand the etiology and pathogenesis

of diseases.
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