“Ovidius” University of Constanta

Teacher Training Department

ENGLISH LANGUAGE TEACHING

METHODOLOGY

Lecturer:
Iuliana LUNGU

2021-2022
 Contents

Introduction ..................................................................................................................
Unit 1: Understanding children as learners ........................................
Unit 2: Classroom management ......................................................................................
Unit 3: Teaching vocabulary ..........................................................................................
Unit 4: Teaching grammar ..............................................................................................
Unit 5: Teaching the four language skills ........................................................................
5.1. Listening …………………………………………………………………..
5.2. Reading ……………………………………………………………………
5.3. Speaking …………………………………………………………………..
5.4. Writing ……………………………………………………………………
5.5. Integrating skills ………………………………………………………….
Unit 6: Lesson Planning
1. Staging and designing ...................................................................................
2. Defining aims ................................................................................................
Unit 7: Dealing with learners’ mistakes .........................................................................
Unit 8: Testing learners..................................................................................................
Bibliography and references ...........................................................................................
Appendices
1. Glossary of Language Teaching Terms
2. Common European Framework of reference for Languages (CEFR) – Cadrul
European de Referinţă
3. Learning styles – VAK Questionnaire
4. Multiple Intelligences Test
5. What makes a good teacher?
6. Class Contract
7. Lesson planning templates
 Introduction

This book has been designed to be as practical as possible, explaining theory but
making it relevant to the classroom through examples, activities and tasks. To quote
Penny Ur (1996:4) “There is nothing so practical as a good theory”, my intention is,
through this teaching guide, to maintain a link between theory and practice, by giving
some theoretical background for managing a class, planning lessons and other current
ELT issues which consists of a series of steps relevant to the classroom practice.

It is important to realize that this book does not contain everything future or starter
teachers need to know and able to do. This is just a guide to help them with a better
understanding of the basic principles and practice of English language teaching (ELT)
to children and young learners. It is for people approaching ELT for the first time who
want advice on how to get started.

Over the eight units in this book, we will look at key professional practices that help
make a successful teacher of English, to enable you develop the skills and practices
you need for your future career. Each unit focuses on a different practice, including
understanding your learners, classroom management, teaching the language skills,
planning and managing lessons and resources, testing and correcting students.

We must remember that learning how to teach …

 takes time
 takes practice
 is an ongoing process

Good luck and teach well!

 UNIT 1
Understanding children as learners
Warm-up

Learners as individuals
Knowing your learners better is the first step towards building rapport. By building a
relationship with students and finding out about their needs and interests, you can
make English more relevant to their lives, and plan lessons and activities which
engage them more. But do not forget ….
All learners are different. No two individuals have the same knowledge, skills,
educational, social and cultural background. Any class is made up of individuals and a
teacher needs to keep sight of this as far as possible.
Learners may have different …

(Scrivener, 2005, p. 63)

 Task 1

What implications does the list of individual differences above have for the teacher?
Here are three different teachers’ views. As a generalisation, do you feel more in
common with Ann, Michael or Jeremy?

Ann: You can’t really take all these individual differences into account. The important
thing is to ‘teach the class’.

Michael: I teach very little to the class as a whole – but my class has lots of individual
tasks and small groupwork. I think the classroom is always a set of private lessons –
as many as there are individuals.

Jeremy: You can adapt class lessons to respond to many individual needs and
differences within the group.

Thinking
about it!.

1. Understanding learners’ characteristics - A good starting point is to

know terms commonly used in the educational systems to which children belong
(International Standard Classification of Education, 2011)

Life stage Age range Terms commonly used in Proposed terms

the ELT profession aligned to those
commonly used in
educational
systems
Pre-schooler (also 2–5 years Kids; little ones Early years
referred to as pre- / people/learners; very / pre-primary
primary, early young learners; early
years, nursery, starters;
kindergarten)
Primary school 6–10/11 Kids; young learners; Primary
pupil years ;primary; juniors; tweens
Secondary school 11–14 years Kids; young learners; Lower secondary
pupil secondary; tweens*; teens;
early teens; teenagers;
juniors
Secondary school 15–17 years Young learners; young Upper secondary
pupil adults; seniors; teens; late
teens; teenagers
University/ 18–25 years Adults; young adults University/further
vocational student education
Note: *A ‘tween’ is a child between the ages of 9 and 12. A tween is no longer a
young child, but not quite a teenager
There are two parts of young learner (young learner under aged 6 or very young
learner and young learner aged 6-14 years) which have different characteristics. The
tables bellow show the differentiation of young learner under aged 7 and young
learner aged 7-12 years according Mary Slattery & Jane Willis on English for Primary
Teachers, 2001 such as:

Very Young Learners (under 6) Young Learners (aged 6-14)

- acquire through hearing and experiencing lots
of English, in much the same way they acquire
L1
- learn things through playing; they are not
consciously trying to learn new words or
phrases for them it’s incidental
- love playing with language sounds, imitating,
and making funny noises
- are not able to organize their learning
- not able to read or write in L1; important to
recycle language through talk and play
- their grammar will develop gradually on its
own when exposed to lots of English in context
- are learning to read and write in
L1/L2
- are developing as thinkers
- understand the difference between
the real and the imaginary
- can plan and organize how best to
carry out an activity
- can work with others and learn
from others
- can be reliable and take
responsibility for class activities and
routines

2. Language acquisition and learning

Stephen Krashen (1982) stated that the process of acquiring a language happens in a
natural way, when children are immersed into a language, reacting spontaneously and
interacting subconsciously. On the contrary, language learning is a conscious, rather
rational process which normally happens in a programmed way, for example, when
learning grammar or vocabulary.
Therefore, when learning English in the early stages, students begin to acquire the
language unconsciously motivated by necessities, such as to get the attention of the
teacher, to exchange information or to participate in a game. Consequently, children
would start to understand, feel comfortable, and get used to an English speaking
environment.
However, later on, when reaching primary and higher levels of education, it is
adequate for students to also learn English by means of studying the language using
more complex approaches, learning the grammar, etc. (as native English speakers also
do), but it is fundamental not to leave the acquisition process behind.

In brief
Acquisition is a subconscious process that leads to use of language in the same way
that we learn our first language.
Learning, on the other hand, is a conscious mental process. Where possible, teachers
should be providing their learners with environments where both can take place. One
vital ingredient of this environment is giving learners the opportunity to use the
language for communication.

True/False/Don't know?
• Young Learners (YLs) learn L2 in the same way as L1
• YLs learn L2 effortlessly, just like L1
 • YLs learn by doing
• Learning L2 should be fun
• Anybody can teach YL, you don't need high level of language proficiency

3. Learning styles
3.1. Understanding your learning style
People learn languages in different ways. This may be because of their personality,
culture or past learning experiences. If you understand your learning style it can help
explain why your learners find some activities easy or difficult, and can help you
teach more effectively by varying the activities that you use in your lessons in order to
cater for learners with different learning styles at least some of the time.
Task 2

Complete the quiz. Then check your answers below to find out what type of learner
you are.

A. Global or analytical? Tick the three things that help you learn best.
a) reading and listening the foreign language
b) studying language rules
c) doing exercises
d) doing communicative activities
e) studying corrections
f) staying in a country where the language is used

B. Visual, auditory or kinaesthetic? Tick the three things that help you learn best.
a) repeating new words or sounds
b) activities which involve moving around
c) diagrams showing how language works
d) listening to songs or recordings
e) activities which involve cards or objects
f) spider diagrams for vocabulary learning
g) doing dictations
h) using pictures
i) doing a variety of activities

C. Impulsive or reflective? Are the statements true (T) or false (F) for you?
a) When I read, I like to understand everything.
b) I don’t mind guessing if I don’t know an answer.
c) I like to have time to plan what I am going to say.
d) I always try to answer questions in class.
e) I prefer to be accurate rather than fluent.
f) I prefer to be fluent rather than accurate.

Learning styles
Most people have a mixture of learning styles.

A. Global: a, d, f Analytical: b, c, e
 B. Visual: c, f, h Auditory: a, d, g Kinaesthetic: b, e, i
C. Impulsive: b, d, f Reflective: a, c, e

3.2. What is a learning style?

Ellis (1985) described a learning style as the more or less consistent way in which a
person perceives, conceptualizes, organizes and recalls information. There are many
ways of looking at learning styles. Here are some of the classification systems that
researchers have developed.

1) There are four major learning styles originating from the work of Dr's Bandler,
R. and Grinder, J. in the Field of Neuro-Linguistic Programming. They agreed that
students may prefer a visual (seeing), auditory (hearing), kinaesthetic (moving) or
tactile (touching) way of learning.
Task 3

To find out your learning style, you can take the VAK Questionnaire (see Appendix
3).

a) Visual learner - learns best by SEEING

...looks at the teacher's face intently
...likes looking at wall displays, books etc.
...often recognizes words by sight
...uses lists to organize their thoughts
...recalls information by remembering how it was set out on a page

b) Auditory learner - learns best by HEARING

...likes the teacher to provide verbal instructions
...likes dialogues, discussions and plays
...solves problems by talking about them
...uses rhythm and sound as memory aids

c) Kinaesthetic learner - learns best by DOING

...learns best when they are involved or active
...finds it difficult to sit still for long periods
...uses movement as a memory aid

d) Tactile learner – learns best by TOUCHING

...use writing and drawing as memory aids
...learn well in hands-on activities like projects and demonstrations

Thinking
about it!

What teaching methods and activities suit different learning styles?

Visual
- use many visuals in the classroom. For example, wall displays posters, realia, flash
cards, graphic organizers etc.
Auditory
- use audio tapes and videos, storytelling, songs, jazz chants, memorization and drills
- allow learners to work in pairs and small groups regularly.
Kinaesthetic
- use physical activities, competitions, board games, role plays etc.
- intersperse activities which require students to sit quietly with activities that allow
them to move around and be active
Tactile
- use board and card games, demonstrations, projects, role plays etc.
- use while-listening and reading activities. For example, ask students to fill in a table
while listening to a talk, or to label a diagram while reading.

2) McCarthy's four learning styles

McCarthy (1980) described students according to another criterion as innovative
learners, analytic learners, common sense learners or dynamic learners.
a) Innovative learners
- look for personal meaning while learning
- draw on their values while learning
- enjoy social interaction
- are cooperative
- want to make the world a better place
b) Analytic learners
- want to develop intellectually while learning
- draw on facts while learning
- are patient and reflective
- want to know “important things" and to add to the world's knowledge
c) Common sense learners
- want to find solutions
- value things if they are useful
- are kinaesthetic
- are practical and straightforward
- want to make things happen
d) Dynamic learners
- look for hidden possibilities
- judge things by gut reactions
- synthesize information from different sources
- are enthusiastic and adventurous

4. Types of intelligence
American psychologist, Howard Gardner developed a theory of Multiple Intelligences
(1983) which can go some way towards explaining different learner styles. According
to Gardner there are eight different types of intelligences.

The eight intelligences are:

Linguistic - The word player
Logical / Mathematical - The questioner
Visual / Spatial - The visualiser
 Musical - The music lover
Bodily / Kinaesthetic - The mover
Interpersonal - The socialiser
Intrapersonal - The lonerk
Naturalistic - The nature lover (added by Gardner at a later date)
(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theory_of_multiple_intelligences)
Task 4

You can try the Multiple Intelligences Test at the end of the book, in the Appendices
section (Appendix 4).

Gardner suggests that we probably all have these eight intelligences but in different
proportions. Therefore, one person might be strong in musical and kinesthetic
intelligence, while another may be stronger in language and understanding other
people. Traditional education systems may have tended to focus more on some
intelligences over others, especially on language and logical intelligences.

Today each child is recognised as an individual and as having the potential to learn a
foreign language, as many different types of intelligences come into play.
Consequently methodologies and materials are designed to develop all 'intelligences'
in order to create an all-round, holistic language learner.

(Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences Clipart, www.clipartsheep.com)

In the classroom
Now you may be wondering what all this has got to do with your classes, well,
although not impossible, it would be quite a real undertaking to give all your students
a test to see which of the intelligences is most prominent, and then tailor-make each of
your classes to suit every individual student!
If time or other factors make it impossible to do individual tests for your students, you
could just try to make sure that you vary the tasks and use a range of activities so that
you touch upon all the types of intelligences now and again.

By observing your students and making notes on how they react to different activities
you may well discover, for example, that you have a class with a majority of visual
learners so you may try to use more flash cards or improve your board work.

4.1. Linking learners’ intelligence types to activity types

Linguistic intelligence
Linguistic intelligence relates to words and/or word meanings. A child with strengths
in linguistic intelligence will:
- Remember words and meanings
- Write poetry
- Enjoy reading
- Play word games
- Put words easily into orders and patterns

Logical-mathematical intelligence
Logical-mathematical intelligence is related to numbers and/or reasoning. A child
who is strong in logical-mathematical will:
- Create mathematical sequences
- Solve puzzles
- Conduct experiments
- Have an inquisitive nature
- See patterns and relationships

Visual-Spatial intelligence
Visual-Spatial intelligence relates to space and images. Children with this skill:
- Have a visual memory
- Like to draw
- Are more likely to be artists and designers
- Learn from charts and graphs
- Like visual puzzles

Bodily-Kinesthetic intelligence
Bodily-Kinesthetic intelligence is related to controlling body motions and manual
dexterity type skills. Children with bodily-kinesthetic intelligence:
- Work with their hands
- Like movement
- Act things out
- Learn by doing
- Like touch

Musical intelligence
Musical intelligence relates to musical skills. Children with this ability will:
- Learn through music or rhythms
- Create music
- Identify with music
- Play a musical instrument
- Be sensitive to sounds around them

Interpersonal intelligence focuses on relating to people. Children with interpersonal

intelligence:
- Can read other people and their emotions
- Have a lot of charisma
- Are typically leaders
- Have a lot of friends
- Learn through groups and interaction

Intrapersonal intelligence
Intrapersonal intelligence allows one to understand his inner world. Children with
intrapersonal intelligence:
- Prefer to work alone
- Are usually quiet
- Are deep thinkers
- Like to reflect
- Have a strong will and strong opinions

Naturalist intelligence
Naturalist intelligence relates to sensitivity toward other living things, such as animals
and plants. Children with naturalist intelligence will:
- Recognize and classify things in nature
- Show an interest in Earth sciences
- Enjoy being outdoors
- Describe relationships in nature
- Show concern for the environment

5. ‘Getting to know you’ activities

Try these ten activities to better understand your learners’ needs, interests and
preferences:
1. Ask learners to write personal profiles and post them on the classroom wall
2. Do a needs analysis at the beginning of the year / at the beginning of a course
3. Ask learners to do classroom surveys
4. Keep records of learner strengths / weaknesses / participation as you find out
during each class
5. Do a whole class mingle (where everyone stands up and speaks to other learners),
where learners ask each other questions (about interests, hobbies, etc.)
6. Play ‘I like’ – ask learners to stand in the middle of the room, ask a question e.g. ‘I
like working in groups’, ‘I like sports’. If they agree, they run to one side of the room,
if they disagree they run to the other (make sure you tell them which side before you
start!). Make a note of the class preferences as you play the game.
7. Ask learners to introduce each other
8. Ask learners to interview and then write a profile of their partner (you can provide
the questions to get the information that you need)
9. Ask learners to (anonymously) write things they like and don’t like on pieces of
paper. Place two bags at the front of class. Learners drop in their papers at the end of
the class.
 10. Ask learners to suggest topics or activities for class – anonymously or in group

6. Writing personal reports

Task 3

After reading a teacher’s reports on her students, the school head has asked the
teacher to write them again – but to be completely positive this time. Which student is
the teacher writing about in the second (positive) group of reports a-c?

Justin Harrison
In spite of his enthusiastic and friendly nature, Justin is often far too emotional. His romantic
ideas often amuse the rest of the class and he gets very upset because of their behaviour. This is a
pity because he is intelligent and often shows initiative.

Sally Greenspan
Despite her intelligence, Sally is extremely assertive and rather inconsiderate to other members of
the class. She is often impatient with her classmates and unsympathetic to their difficulties.

John Armitage
Although John tries his best, he is just not very intelligent. He does not seem able to show
initiative, and because he is not very decisive he is not making much progress.

a ___________ is a decisive and intelligent worker, shows considerable initiative and is very
enthusiastic.

b ___________ is conscientious, friendly and pleasant, and a pleasure to have in the class with
us.

c ___________ is a happy, sensitive student, obviously sincere, and a loyal classmate.

Contributions to class discussion from this student are always interesting.

Task 4

Now write two reports about Andrew Tregarron using the appropriate information
given in the box below. In the first report you should be honest, and in the second
more positive.

a fast worker
makes mistakes
not very popular (tries too hard to make friends)
obsessed with music
sometimes careless
tries his best to make friends
very creative
very musical
 UNIT 2
Classroom Management

Warm-up
 A case study
Read the text and then answer the questions:
1) What problem did Francis have?
2) How did he tackle the problem?
3) What effect did it have on the pupils?

I’m a Teacher, Get Me Out of Here!

Francis Gilbert1 is a young, inexperienced teacher. He has been teaching

at a difficult state school in London for nearly a year. The school has
many children with learning difficulties and family problems. Since
Francis started at the school he has had problems keeping order in the
classroom and a few times he has lost control of class 9A.

The last lesson of the day is always the worst. Especially when it has
been raining all day. And it always seemed to be raining during the dark
term. 9A always seemed to be wet and noisy and aggressive when I
taught them. It was becoming clear that I might fail my probationary year
if 9A didn’t improve. I explained my problem to a colleague who said,
‘Listen, I’ll talk to john Priest and see if he can do anything for you.

9A knew it was serious this time. For the first time ever, there was silence when I
entered the room. They couldn’t see who was behind me – John Priest smelling of
cigars and discipline. He came into the room in his black suit like Darth Vader and
walked up and down the classroom as he said, ‘I have been hearing things about this
class that I don’t like.’
He walked past Yumni and stopped and looked at him. Yumni looked silly in a Donald
Duck cap that he always wore in my lessons. I was forever asking him to take it off.
Without a word, Yumni took the hat off his head and put it in his bag. Priest then said,
‘I know many of your parents well. Many of them have given me permission to beat
you. Don’t mess around any more, 9A.’
With that Priest left the room. There was a stunned silence for a few moments. Then
Yumni said, ‘What you get him in for? He ain’t no good. We’re your mates, sir.’
‘You’re not my mates, you’re my pupils,’ I answered.
‘We’re not your mates now,’ Yumni said, putting his Donald Duck cap on his head
again.
‘Yumni, take that off now,’ I said.
‘And what? You’re are going to send me for a beating/’
‘Just take off the hat,’ I said.
‘OK,’ he said but kept the hat on and grinned.

Task 1
1
Frances Gilbert taught for many years in inner-city schools in England, including one school labeled
“the worst school in the country”. Based on his experience there he wrote I’m a Teacher, Get me Out of
Here!, which was published in 2004. Many educators in Britain say that lack of discipline, lack of
respect for teacher and classroom management problems have been rising in recent years.
 Look at the following statements and number them 1-4, where 1 is the most
important.
□ A good teacher should know their subject.
□ A good teacher should make lessons interesting.
□ A good teacher should plan their lessons carefully.
□ A good teacher should respond to the needs of individuals.

Task 2

What a teacher needs

Think about the skills and knowledge required by a teacher and complete the
following chart. Work in groups and complete this chart. You will need to discuss
your ideas together.

SKILLS KNOWLEDGE

Task 3

Roles of teacher
Look at what the teacher does and match the correct role ‘name’ from the box to each
sentence.

assessor controller expert resource language guide

listener organiser prompter provider of input
reflector

ROLER WHAT THE TEACHER DOES

The teacher puts learners in pairs.
The teacher encourages learners to participate.
The teacher listens to what learners say.
The teacher finds material for the class to use.
The teacher makes sure the learners are doing the task.
The teacher answers the learners’ questions.
The teacher helps learners work out grammar rules for
themselves.
The teacher checks the learners’ homework.
The teacher thinks about how the lesson has gone.
Adapted from an idea in Learning to Teach English by Peter Watkins (see bibliography)

Think about
it!
 Organiser: It’s important to organise your classroom i.e. How many people will be in
a group? What do they need to do? How long will an activity take? etc., to ensure the
best use of the time available in a lesson.
Prompter: Sometimes learners are reluctant to participate. There can be various
reasons for this including fear of making mistakes, uncertainty of what to say or how
to start etc. By asking questions (sensitively) a teacher can often get learners to be
more active.
Listener: Listening to the learners helps you know how they are doing, what they are
good at, what they are finding difficult etc. Starter teachers often find listening to
their learners difficult as they are concentrating on what they are doing and what is
going to happen next. Encourage them to make notes while they listen to the learners
to help them remember and give feedback.
Provider of input: Selecting the appropriate material, even if this is deciding what to
use and leave out from the coursebook, is an important part of the teacher’s job. Also,
by using English in the classroom, they can provide the learners with valuable input.
Controller: Classroom management is important as it helps make the lesson
effective. If learners are misbehaving or not doing what they are supposed to do, then
less learning will take place than if they are ‘on task’.
Expert resource: Knowing the subject is important for any teacher, and this is no
different in language lessons. It is also important that a teacher is able to explain what
they know. Non-native teachers also have the advantage of having learned English
themselves and therefore understand the process the learners are going through.
Language guide: This is different from the Expert resource role. The Language guide
helps or guides learners to discover things for themselves rather than telling them the
answers.
Assessor: At various stages of a lesson the teacher needs to check that learners have
learned something. This could be done through homework, tests, quizzes or other
activities where learners need to do something with the language i.e. a role play, a
controlled writing activity etc.
Reflector: Every teacher needs to think about how their lesson has gone. They should
think about their strengths and weaknesses so they can try to improve.

As you can see, the teacher can have many different roles within the classroom.
Informally speaking, teachers have eight roles in the classroom. They are authorities
and sources of knowledge; entertainers; caregivers; role models; counsellors and
sometimes friends; classroom disciplinarians; directors and managers; facilitators,
coaches and guides.

Traditionally, the teacher has often been at the centre of teaching. In other words,
everything has gone through the teacher, he or she has made all of the decisions in the
classroom and the learners’ role has been quite limited. However, in the last 30 years
or so people have come to realise that learners can take a much more active role in the
classroom and that many of the things that a teacher normally does, can be the
responsibility of the learner.

Motivation
 Another role of the teacher is to help motivate learners. Motivation is quite a complex
topic, so here we simply want to raise awareness of some different aspects connected
to the topic.
1. Why is motivation important?
2. How can teachers motivate learners?
3. What is the result if learners are motivated?

We all know that if people are not motivated they won’t do well, they won’t enjoy
what they are doing and they won’t learn. One way for teachers to motivate learners is
to use a variety of activities and make their lessons vivid and lively. Another way to
motivate them is to involve the learners as much as possible in the lesson. However, it
is important for teachers to be aware that there are different types of motivation.

Task 4

Types of motivation
Can you decide in which column each of these sentences goes?
a. Everyone else understands this.
b. I don’t like people saying things I don’t understand.
c. I enjoy doing this.
d. I need this for my exam.
e. It’s great when the teacher says: ‘Well done!’
f. My teacher will be upset if I don’t do this.

Intrinsic Extrinsic Integrative

It’s fun. My mother says it’s My friend is doing it.
important.

Intrinsic motivation comes from inside the learner; they want to do the activity for
their own reasons.
Extrinsic motivation comes from outside them, they do it to please someone else or
because they are told they need to do it.
Integrative motivation is similar to extrinsic in that the pressure comes from outside,
but the driving force is the desire to be part of a group and not to be left out. For
example, a group of girls have their hair braided; a girl goes home and asks her
mother to braid her hair as she wants to be like the other girls.

To motivate children towards the English language, it is recommended to praise the

effort and improvement made when they start using the language willingly, even if
they don't use it correctly or if they mix English with Romanian, such as "This is a
navă spațială!" or even making up words which are neither English, nor Romanian.
Teachers should know the individual situations and level of their students and
motivate them individually to carry on trying.
 In the case of teaching English as a second language, some may find motivation as a
resource to satisfy their needs. Others to get a reward, such as a happy face on their
hand or a sticker, or even wearing an "I speak English" badge for the day. Children
can indeed motivate each other to speak English and to share their knowledge.
Engaging and active lessons, using games or activities they like, are useful in
motivating infant students to bring up vocabulary, understanding speaking and even
reading skills.
There are many other ideas to motivate students towards learning a foreign language,
but, fundamentally, to let the children take part in their learning process and put their
ideas and proposals into practice.

Remember!

What is classroom management?

Classroom management represents the ways the teacher organizes and controls the
classroom activity, including layout (setting), lesson stages, organization of groups,
discipline, evaluation and the use of resources. An important part of this is to do with
the teachers’ attitude, personality and their relationships with the students. They need
to have certain organizational skills and techniques.
According to Scrivener (2005), under the most widely-known areas of classroom
management we may include:

Grouping and seating

- forming groupings (singles, pairs, groups, mingle, plenary);
- arranging and rearranging seating;
- deciding where you will stand or sit;
- reforming class as a whole group after activities.
Activities
- sequencing activities;
- setting up activities;
- giving instructions;
- monitoring activities;
- timing activities (and the lesson as a whole);
- bringing activities to an end.
Authority
- gathering and holding attention;
- deciding who does what (i.e. answer a question, make a decision, etc.);
- establishing or relinquishing authority as appropriate;
- getting someone to do something.
Critical moments
- starting the lesson;
- dealing with unexpected problems;
- maintaining appropriate discipline;
- finishing the lesson.
Tools and techniques
- using the board and other classroom equipment or aids;
- using gestures to help clarity of instructions and explanations;
- speaking clearly at an appropriate volume and speed;
 - use of silence;
- grading complexity of language;
- grading quantity of language.
Working with people
- spreading your attention evenly and appropriately;
- using intuition to gauge what students are feeling;
- eliciting honest feedback from students;
- really listening to students;

Task 5

ARE THESE CLASSROOM YES/ DEFINE THE TEACHER’S

MANAGEMENT ASPECTS NO WORK IN TERMS OF
IMPORTANT IN THE CLASS? THESE ASPECTS
(INVOLVED, EFFECTIVE,
ACTIVE, ORGANIZED,
USEFUL)
1. Pair and group work.
2. Teacher moves around the class.
3. Variety of focus and activity. ACTIVE
4. Teacher always actively involved
with class, groups, pairs or
individuals.
5. Board work clear and visible to all.
6. Weaker pupils participate.
7. Questioning evenly distributed.
8. Pupils given time to answer.
9. Teacher does not dominate class talk.
10. Correction tactful.
11. Teacher really listens to pupils’
answers, and has eye contact around
class.
12. Teacher is encouraging and
supportive.
13. Teacher has clear picture of
objectives and pacing.
14. Teacher well prepared with
necessary materials and instructions.
15. Teacher and class visible to each
other at all times the activity requires
it.
16. Practical dialogues and usable
vocabulary.
17. Supplementary materials from
magazines, newspapers,
advertisements etc. used where
possible.
18. No excessive time wasted on very
minor points of pronunciation or
 expression that do not impede
communication.
19. No over-use of drilling, repetition,
translation or reading aloud by the
teacher.

Think
about it!

Different ways of grouping learners

Whether you are teaching a class of six students sitting in a semi-circle (‘horseshoe’)
formation, or a class of thirty students sitting behind rows of desks, you have to
consider how best to manage the classroom and the people in it.
As a teacher, you have different choices of how to group learners, or interaction
patterns.

1. Lockstep or whole class

Lockstep is the traditional interaction pattern in which the class works together. They
may be led by the teacher, or the teacher may give instructions and allow them to
work independently. The teacher is completely in control of every classroom
interaction. The whole class is working with the teacher. All the students are “locked
into” the same rhythm, pace, or the same activity (Harmer, 1997, p. 243). In other
words, lockstep is the traditional teaching situation where a teacher-controlled activity
is taking place.
Advantages:
- there is less noise
- teacher can usually be sure that everyone hears what is being said,
- many of the lockstep activities are comfortable for students
- can you think of other advantages?
Disadvantages:
- the students’ chance to practice or talk is little
- the lesson may go at the wrong speed for everyone, as either the teacher is not
fast enough for the good students, who are in danger of getting bored, or
he/she is too speedy for the less students
- shy or nervous students can find lockstep work hard and annoying as they are
exposed in front of the whole class

2. Pairs and groups

In student-student interaction, pairwork and groupwork are basic interaction
patterns and maximize the opportunities students have to use the language
productively, giving lots of speaking opportunities. They also allow students to
practice without having to perform in front of the whole class, and this may help them
to build confidence. In addition, pairwork and groupwork allow students to use a
relatively informal style, whereas some may feel the need to be more formal if
addressing the teacher.

Pairwork – for question and answer practice, information gap exercises, simulations,
students can be put in pairs for a variety of work including writing and reading.
 Advantages Disadvantages
 immediate increasing of the  students can make mistakes
amount of student practice  the possible use of Romanian
 communicative efficiency is during the conversations
encouraged  there can be a lot of noise, as
 student cooperation is encouraged everybody is talking at the same
 students feel secure as the teacher time
does not criticize them  possible lack of discipline
 what else?  add your own ideas

Groupwork is more dynamic than pairwork in some ways: there are more people
working and, therefore, there are more opportunities for discussion. Working in
groups has proved to be more relaxing than working in pairs as students cooperate
more closely with each other and usually the tasks are more exciting and more
dynamic than some pairwork tasks. Moreover, students can learn how groups function
productively or why groups make better decisions than individuals, anyway they can
learn hoe to work with others.

3. Individual – sometimes students must be allowed to work at their own pace.

Individual work is a good idea because students can work in a relaxed way (on
condition there is no time limit or any sort of competition) and, in this way, they can
rely on themselves rather than the others. Reading, writing and speaking activities can
be the focus for individual work, which is also usually quiet!
Task 6

A questionnaire about pair and group work (Starter Teachers, British Council,
2015, p.36-37)
Read the statements and decide if you agree, disagree or are neutral about each one
and why. Then discuss your ideas in a group.
1. You can’t teach grammar in pairs or groups.
agree / neutral / disagree
2. My class is too large to do pair work or group work.
agree / neutral / disagree
3. Working in pairs or groups gives learners extra time to practise.
agree / neutral / disagree
4. Pair work and group work works well in multilevel classes.
agree / neutral / disagree
5. Learners need to learn how to work together.
agree / neutral / disagree
6. Some learners don’t contribute in pairs or groups.
agree / neutral / disagree
7. Learners won’t speak English when working in pairs or groups.
agree / neutral / disagree
8. It’s impossible to correct learners when they do pair or group work.
agree / neutral / disagree

Task 7
 Adjusting/grading the classroom language (KISS principle)
Adjusting your language for the level of the students you are teaching can be very
difficult, but is a very important teaching skill. The language which it is appropriate to
use with a lower level class will be significantly different to the language used with a
higher class, although it should remain natural. The advice is to make language easier
to understand particularly for lower-level learners than higher-level ones. What can
teachers do about this?

Read sentences 1-6. Tick four of the following pieces of advice which are intended to
be good, and cross out the other two pieces of poor advice. Explain your choice.
1. Select the language used carefully. Try to avoid complex vocabulary and
grammar choices. Compare: “OK, if you wouldn’t mind stopping there for a
moment, because there’s another activity I want you to have a go at before we
do some reading and listening practice.” and “Stop there please. I want you to
do another activity.”
2. Pronounce each word slowly and deliberately.
3. Pause for slightly longer than normal after each thing said.
4. Do not speak too quickly.
5. Miss out grammar words (articles, prepositions, auxiliary verbs and so on).
For example, “You go now office – they help you.”
6. Wherever possible, support what is said with other things that will help
Task 8 understanding (gestures, pictures and so on).

Giving instructions
It is important to give clear instructions so that learners understand the task that you
want them to do.

Read the descriptions. Which teacher is easier to understand? Explain what the
problem is and how this teacher makes the instructions easier for the students to
understand.

Teacher 1: Write some sentences about yourself. Write anything you like.
Teacher 2: OK? OK. Please work in pairs. OK? OK. Ask and answer the questions.
OK? OK.
Teacher 3: What I want you to do is, first of all, when you’re ready, the thing that I’d
like you to do now is, just match the words and the pictures.
Teacher 4: Read the story, and only answer question 1. Does everyone know what to
do? Good.
Teacher 5: OK everyone…please go to page – Iris! Can you listen please? So
everyone. Juan, could you please stop talking and listen? Um, right, so now go to
page…page 24
Teacher 6: First I want you to think about your favourite hobbies. Then write your
top 3. Then ask your partner what their favourite hobbies are. After that find another
partner and see what their hobbies are. OK?

Example Problem Better instruction

Teacher 1
Teacher 2
 Teacher 3
Teacher 4
Teacher 5
Teacher 6

How can I give clearer instructions?

Scrivener (2005, p. 89) proposes five steps towards better instructions:
1. Become aware of your own instruction-giving.
2. Preplan essential instructions. Include only the essential information in simple,
clear language, and sequence it in a sensible order. Use short sentences – one
sentence for each piece of information.
3. Make eye contact with as many Ss as possible, find an authoritative tone, and
make sure the Ss are listening before you start.
4. Demonstrate rather than explain wherever possible.
5. Check that Ss have understood what to do. Don’t assume that everyone will
automatically understand what you have said. Get one or two students to tell
you what they are going to do.
Remember!

The use of L1/L2 in the classroom

In the classroom where all learners share a language, we call this language their L1. In
ELT the L2 is English.
Look at the following statements about using L1 in the classroom.
What do you think?
1. My learners won’t understand what to do if I give instructions in English.
2. I’m not very good at English and I don’t want to make mistakes.
3. I need to explain the grammar in the mother tongue.
4. Sometimes the learners are tired and need a break from English.
5. It’s useful for the learners to translate.
6. Sometimes I need to explain the meaning of a word in the learners’ mother tongue.
7. Using the learners’ mother tongue saves time.
8. It’s better to use the learners’ mother tongue to do things like organizing the
classroom.
9. When they want to ask me to explain something it’s much easier if they use their
own language.
10. I use English first and then the learners’ mother tongue.

In general teachers should try to use English as much as possible in the classroom. For
example, instructions should be in English. The key is to keep them simple, short and
use gestures and the board to aid understanding and for reinforcement (i.e. writing the
instructions on the board gives learners the chance to read them again). If we take
point 7, it’s true using L1 will save time, but the whole point of the classroom is to
learn and practise English. Learning takes time and the more learners are exposed to
English, the faster they will learn. In point 10 the issue here is that the learners won’t
bother listening to the English if they know that the teacher will tell them afterwards
in their own language. In many respects this is self-defeating and won’t help the
learners.

Think about it!

 Using technological visuals
By visuals we broadly refer to pictures, objects, things for the students to look at.
They are important for a variety of reasons:
- to focus attention on meaning and to help make the language used in the class more
real and alive;
- to keep the students’ attention while looking at something; to make the class more
interesting;
- they can be used at any stage of the lesson – to help in presenting new language or
introducing a topic, as part of language practice, and when reviewing language that
has been presented earlier. Good visual aids are not just used once, but again and
again, and can be shared by different teachers.

Below you may find a list of possible visual aids:

The teachers themselves: The teacher can use gestures, facial expressions, and actions
to help show the meaning of words and to illustrate situations.
The board: The teacher or students can use it to draw pictures, diagrams, maps, etc.
Real objects (sometimes called ‘realia’): The teacher can use things in the classroom
and bring things into the class – food, clothes, containers, household objects, etc.
Flashcards: cards with single pictures which can be held up by the teacher. They can
be used for presenting and practising new words and structures, and for revision. The
teacher can draw a picture on the flashcard or stick a picture from a magazine;
flashcards can also be used to show words or numbers.
Charts: larger sheets of card or paper with writing, pictures or diagrams, used for
more extended presentation or practice. They would usually be displayed on the wall
or board. (adapted from Doff 1991: 82-83)
Flipcharts /Posters: large sheets of paper fixed at the top to a stand so that they can be
turned over, used for presenting information at a talk or meeting / a large notice, often
with a picture on it, that is put in a public place to advertise something.
Technology for teaching could include any of the following things:
Interactive whiteboard and digital
Internet connection
applications for learning
Computers or laptops Mobile phones or tablets
Laptop and projector Overhead projector
TV or DVD player CD or tape player

Think about it!

Discipline, large classes and ways to build rapport

1. Discipline
It is a well – known fact that teachers who are most successful in maintaining
discipline in class are not those who are dealing with problems but those who know
how to prevent their arising in the first place. I would suggest three main preventative
strategies given by Penny Ur (1996, p.267):
1 Before problem arises: Prevention is better than cure!
 - plan and organize your lesson carefully
- make sure instructions are clear, assertive, brief
- keep in touch with what is going on
2 When problem is beginning: Do something!
- deal with the problem quietly;
- prevent escalation
- keep your cool: don’t take things personally
- don’t use threats (unless you are prepared to implement them !)
3 When problem has exploded: Act quickly – don’t argue!
- ‘Explode’ yourself (loud and assertive command)
- Give in
- Make them an offer they can’t refuse (postponement, arbitration, compromise)

However, there is another major cause of discipline problems, the teacher himself/
herself. A lot will depend on how the teacher behaves in class. There are things
teachers should do and others they should not do if they want to avoid such problems:

Do’s: Don’ts:

 Do plan clearly what you are going to 
do, but change some things if it is
necessary
 Do keep an eye on the time
 Do give the homework towards the 
end but not in the last minute of yhe
lesson
 Do conclude the lesson, rather than
just stop
 Do evaluate your lesson
 Do leave the classroom in good order,
as you would expect to find it
 Do include every student in some way
and do not let some students
monopolise the class
Don’t go to class unprepared: students
immediately “detect” teachers who
are not sure what to do in the
classroom
Don’t give boring classes: make your
lessons attractive, involve as many
students as possible and they will not
get bored
 Don’t be unfair: make sure you do not
show favoritism or pick on particular
students
 Don’t have a negative attitude
 Don’t threaten
 Don’t raise your voice
 Don’t be moody

2. Large classes are not impossible to control and the key point is to adapt to what
you in front of you. If the teachers change the dynamic and involve the learners, use
pair and group work effectively, then working with large classes becomes easier and
rewarding.

Task 9

Benefits and challenges

Complete the following chart with the phrases in the box. Then compare and discuss
your answers in groups.

BENEFITS CHALLENGES
 Classroom management is difficult Providing for individual learning
styles
Lots of interaction Not boring
Quiet learners hide Learners can learn from each other
Teachers feel out of control Teachers learn to be creative
Too much marking Variety

3. Ways to build rapport

A good rapport consists of creating a pleasant classroom atmosphere, the way the
teacher and learners behave towards one another and how "naturally" the learning
environment may be experienced.
Choose your attitude
You need to be friendly but professional. Remember that your students do not want
you as a friend, but want to respect you as a teacher. Show them from the outset that
you expect them to work hard in your class, but that it can be enjoyable.
Use names
Yes, it can be difficult with a large class to learn names quickly, but using your
learners’ names shows that you see them as individuals and creates bonds.
Listen
Really listen to the messages in what your learners say, not just the English that they
produce. Try to avoid unnecessary ‘echoing’, or simply repeating what learners say
and be aware of the amount of time you spend talking in a class.
Avoid over-correcting
Teachers who correct learners every time they speak run the risk of damaging learner
confidence and breaking down rapport. Of course, learners need correcting at times,
and when this is done supportively it can increase trust between learner and teacher.
Stand tall
Work on your voice and body language so that you appear confident, even if you
really don’t feel it. Your voice needs to be loud and clear. Stand straight in front of the
class, and don’t hide behind a desk.

Task 10

Managing a class: dealing with different problems

As part of a training course a group of trainees were asked to write an evaluation of
their own lessons. Read their comments and consider the questions that follow each
extract:

Claire: The lesson would have been OK I think, but the students have a real problem
understanding what I say to them. Today one student asked me to speak more slowly.
1. As well as speaking more slowly, what else can Claire do to make herself easier to
understand?

Mark: I tried to use some pair work so that the learners would get more practice, but
with everyone talking the lesson was quite noisy and I was worried in case another
teacher complained.

2. Should language classrooms always be quiet?

Becky: I stood up at the beginning of the lesson but most of the time I sat down
because I think it is important to be comfortable.

3. When you were at school did your teachers generally stand up or sit down?
4. Can you think of some reasons why teachers may choose to stand or sit?

Bill: It was awful today. We were doing something on past forms but a student asked
me something about gerunds and I didn’t know the answer, so I just had to say
“Sorry, I don’t know” – it was so embarrassing.

5. Do you think teachers are right to admit their ignorance when they don’t know?

Karen: Last week I made a huge effort to learn the names of everyone in the class and
today I got them right every time – so I was quite pleased.

6. Do you think that Karen was right to decide to know the names of her students/
7. In what situations can knowing the names of the learners help?

Jack: I knew I wanted the learners to work in groups so that there would be a lot of
interaction, but when I said “get into groups” nobody did anything, and most of the
students had worked on their own.
8. Do you think it was a good idea to use groupwork?
9. Who should decide on the groupings, the teacher or the students?
10. Can all activities be done as groupwork?

Tom: I asked a question to the whole class and everyone started speaking at once! I
didn’t know what to do.

11. Was tom right to worry about this?

12. How could Tom have ensured that only one learner spoke?

Steve: I try not to use too many gestures because I think adult learners must find them
a bit patronizing. I use a few more when I teach kids.

13. Do you think using gestures is a good idea?

Kate: I was doing an activity with all the students talking to each other, mingling
round the room, and it was going really well. There was quite a lot of noise and when
I tried to stop the activity, they couldn’t hear me and just carried on talking. I
couldn’t stop them!
 14. How would you have stopped the activity?

Laura: I planned this really nice activity and I’m sure it would have been good, but
the students didn’t understand what I wanted them to do and it all went wrong.

15. How can instructions be kept simple and easy to understand?

Ken: In the past my lessons have been OK except for when I write on the board. My
writing isn’t very neat at the best of times, and when I start writing on the board
nobody can read anything. I also find everything gets mixed up and I run out of space.

16. How can you stop the board getting so confused?

Task 11

Class contract
If you have some difficulties with your class in terms of classroom management or
discipline, you could set up a ‘class contract’ to try and resolve any problems. In a
class contract both the students and the teacher jointly draw up a list of things they
expect from each other (e.g. the teacher will hand back homework on time; the
students will not answer their mobile phones in class; etc.) and then sign it and put it
on the wall.
Complete the following model of such a contract.

Class Contract (1) Class Contract (2)

The students of class ___ promise … The teacher of class ___ promises …

to be to be
1. 1.
2. 2.
3. 3.

not to be not to be
1. 1.
2. 2.
3. 3.

to (do) to (do)
1. 1.
2. 2.
3. 3.
4. 4.
5. 5.

Signed _________ Signed _________

Instead of
conclusion

Now complete the following summary of classroom management by putting one word
from the box below into each gap:

instructions board expectations language strategies

gestures distinguish

Good teachers …
 Grade their own _________ so that it is appropriate for their learners.
 Respect their learners and their learners’ _________.
 __________ between useful and non-useful noise.
 Use the _________ effectively.
 Can give _________ and manage learning activities effectively (set up
pairwork, etc.)
 Use __________ effectively and without causing offence to learners.
 Have _________ for dealing with situations when they don’t know something.

Unit 3
Teaching Vocabulary
Warm-up

Choosing what vocabulary to teach

Tick the activities you would use in the classroom and then discuss your choices and
ideas.
1. Teach words that are in the coursebook. □
2. Teach words that are easy to explain. □
3. Teach words that learners might need for the next activity.
i.e. key words in a reading text. □
4. Teach words that learners ask you to explain. □
5. Teach words you think learners will find useful in their everyday lives. □
6. Teach words that are frequently used in English. □
Think about it and
do the tasks!

Techniques of vocabulary teaching and learning

A. Visual Techniques

They make use of the visuals which include: flashcards (picture cards, word-cards),
photos, blackboard drawings, posters, realia, hand-drawn pictures, illustrations
form coursebooks or from the Internet, magazine cut-outs, advertisements, etc.
They are used for conveying meaning and are particularly used for teaching certain
items or areas of vocabulary, e.g. a set of pictures illustrating sporting activities could
be used as a means of presenting items such as skiing, sailing, climbing, etc.
Mime and gesture are often used to supplement other ways of conveying meaning,
actions in particular.
1. Word map or mind map, i.e. a diagram which is used to make a visual record of
vocabulary on the same topic you can teach words with associated meanings together
Complete the word map for the word CAT. Add as many other bubbles as you like:

It is also called a bubble-network and it can be useful since you can make it grow in
whatever direction you want it to.

2. Pictures might help you to teach vocabulary as they are quick and simple.
Can you draw any pictures that would help Ss remember the following vocabulary?

a circle to look a gift-horse in the mouth a screwdriver

3. Word trees can be very useful too.

Look at the word tree for holiday. Now complete a word tree for school:

Other various types of tree-diagrams:

4. Word forks are good ways of teaching adjectives and verbs.

Look at the complete word forks below. Finish the others:
5. Matrices can also clarify collocations. Look at the following example of a matrix:

6. Matching, e.g. Match the words to the correct definitions:

1. owe a) to get money for work that you do
2. invest b) to spend money on things that you don’t need
3. earn c) to put money to use, maybe by buying something or putting I
it into a project with the hope of getting more money back lat
later on
4. save d) when you borrow money from someone you have to repay it
to them
5. waste e) not to spend now, to put it away for later

7. Clines and scales are appropriate for intermediate upwards levels depending on the
items the teacher chooses to teach. They may be presented on the blackboard by
drawing a line like in the following examples:

‘Scale’ adjectives

Adverbs of frequency

B. Verbal Techniques

There are words in the language whose meaning can’t be conveyed through visual
techniques. In this case you can make use of:
1. Definition or explanation, e.g. A pond is an area of water smaller than a lake.
2. Synonym or opposite, e.g. awful (= terrible); ugly ≠ beautiful
 3. Sets/classifying
3.a. Superordinate word or classification
oranges, banana, garpes, apples are all ……?
boot, wing, bonnet, clutch are all …………?
famished, starving, peckish are all ………..?
3.b. Words with a grammatical association:

3.c. Words based on the same root:

5. Example sentences or using context, e.g. My hands were cold so I put on my

gloves.
6. Common partners, e.g. smile (v,n);
She smiled at me yesterday.
He gave me a big smile.
She’s got a lovely smile.
7. Word-building, e.g. making tables for word-classes is a good idea since you can
fill the gaps over time. What do you think this student will put in the remaining gaps
in the table?

8. Translation has been a controversial topic in using it for conveying meaning.

Some teachers would argue that it is fairly quick and in some ways efficient especially
for items possessing a clear mother-tongue equivalent. However, if teachers rely too
much on the use of translation to convey meaning, Ss may lose the real sense of
foreign language learning.

Task

Complete the following chart.

Technique Advantages Disadvantages
Realia and pictures
Charts
Words with
similar/opposite meanings
Definitions
Matching
Context
Sets/classifying
Think about it
and do the
tasks!

Ways of teaching vocabulary

1. Eliciting vocabulary is the teacher’s use of questions so as to involve learning and

to find out what Ss already know. This useful technique may help teacher to involve
Ss more fully in the lesson and it gauges the level of the class as well.

1.1. Read this advice for eliciting vocabulary. Which points are helpful? Give your
reasons.
a. Try to trick the learners or they will find it too easy.
b. Plan how you will elicit things before the lesson.
c. Keep eliciting as simple and quick as possible.
d. Make sure you elicit everything; never give in and just tell the learners.
e. If the learners don't get the word quickly, try giving them the first sound of the
word.
1.2. Say ways to elicit the following words:
a) watch (noun) b) game show c) to flatter d) hurricane

2. Personalising words
Research studies show that we remember new words much more easily if we think
about them in relation to our own experience and use them in a context that is
meaningful to us as individuals. So, as well as doing the exercises, write new words or
phrases that you particularly wish your Ss to learn in a context that has some personal
meaning for them. Provide them with contextualized sentences about an experience
they have had personally, or about a story they have read in a magazine or on a
website, or about a film or TV programme they have watched.
This helps in two ways by:
a) revising language they have already worked on
b) making language personally more meaningful and, thus, more memorable.

3. Checking and clarifying understanding

The technique of asking questions to focus on the key features of the language item
that separate it from other similar items (concept questions) can be used successfully
when teaching vocabulary. For example, students often confuse ‘briefcase’ with
‘suitcase’, making questions such as “Do you put your clothe in this when you go on
holiday?” and “Do you take it to the office most days?” very useful.
3.1. Work in pairs. Discuss the strengths and weaknesses of these techniques for
checking that learners have understood new words.
a. The teacher asks a learner to translate the word (or phrase) into their own language.
b. The teacher asks, “Do you understand?”
c. The teacher asks the students to use the word in a sentence.
d. The teacher asks short, easy-to-answer questions. For example: If you are head
over heels in love, are you in love a lot, or a little bit?
3.2. What questions could you ask to check the following items of vocabulary?
bench; lamp; armchair.
3.3. Work in pairs. Read the lesson transcript.
a. What is the purpose of the teacher's questions?
b. Complete the students' answers (1-6).
c. What do you notice about the answers?

The teacher has just taught the words ‘shoplift’, and given the example sentence, The
kids were caught shoplifting sweets.

T: Did the kids pay for the sweets?

S: 1
T: Is this a crime?
S: 2
T: Can you shoplift a washing machine?
S: 3
T: Can you shoplift a watch?
S: 4
T: So, is shoplifting used about very big things?
S: 5
T: Can it be used about very valuable things?
S: 6

3.4. Read the sentences and write questions to check understanding of the bold words
and phrases:
a. Could you give me a hand with the housework?
(The teacher is worried that the learners will not realise that 'give me a hand' is
informal.)
b. The car was a write-off after the accident.
c. Houses are often more expensive near the coast.
d. What have you done? Why are you limping?

4. Practising vocabulary
Work in groups. Discuss the differences between the three practice activities (a-c)
below.

1. What level is each activity suitable for?

2. Which activities could be set for homework?
3. How long would each activity take to do?
4. Which skills (reading, writing, listening or speaking) does each activity practise?

a. The learners discuss transport problems and developments in their own countries.
b. Learners work in small groups. The teacher gives each group a set of cards with
one of the target words written on each card. One learner must take a card and can use
mime, drawings, definitions, relationships with other words, or any other means to
elicit the word from the other members of her group.
c. The teacher prepares a gap-fill exercise and the learners have to complete the
sentences with the target words and phrases. For example: An accident on a motorway
often leads to long............... (answer: traffic jams).
 Unit 4
Teaching Grammar
Warm-up

How do you teach grammar?

Look at the following ideas about how to teach grammar. What do you think of each
one? Which do you agree (A)/disagree (D) with and why?
 a. You can’t teach children grammar, they just aren’t interested. Even if you do,
they’ll make mistakes. It’s better to get them to use the language and the grammar
will eventually come. You don’t teach grammar to children learning their first
language so why do we bother with a second language?
b. Grammar needs to be made meaningful. Most of the time children don’t understand
grammar because they don’t understand how it’s used. They need practice and
grammar needs to be taught in context.
c. Children have to learn grammar properly or they will always make mistakes.
We should make sure the children are using a piece of grammar correctly before we
try to teach something new.
d. Children need to see how the grammar is used in context as it will help them
understand it and be able to use it.
e. Grammar needs to be activated. It is no good simply teaching children the rules if
they don’t learn how to use it both in their writing and when they speak.
f. The only way children can learn grammar is if the teacher explains the rules to
them. Grammar needs to be made clear to the children so that they know what the
rules are and what is correct.
g. Children need to ‘discover’ the rules themselves as this way they are more likely to
remember them. The teacher’s role is to provide children with the opportunity to
discover how grammar is used.
Think
about it!

Some General Considerations on Teaching Grammar

Effective grammar teaching is important because knowledge of grammar allows

learners to become creators of language, to learn one structure and be able to
communicate many different ideas, e.g. I’d like to (have a coffee, borrow a pen, go
home…). Grammar also helps learners to communicate their ideas more accurately.
There is, for example, a big difference in meaning between I like coffee (statement)
and I’d like a coffee (making a request).
Learners respond to learning grammar differently. Some enjoy studying the rules
while others are confused by terminology and analysis. Children, especially, are still
developing their thinking skills and ability to analyse language, so grammar needs to
be introduced carefully in child- friendly ways. This element provides a framework
for planning grammar lessons, and a variety of activities to help learners notice
patterns in language and develop some fluency and accuracy in using different
structures.

1) Teaching grammar as product (deductive method)

The teacher introduces the new structure with explicit information about meaning,
form, usage, exceptions, and then the teacher gives examples to illustrate it.

Teach by clear explanation of RULES → Practise / Test

Good for: - mid-intermediate levels upwards;

- presenting grammar for the first time;
 - teaching any grammar where the form will be a problem not
the meaning, e.g. passive voice, reported speech.
Why? - rules are very clearly stated initially;
- learners seem to be familiar with this approach;

2) Teaching grammar as process (inductive method or guided-discovery method)

This method goes the opposite way, from example to rule. The teacher who wants
to introduce a new grammar structure selects a text that contains several examples
of the item and asks the Ss to read it. Starting from the examples, the teacher helps
Ss to induce the form, meaning, etc, and thus Ss are oriented to ‘task-based’
activities to discover and practice by themselves specific features of grammar and
later they might reflect on the grammatical form.

Teach in SITUATION → Practise / Test

Good for: - early levels;

- presenting grammar for the first time;
- teaching any grammar where the meaning will be a problem
for the learners, e.g. present perfect.
Why? - the grammar is in a situation which illustrates meaning;
- learners are not confused initially by explanations about the
grammar but see it in use;

3) Teaching grammar as skill (self-discovery method)

This approach is better suited to modern teaching. Ss are given examples of new
structures and asked to find out how they work, guiding Ss’ own attention to
grammar, and designing tasks which enables them to develop the skill of grammar
in language use.

TEXT checked for gist FOCUS on grammar PRACTICE

Good for: - all levels, particularly higher levels;

- presenting grammar for the first time;
- teaching any grammar where the meaning will be a problem
for the learners, e.g. present perfect or past simple versus
present perfect, etc.
Why? - the grammar is in a natural context which illustrates meaning;
- it is an effective way with a lot of grammar;
- it allows learners to find things out for themselves, helping
them develop the skill of ‘noticing’.

Ways of teaching
grammar
1. The 3P

Stages of teaching new structures and their main characteristics

The three stages often followed in teaching and learning a grammatical structure are:
- Presentation
- Practice
- Production

Presentation

 The teacher speaks up to 75% of the time, as they are presenting information
which is clear, efficient, lively, interesting and appropriate for the language
that is being presented;
 The teacher sets a natural context in which the language is hidden, in order to
convey meaning of new language;
 The teacher introduces the grammar structure;
 The teacher demonstrates and works on correct pronunciation and highlights
stress and intonation patterns;
 The teacher highlights spelling and any irregularities with the new structure;
 The teacher focuses on accuracy when correcting students at this stage;
 The teacher asks concept check questions to see if students have understood.
(If not, go back and review some of the process);
 For beginner and elementary students, teachers should use visual
demonstration of grammar, a diagram, chart or drawings, etc.
 For intermediate to advanced students, discovery techniques are more suitable.
Students are given examples of language and asked to find out how they work,
in other words they are asked to discover the rule rather than be told what it is
and this requires good vocabulary as well as appropriate skills

Practice

 Students speak up to 60% of the time, teacher up to 40%;

 The teacher uses activities to practice the new structures orally and in written
format;
 Drilling is the main technique at this stage and Ss repeat the new structure
with the aim of correct pronunciation and accurate form, choral and
individually ;
 Written practice focuses on accurate form/structure by sentence writing (fill-
in-the-blanks, describe a picture, write sentences using some given words),
parallel writing (learners see a piece of writing and use it as a basis for their
own work), or cohesion building devices (use cohesive devices such as and,
but, so, etc);
 The teacher models and corrects when mistakes occur;
 The teacher encourages lots of pair work and group work during this stage;
 Repetition (repetitive drills) – students are not creative but teacher can correct
any mistakes that students can make;
 Substitution – under the form of drills: e.g. Let’s + verb. You want to play
football. Students: Let’s play football;
 Single- word prompts: e.g. Let’s + verb. Cinema - Let’s go to the cinema;
  Prompts on the blackboard: e.g. 8 o’clock – get up – breakfast;
 More meaningful and more enjoyable activities (interaction activities):
information gaps, grids/charts, games, multiple choice, etc.

Production

 Students speak up to 90% of the time, teacher up to 10% and use the new
structures in communicative activities;
 The teacher monitors but does not correct until the end;
 Focus is now on fluency and rather than accuracy;
 The teacher models the production task, gives simple instructions and
encourages students to use old and new language;
 Students use the language in a natural, everyday context, through a practical
task within minimal input from the teacher;
 Questions/answers using a structure, a picture, a situation or a text;
 Sentence writing – students are asked to write down their own sentences for
practicing different structures;
 Word order – students are given jumbled sentences which they have to
rearrange;
 Quizzes – students answer the questions (various grammatical items) either
orally or in writing in complete sentence like: e.g. What is the highest
mountain in the world? Mount Everest is the highest mountain in the world.

2. Discover – Understand - Use

As well as teaching grammar in age-appropriate ways, how else do you plan for an
effective grammar lesson? There has been a lot of research into how teachers can help
learners to notice and learn new grammar. Batstone (2003) has summarised this in a
three-stage approach:

1. ‘Noticing’ DISCOVER • Learners read or listen to a text that has

a number of examples of the grammar
(e.g. in stories, songs and dialogues).

• Learners are helped to notice the

2. ‘Structuring’ UNDERSTAND
grammar (often called target language or
TL). This could be, for example, by
asking them to repeat lines in a story,
match pictures and sentences, or to circle
all the examples in the text
• Learners are given sentences and have
to change the grammar in some way to
show the correct meaning. For example,
they might put a cut-up sentence in the
correct order, or put the correct verb in a
gap. Through this practice, they come to a
better understanding of how the grammar
 is formed and its meaning. The focus is
on accuracy.
3. ‘Proceduralising’ USE • Learners are given opportunities
to use the grammar to express their own
ideas in speaking/writing and to develop
fluency, e.g. in role plays, writing emails
and making posters.

Task 1

Look at the grammar activities below. Decide which stage they would be appropriate
for:

A. discover, B. understand or C. use.

1. Circling all the past tense verbs in a story

2. Learners write a social media post describing what’s happening/what they are
doing in photos (present continuous)

3. Singing action songs

4. Learners ask their classmates questions about their likes/dislikes, repeating the
same question form Do you like …?

5. Total Physical Response (learners listen to commands and follow them)

6. Substitution drills/question-and-answer drills

7. Matching sentence beginnings and endings, e.g. If I were late ... I’d take a taxi.

8. Correcting grammar errors

9. Giving learners lines from a story (that include the TL) to hold up when they hear
them

10. Comparing English grammar with L1/a shared language

11. Learners make a mini-book to write a story in past tense

12. Telling a story from pictures

 Reflection

1. Tick any ideas that are new for you and write an asterisk (*) next to any that you
are unsure about. Why?

2. What age group do you think each activity is appropriate for: 5–7, 8–11 or 12–17
years?

3. Take a look at one of the coursebooks used in the Romanian schools. What
activities does it have for discovering, understanding and using new grammar? Do
you need to add anything?

Classroom
examples of
teaching grammar

What do Ss need to know about a new structure?

 They need to understand meaning within the given context.
 They need to know natural pronunciation of the language.
 They need to know how to form the language (how it is constructed)
This is often referred to MPF.

1. Conveying the meaning of a new grammar item

1.1. Look at these two pictures.

1. What grammar structure(s) could you present, using one or both of them?

1.2. The teacher writes a sentence on the board: “Laura has lived in New Zealand for
two years.” The teacher says: “Look at the underlined part. This is the present perfect.
It means that Laura is still in New Zealand. This situation is unfinished. It’s formed
with have/has and the past participle.”
2 .The teacher’s explanation covers two things. What are they?
3. What is the Ss’ role in this case?

1.3. The teacher uses a short text.

Laura finished university and moved to New Zealand. She has lived there for two
years. She really likes it and has no plans to come back to England.
The teacher then asks:”Do you know what this verb form is called? Do you think she
is still in New Zealand?”

4. In what way is this different to method 1.2., above?

1.4. The class is discussing the benefits of space travel. The teacher participates in the
discussion and says: “In fifteen years I think it will have become quite common for
people to travel in space.” A student asks why she used “will have” and the teacher
quickly explains the verb form before moving the class back to the original
discussion.

5. Did the teacher plan to present this piece of grammar?

6. Can you think of any advantages to teaching new grammar structure in this
way?
7. What demands does it make on teachers?

1.5. The teacher gives the class some examples of how regular past forms are
pronounced.

She asks the class to try to work out the ‘rule’ when /id/ sound is used.

8. What is the teacher’s role in this case?

9. What is the students’ role in this case?

2. Conveying the form of a new grammar item

Learners need to know both the form and meaning of new language items.

2.1. Read this transcript of a grammar presentation. Identify the points in the
transcript where the teacher:
• conveys the meaning
• highlights the spoken form
• highlights the written form

a) T: This is Elka. She went shopping yesterday. First she went to the supermarket.
She bought some milk. Then she went to the greengrocer's. She bought some bananas.
Then she went to the post office, and bought some stamps. Finally, she went to the
news agent's to buy a newspaper. But she couldn't find her money. (Teacher pats
pockets). Where is her wallet? Where did she leave it? Did she have it in the
supermarket? [Ss: Yes]. Did she have it in the greengrocer's? [Ss: Yes] Did she have it
in the post office? [Ss: Yes]. Did she have it in the newsagent's? [Ss: No]. Where was
the last place she had it? [Ss: In the post office.] So, where did she leave it, probably?
[Ss: In the post office.] Are you sure? [Ss: Yes.] Absolutely? [Ss: Not absolutely]. So,
what can we say?
b) S1: She probably leave it in the post office.
c) T: Listen: She must have left it in the post office. She must have left it. Must
have. Must've. She must've left it in the post office. Everybody.
d) Ss: She must've left it in the post office.
e) T: Do we know for sure?
f) Ss: No.
g) T: Is it probable?
h) Ss: Yes.
i) T: So, what do we say?
j) Ss: She must've left it in the post office.
k) T: [writes She must have left it in the post office on the board] She must have -
must've -left it in the post office. Tell me about the grammar of left. What is this?
l) S 2: Past tense.
m) T: Not exactly. It's the past participle: leave, left, left. [T writes must +have + past
participle on the board].

2.2. Work in pairs. Discuss these questions.

1 Why do you think the teacher asks, Do we know for sure?? (Turn e)
2 Why does the teacher highlight the spoken form before the written form?
3 What is the teacher's purpose in asking Tell me about the grammar of 'left'. What is
this? (Turn k)

3. Checking and clarifying understanding

However, sometimes students may need an explanation from the teacher; what’s more
important, the teacher needs to check that students have understood. Quite often
teachers ask “Do you understand?” but this is quite wrong because some students may
think they have understood even though they haven’t, and on other occasions may feel
embarrassed about saying that they haven’t. We will now briefly look at how the
teacher can ask questions to check and clarify understanding.
Look at this example: I’ve been working here for three years. One way of checking
that students have understood is by asking questions such as:
“When did the action start?’ (Three years ago)
“Do I still work here?” (Yes)
“Is the action finished/” (No)
Notice that these questions focus on the key concept (‘concept questions’) expressed
by the use of the verb form, i.e. the situation began in the past and is continuing.
There are some guidelines to follow in the construction of such questions. They
should
 be quick and easy to answer
 focus on the defining the target language, i.e. how the form is different to other
forms
 as far as possible avoid the use of the target language

Look at the following questions aimed to check understanding of e.g. If Tracy had a
million pounds she would travel around the world. Which ones do you think are
useful for the checking understanding?
1. What would you do with a million pounds?
2. Does Tracy have a million pounds?
 3. Which countries would you like to visit?
4. Is it likely that Tracy will soon get a million pounds?
5. Is Tracy going to travel around the world?
6. Does this sentence refer to a past or a present/future situation?
Which questions would you ask to check understanding of the following grammar
patterns?
1. If Anna hadn’t helped Andrew in the exam he would never have passed.
2. I might see Amy tomorrow.
3. He gets up late at the weekend.

4. Timelines
Timelines are simple diagrams that show relationships between verb forms and their
time reference. It is a technique which is useful when explaining verb forms but not
other aspects of grammar, or vocabulary, or pronunciation. Some Ss find such a visual
stimulus very useful.
This diagram illustrates the sentence 'I'm reading a book at the moment'.

Notice that the line starts 'before now' and continues 'beyond now'. Here, the wavy
line is
used to indicate the temporariness implied in the sentence.
There is no one correct way to draw timelines but Ss need to know the conventions
you are using. As Ss become familiar with the
use of timelines they can be encouraged to
create their own.
4.1. Match the following examples with the
timelines that follow:
a) He usually wakes up at about 6:30.
b) I’ll have been working here for 6 months by
Christmas.
c) Graham has done a bungee jump.

4.2. Draw timelines for these sentences:

a) The business will have closed down by the
end of the year.
b) I'll still be lying on a beach when you go back to work.
c) I've been working there for ages.
d) By the time I met her, she had broken up with Chris.

Planning a
grammar lesson

Work in pairs. Complete the lesson plan using the boxes below.
Lesson Plan
Aim: Expressing past habits with used to + base form.
Stage Procedure
Building context 1
2 The teacher says “David used to play
football”.
Highlight meaning 3
4 The teacher repeats the model sentence
with natural linking, stress and
intonation. The class repeats.
Checking understanding 5
6 The teacher writes the model sentence on
the board. Draws a box round “used to”
and writes “base form” over “play”.
Summarise ‘rule’ 7
8 Ss choose an activity they enjoyed as
children and then walk round the class
asking if other people used to do the same
thing.
Report back 9
10 Ss discuss their memories of their first
school in small groups.
Report back The teacher asks some individuals what
they talked about. Afterwards she writes
some errors she heard on the board and
asks Ss to correct them.

A. The teacher draws a timeline on the board, showing a period in the past with
several crosses within it.
B. Highlight spoken form
C. Highlight written form
D. The teacher asks some individuals how many people shared their interest and
corrects errors if they are made.
E. The class talks about what things they enjoyed doing when they were children.
F. The teacher says “used to” + infinitive can be used to talk about things we regularly
did in the past but don’t do now.
G. Freer practice
H. Model sentence
I. Restricted sentence
J. The teacher asks “Did he play football in the past?” (Yes), “Does he play football
now?” (No)
 Unit 5
Teaching the four language skills
Warm-up

What are the skills?

Look at the chart. Can you complete the missing headings?

Listening Speaking
Reading Writing

Although we talk of the four skills (listening, reading, speaking and writing), they
rarely occur in isolation. Combining the four skills is important. In many cases
activities should be designed to integrate the skills and give a more holistic (whole)
learning experience.

5.1. Listening
Warm-up

1. Look at the list of activities which involve listening. Tick the ones that you have
done in the last 48 hours.
□ made or received a telephone call
□ listened to a radio news bulletin
□ watched a TV news bulletin
□ had a conversation with a friend/group of friends
□ listened to a lecture
□ listened to a music CD
□ taken part in a small discussion group
□ etc.

2. Now read the different ways of improving your listening skills. Tick any that you
have already tried.
□ speak as often as possible with a native speaker or someone whose English is as
good as, or better than yours.
□ watch a film or TV programme in English without subtitles.
□ listen to songs in English and read words. Then play them again and sing as you
listen.
□ spend as much time as possible in an English speaking environment and try to
understand the main ideas of what people are talking about.
□ read a graded reader (i.e. an extended reading text whose level of language has been
controlled so as to more easily intelligible for learners) and if possible listen to the CD
as you read.
□ listen to any recording in English and try to write it down as a dictation. Then if
possible check your ideas with the audioscript.
 □ find a recording in English on the Internet (a video, radio programme, etc.). Play it
several times and try to write down key words or whole sentences.
□ etc. (add your own way)

Think
about it!

Some general considerations on teaching listening

Listening is one of the four language skills: reading, writing, listening and speaking.
Like reading, listening is a receptive skill, as it involves responding to language
rather than producing it. Listening involves making sense of the words and we do this
by using context and our knowledge of language and the world. On the one hand we
need the necessary (extralinguistic) background information (top-down knowledge,
i.e. starting at a general level and then moving to more specific things) and on the
other hand, having a clear idea of the situation, we can now supply some of the
missing (linguistic) information (bottom-up knowledge, i.e. starting with details rather
than a general idea). Comprehension, then, results from the interaction of top-down
and bottom-up levels of knowledge and to maximize this comprehension, it helps:
 to establish the general situation, topic, context, etc. of the text (to activate top-
down knowledge) and
 to provide help with individual words (bottom-up knowledge), e.g. in the form
of pre-teaching, or allowing dictionary use.

2. Difficulties students might have with a certain type of listening

Here are some comments made by learners of English on why they find listening
difficult. In each case try to think of a way the teacher could help the situation.
1. I worry more about listening than reading because you can’t go back to check.
2. English people speak too fast and sometimes the words sound different to the way I
learned them.
3. My school is near the airport. Sometimes the noise of the planes stops me
understanding.
4. I can understand my teacher but other people with different accents are really hard
for me to understand.
5. English people ‘eat their words’.
6. I can understand videos very well but audio tapes are quite difficult for me.
7. I can understand English people when they speak only to me but I find it hard to
join in their conversation.
8. I can listen OK for a short time but then I get tired and miss things.
9. I worry when there is a word I don’t understand.

3. Helping students to overcome problems

Look at the list below of some of the things that a teacher can do to help students
while listening. Which learner (from the previous activity) would each activity help?
Some activities may help more than one learner.
Skills to negotiate meaning – teach learners ways of asking for repetition (“Sorry,
could you repeat that, please?”) and also of checking that they are following the
speaker (“So, she forgot to pay for the dress?”).
 Variety of accents – Provide students with examples of different speakers so that they
listen to varieties of English other than their teacher. Remember, many people use
English to speak to non-native speakers and so not all the accents need necessarily be
from the UK or other English-speaking countries.
Word counting exercises – Read a sentence to the class at normal speed using usual
contractions, stress and intonation. The students must count how many words are in
the sentence (contractions count as two). This activity can be useful for lower-level
students.
Hesitations and false starts – Occasionally draw students’ attention to how native
speakers use hesitation devices to create thinking time. Help students to ‘filter out’ the
unneeded parts of spoken English so that they can focus better on the really
meaningful parts.
Set meaningful tasks – Well-set tasks can help students to focus on the important
parts of a text. It can also help them to realize that they can understand the message of
the speaker without having to understand every word.
Play the CD more than once – It is a good idea to reassure learners that they will hear
the CD again before playing it for the first time. This can help to reduce the stress of
listening and this may lead to better performance.
Show learners pictures – This is useful when using CDs or other situations when the
nature of the input does not provide any visual stimulus.

Remember!
Re

Listening skills
It is usually a good idea to have a reason for listening, without trying to understand
every word. You can practice listening
 to understand the general meaning – listening for gist
 to hear specific information – listening for specific information
 to understand details – intensive listening or listening for detail
 to listen to longer pieces of aural texts, without pausing, often for pleasur –
extensive listening
For questions 1-6, match the instructions with the ways of listening listed A-G. There
is one extra option which you do not need to use.

Instructions Ways of listening

1. Watch the video to see how the woman
looks. How do you think she feels?
2. Listen to each pair of words. Say if
they are the same or different.
3. What town does Jim live in? Listen and
find out.
4. Listen to the description of the boy and
the girl and draw them.
5. Listen and underline the word in the
sentence that the speaker says most
strongly.
6. Listen to the story and decide what the
best title is for it.
A listening for gist
B understanding body language
C listening for individual sounds
D listening for detail
E listening for sentence stress
F extensive listening
G listening for specific
information
Remember!

Staging a listening skills lesson

Roughly speaking, the activities in a listening lesson often follow this pattern:
1 Introductory activities: an introduction to the topic of the text and activities focusing
on the language of the text (pre-listening activities).
2 Main activities: a series of comprehension activities developing different listening
subskills (while-listening activities).
3 Post-activities: activities which ask learners to talk about how a topic in the text
relates to their own lives or give their opinions on parts of the text. These activities
also require learners to use some of the language they have met in the text (post-
listening activities).

By staging the lesson in this way the teacher is ‘sandwiching’ the listening task in
order to prepare the students for what is to come, and tries and creates interest so that
they end up wanting to listen.
.
Task 1

Put these stages of a listening task into a logical order and explain the principles
underlying your order.
a. The teacher focuses on features of grammar or vocabulary that occur in the
recording, e.g. by asking students to complete a gapped transcript.
b. The teacher sets a task that requires listening for specific details. She plays the
complete recording, checks the answers, and replays sections if necessary.
c. Learners read the transcript of the recording and listen at the same time.
d. The teacher generates interest in the topic by, for example, asking the class about
their experience of, feelings on, or knowledge about, the topic.
e. The teacher presents some key vocabulary in the listening text - for example, by
giving, or eliciting, a definition or an example.
f. The teacher sets a gist listening task, e.g. “Who is talking to whom, about what, and
why?” The teacher then plays a short section of the recorded extract, and checks the
answers.

Task 2

Put the stages in the activity above in the correct columns:

Pre-listening tasks While-listening tasks Post-listening tasks

Task 3

Read the coursebook extract and identify the purpose of the activities marked with an
arrow.
 5.2. Reading
Warm-up

1. Do you enjoy reading? What have you read recently in your own language?
2. Which of these have you read in English? Give details.

newspapers websites emails magazines internet chat

sites blogs novels or graded readers* brochures letters
text messages
* graded reader is one of a series of books of various levels of difficulty containing pieces of writing,
exercises, used by people who are learning to read or learning a language.

3. How can you improve your reading skills in the future?

Remember!

Types of reading
- scanning (to locate specific information; when we scan, we don’t read the whole
text)
- skimming (for gist, main idea, i.e. reading quickly through a text to get a general
idea of what it is about)
- intensive reading (for details, often taking notes)
- extensive reading (for pleasure).

Task 1

Match the types of text with a type of reading:

 a poem ___  a newspaper ___

 a recipe ___  a grammar page ___
 a bill ___  a holiday brochure ___
 a blog ___  a love letter ___

1. Read it intensively, perhaps more than once.

2. Skim it then read it intensively.
3. Skim it then move on.
4. Scan it then read part of it intensively.
5. Scan it then move on.
6. Read it aloud.
 Task 2

An example reading lesson

We will look at how reading skills could be developed by looking at an example
reading lesson.
A. First, think about which animals
you think make the best pets.
B. Look at the following words: blaze,
cat flap, nominate (for an award),
gutted (the house)
You are going to read a news paper
story called “Fur alarm”. Consider for
a few minutes what the story may be
about.
When you are ready, read the article
very quickly (2 minutes maximum).
Was you prediction correct?
C. Look at the following numbers: 64,
62, 13, 5. Find what they refer to in the
text as quickly as possible.
D. Look at the following questions.
Read the text again and answer them.
1. Could Polly have escaped without
waking Jean and John?
2. How did Polly wake Jean?
3. How did Jean react to Polly trying to
wake her?
4. Why couldn’t jean go downstairs?
5. How did the fire start?
6. Were Jean and John badly hurt?
7. Was Polly badly hurt?
8. In what way is Polly a heroine?
F. What are the advantages and
disadvantages of keeping pets?

Reflection on the lesson

1. Identify the purpose of tasks A-F in this course book extract. Decide whether they
are pre-reading, while-reading or post-reading exercises.
2. Look at sections B, C and D. Which type of reading skill is practiced in each
section?
3. Why is it a good idea to order the reading activities in this way?
4. Do you think the learners should read silently or aloud? Why?
5. What is the purpose of the final question? What skills may be practiced here?
6. If you were teaching this lesson to a group of students and some of them
volunteered the wrong answers, what would you do?

Remember!
 Stages of a reading lesson
The activities in a reading lesson often follow this pattern:
1. Pre-reading activities - introductory activities used to activate background
knowledge about the topic, to activate vocabulary related to topic, to provide a reason
for reading the text.
2. While-reading activities - a series of comprehension activities developing
different reading subskills.
3. Post-reading activities - activities which ask learners to talk about how a topic in
the text relates to their own lives or give their opinions on parts of the text. These
activities also require learners to use some of the language they have met in the text.

Task 3

Stages of a listening or reading lesson

Put these stages in the correct order.

a. build interest g. pre-teach vocabulary (if
necessary)
b. learners read (or listen) h. set a gist or scanning task
c. set an intensive reading (or i. learners check answers with the
listening) task teacher
d. learners compare answers j. . learners read (or listen)
e. set an extension activity k. learners check answers with the
teacher
f. learners compare answers

Instead of
conclusion

To conclude, the typical stages that may be used in a listening/reading lesson can be
summarized as follows:
 Build interest in the topic of the text so that students actually want to read the
text.
 Pre-teach unfamiliar vocabulary (if necessary) or check the meaning of any
vocabulary essential to the completion of the task. Don’t spend too long on
this.
 Set 2 or 3 different tasks which give practice of different reading skills, e.g. a
gist or scanning task (Learners read).
 If possible, have some follow-up activity based on the topic. Or, go on to some
language work from the text. (Learners check answers with the teacher; Set an
intensive reading task; Learners read; Learners compare answers).
 5.3. Speaking

Warm-up

1. Complete the quiz about speaking English.

1) How do you participate in your English class?
a. I often give my opinions and ask questions.
b. I sometimes give my opinions and ask questions.
c. I usually only speak to answer a question.
2) When you speak in English, how often do you stop to check vocabulary or
grammar?
a. not often b. sometimes c. very often
3) What do you usually do if you can’t think of a word when you are speaking?
a. I explain my ideas using other words or gestures.
b. I don’t explain my ideas, but I talk about other things.
c. I pause for a long time or stop speaking.
4) How easy is it for you to speak for more than one minute in English?
a. very easy b. it depends c. quite difficult
5) How often do you practice speaking English outside class?
a. as much as possible b. sometimes c. never

(Mostly As: You are doing the right things. These will help you become fluent and confident.
Mostly Bs: You are doing some of the right things but you could benefit from trying some of the ideas
mentioned at point 2.
Mostly Cs: In order to improve your speaking you need to change your habits. Try some of the ideas
mentioned at point 2.)

2. Read these suggestions for improving your fluency in English. Choose the three
you like the best.
 Memorise useful expressions and try to use them when you speak.
 At home, practice speaking for a minute every day on a familiar topic.
Gradually increase the time you speak.
 Practise repeating and learning conversations from different course books of
English learning.
 ‘Chat’ in English with people online.
 Practise speaking English with someone from the class before or after classes.
 Try to speak more in class and during pairwork.
 Write true sentences and read them aloud.
 Etc. (add your own suggestion)

3. Can you name some of the problems students may have with speaking?
4. What strategies would you use to cope with students’ speaking problems?
5.What is the main aim of a communicative activity in the language classroom?
 Think
about it!

Fluency, accuracy and communication

There are activities in which the teacher is working
on both accuracy and fluency in relatively equal
measure, but many everyday language-teaching
lessons stages are focus on one more than the other.
Therefore, it is important for the teacher to be clear
about what is involved in: accuracy-focused work as
compared with fluency-focused work.

Stages in a
speaking
lesson

The activities in a speaking lesson often follow this pattern:

1 Lead-in: an introduction to the topic of the lesson plus, sometimes, activities
focusing on the new language;
2 Practice activities or tasks in which learners have opportunities to use the new
language. The activity route usually follows this sequence:
(a) set up the activity, i.e. give instructions, make groupings;
(b) run the activity – students do the activity, maybe in pairs or small groups, while
the teacher monitor and help;
(c) close the activity and invite feedback from the students.
3 Post-task activities: activities in which learners discuss the topic freely and/or ask
the teacher.

Task 1

Look at the statements below and decide if you agree or disagree with them.
1. All speaking lessons should be conducted in open class situations, i.e. with the
teacher addressing the whole class or one student addressing the class.
2. Pair- and groupwork will only lead to students’ learning the mistakes of their
colleagues.
3. All mistakes should be corrected.
4. What the learners say is not important – it is only important that they speak English
accurately.
5. As soon as the learners start talking about something other than the given task, the
teacher should ensure that the learners refocus on what they should be doing.
6. All learners must speak for approximately the same length of time in all lessons.

Task 2

Match these postings on a web-based teachers’ discussion board with their responses.
 Questions Responses
1. If you could give one tip to a new a If you use groups of three or four, learners
teacher doing speaking lessons - what have to speak a bit louder than when they
would it be? are working in pairs.
2 What should I do at the end of b No. You can’t always restrict people to
pairwork using particular forms. Correction is a way
and groupwork? of focusing on a variety of language points,
3 Should I feel guilty if there's no anyway.
specific c Shut up! It took me ages to learn that. I'd
language point practised in a speaking ask a question and before anyone else
exercise? spoke I’d answer my own question. I was
4 I taught a lesson last week and it terrified of silence. Also if learners are
started talking, doing what you want them to do –
and finished with some speaking. But don’t interrupt them and stop them doing it.
the d Typically, two things. One, get some of
two speaking tasks were nearly the the learners to report back on what they
same. discussed. Two, give them some feedback
Is that OK? on how they said it - good stuff, mistakes,
5 I can’t always hear what the learners you know...
are saying. e Well, I often give some feedback
6 Does anyone else have this problem? afterwards and may correct errors then, but
What can you do? I try to interrupt as little as possible - unless
the error is so bad that it stops
communication.
f I often have the same conversations! I
think it can be a good thing - the learners
should see an improvement, which is good.
Sometimes I just switch the groups round

Think
about it!

Successful speaking activities

Read the tips about what makes a speaking activity successful and give your own
ideas below.

Choose the right topic

A bit obvious this one! Of course learners will be more motivated to participate in an
activity which they are interested in and which relates to their lives or experience.

Be specific
Speaking activities with a clear communicative goal work best. For example, ‘Tell
your partner what you did at the weekend and find one thing you have in common’
gives learners a specific task and an end goal so that they know when they have
achieved it. Vague activities like ‘Talk about things you like’ can leave learners
wondering what a teacher wants.

Give support and preparation time

Sometimes, a speaking activity falls flat because learners simply don’t feel ready to
speak. Make sure they have the language they need and give them a bit of time to
prepare. This could be time to read instructions for a role play for example. Making
notes can help, but writing a speech interferes with fluency.

Allow learners to work together

If learners talk in pairs or groups, they get much more speaking practice than when
you are asking questions to one learner at a time. You could demonstrate the speaking
activity with a strong learner first, to make sure that learners are clear about what you
want them to do.

Provide a clear purpose

Activities where learners have to exchange information in order to complete an
activity provide a real reason for speaking. These are sometimes known as
‘information gap’ activities. This could be a simple question and answer activity, or
something more complex like a group activity where learners have different
information which they have to share in order to solve a puzzle.
Do you have any other suggestions for criteria for successful speaking activities?
Which activities do you use to motivate your learners?
Why do they motivate your learners?

What else? Give your ideas.

 5.4. Writing
Warm-up

1. How did you learn to write English? Was it the best way?
2. Can you name some benefits that writing provides for English language learning?
3. What are the main potential problems in writing in English?

Think about
it!Thi

Writing involves several subskills. Some of these are related to accuracy, i.e. using
the correct forms of language. Writing accurately involves spelling correctly, forming
letters correctly, writing legibly, punctuating correctly, using correct layouts, choosing
the right vocabulary, using grammar correctly, joining sentences correctly and using
paragraphs correctly.
But writing isn’t just about accuracy. It is also about having a message and
communicating it successfully to other people. To do this, we need to have enough
ideas, organise them well and to express them in an appropriate style.

The table below is from a writing syllabus for primary-school children. The column
on the left focuses on accuracy, and the column on the right focuses on
communication.
• Showing an understanding that letters • Completing simple poems and rhymes
can be combined to form words, and with some language support and based on
producing models
letter shapes, including capital letters, • Expressing your own experience by
correctly supplying labels for your own drawings
• Using initial capital letters and full stops Making simple greetings cards and
to indicate sentences invitations based on models
• Employing a range of connectives to • Responding to greetings and invitations
express sequence (e.g. next, then) in short notes based on models

(adapted from Syllabuses for Primary Schools, English Language, Primary 1- 6, the Education
Department. Hong Kong 1997)

Writing in the
classroom

1. Writing as a useful aid to learning

Some learners have no need to write in a foreign language. They may be learning
English simply to go on holiday in an English-speaking country, for example. Other
 learners may need to develop writing skills to a high level as they may wish to study
at a university in an English-speaking country. Teachers should always be aware of
learners’ needs although, as some writing practice may contribute to overall language
development. Therefore, some writing practice may be justified in the syllabus. This
is because writing can help learning. Although we mentioned in the chapter on
teaching grammar that oral practice is very important, some written practice of new
language may be useful too as:
a) when we teach writing we need to focus on both accuracy and on building up and
communicating a message;
b) writing allows more thinking time and space for reflection than speech;
c) short writing activities can provide a variety of pace in a lesson;
d) the subskills of writing that we teach will vary a lot, depending on the age and
needs of our learners, for example, (a) at primary level we may spend a lot of time
teaching learners how to form letters and words and write short texts of a few words
or sentences, often by copying models; (b) at secondary level we may need to focus
more on the skills required to write longer texts such as letters, emails or
compositions;
e) by encouraging learners to use the writing process in the classroom we help them to
be creative and to develop their message, i.e. what they want to say.
f) add your own suggestion

Do not expect your learners to write freely what they cannot say freely!

2. Some common classroom writing activities

a) Filling in
The learners choose the best answer to complete sentences. For example:
We had a nice holiday …………………… the weather was bad.
a. despite b. in spite of c. because d. although
b) Reproducing a model
Learners study a model text and then write their own text based on it.
Read this passage about Bill and then write about yourself.

Billy lives in Manchester. He gets up every morning at half past seven to get ready to
go to school. He usually has a big breakfast and then goes to school by bike. ……..
……………………………………………………………………………………….

c) Written comprehension
The learners read a passage and answer questions. Initially they will be ‘lifting’ the
answer from the passage and copying it as their answer. As the exercise becomes
more complex, they will have to use ‘their own words’. At primary level this should
mean no more than reorganizing the words from the text.
d) Interactive writing
Learners interact in writing. For example, they write and respond to, text messages to
each other.
e) Free writing
Learners write a composition. For example, they discuss the achievements of a
famous person.

Stages in a
writing lesson
 Writing as a process also often involves going through a number of stages.
- brainstorming (thinking of everything we can about the topic)
- making notes
- planning (organising our ideas)
- writing a draft (a piece of writing that is not yet finished and may be changed)
- editing (correcting and improving the text)
- producing another draft
- proof-reading ( checking for mistakes in accuracy) or editing again.

Now imagine writing a 2,000-word essay on teaching English. Look at the list of
strategies and stages below. Tick the ones you would find useful and then put them in
the right order.

□ read books, talk to colleagues to get ideas and make notes

□ write a brief essay plan
□ organize your ideas
□ read and make changes and corrections
□ check spelling and grammar
□ write a rough draft
□ write the essay

Marking
written work

It is important to differentiate ‘giving feedback on’ and ‘correcting’ written work.

Giving feedback means that good elements of the language will be praised, as well as
mistakes highlighted.
Correction is part of giving feedback, but without praise and encouragement.
Correction of writing activities can often demotivate learners and for this reason it is
better to remember some of the principles of error correction such as:
- it is a good idea to involve learners in the correction as far as possible;
- it is a good idea to tell the learner the type of mistake made;
- it is a good idea to indicate the position of mistake;
- correct clearly and briefly.
If the learner does not have the chance to be involved in the correction process, he/she
is unlikely to learn something from it. The challenge is to find a way of involving
learners in the correction process of written work. Perhaps the easiest is for the
teacher to write comments on the paper, or to use a system of symbols which indicate
the position and nature of the mistakes. The following is a simple code which is
adopted by teachers:
WW = wrong word
WO = wrong word order
Sp = spelling
G = grammar
T = tense
 P = punctuation
un = unnecessary word
+ = add a word, or part of a word
This code is a rough guide for learners. Mistakes are difficult to classify and the
categories can overlap. All tense mistakes are grammar mistakes, and some grammar
mistakes could be classified as being the result of a wrong word choice, or even a
spelling mistake. However, the code is likely to give sufficient guide for learners to
re-draft their work.

Task

Work in pairs. Discuss the ways the errors in this learner writing have been indicated
and answer the questions.
1. Which of the three ways do you think is the most effective?
2. The writer of this text is an intermediate learner. Do you think the approach to
correction would be the same for all levels?
3. What do the symbols mean? Complete the key.

Practice
tasks

Classroom activity 1
Work in pairs. Discuss ways to redesign the following writing task, in order to:
a. make it more communicative
b. make it more integrated (i.e. so that the learners are producing whole texts, not
simply a list of sentences)
c. make it more authentic
d. provide a readership

Write ten sentences describing your favourite pop group.

Classroom activity 2
Read this sequence of activities from a coursebook and answer the questions.
a) What is the purpose of each stage?
b) To what extent does the sequence reflect the process of writing?

Classroom activity 3
Look at the following piece of writing. Intermediate level students were asked to write
a letter to a British Council office asking for information about English language
exams. Correct the writing using the symbols above.
 5.5. Integrating Skills

Combining
skills

Work in groups. Tick the skills that you think would be involved in each of the
following activities.

Activity listening speaking reading writing

a. Learners do a 15-minute roleplay
in pairs. Half the class is
journalists, who interview the other
half of the class, who are famous
actors.

b. Learners work briefly in small

groups to discuss ideas to put into a
piece of writing on animal rights.
They then write a magazine-style
article on the subject.

c. Learners read a text about

language teaching methodologies
and answer questions. They discuss
their answers in small groups
before reporting back to the
teacher.

d. Learners read a short newspaper

description of a radio programme.
They then listen to the radio
programme and answer questions.

e. Learners work in pairs to write a

review of a restaurant they like.

f. Learners make notes as they

listen to a short, recorded lecture.

Classroom
application

Think of ways you could use this text in a lesson so that all four language skills are
practised.
Skills quiz
 Lesson Planning 1: Staging and designing

Warm-up

1. Choose one of the following sentences and complete it.

a. A good lesson is like a film because...
b. A good lesson is like a football match because...
c. A good lesson is like a meal because...
d. A good lesson is like a symphony because...

2. Look at the following comments on planning made by experienced teachers. Which

of them do you agree with? Try to think of the reasons behind each comment.
John: The best lessons are the ones that I don’t plan at all.
Jenny: It’s exhausting. I’m planning lessons until about 10:30 at night.
Gary: I try to plan a bit for each lesson but I usually end up changing it.
Andrew: If I don’t have a plan for the lesson then it soon becomes total chaos. I have
to plan carefully.

Why planning
lessons?

If you imagine the lesson is like a journey, then the lesson plan is like a map!

Imagine starting a journey but with no idea where you are going. You are the driver of
a bus full of students and although you know you have to drive them for a particular
period of time, without your map you have no idea where you want to go or how to
get there. It may still be an interesting journey but it would be very easy to get lost
and your passengers would not be very happy!
Without some kind of planning, a lesson could be just as chaotic and could leave the
students with no clear idea of what they were doing or why. This kind of uncertainty
is not good for effective learning or class discipline.
One of the most important reasons to plan is that the teacher needs to identify his or
her aims for the lesson. Teachers need to know what it is they hope to achieve in the
class, what it is they want the students to be able to do at the end of the lesson that
they couldn’t do before.

Here are some more reasons why it is essential to plan:

1) Most teachers plan lessons in order to feel more confident in the class itself. If
teachers know what they are trying to achieve in the lesson, they are freed up to spend
more time with the learners rather than worrying about the next step.
2) Planning is a sign of professionalism. Students expect teachers to be professional.
If teacher is prepared, the students can tell. They also know if teacher is not prepared.
Planning is a way to help gain the respect of your students.
 3) The aim of planning is also to map out learning activities in a coherent, logical
way, in order to help students understand, learn and practice concepts and skills which
will develop their abilities in English.
4) Planning also involves the ability to zoom out, to see the bigger picture and know
how a 2 hour lesson fits into a 100 hour course, for example, but it also involves the
ability to zoom in, and work out the mechanics of how a 15 minute activity will work
best.
5) Planning gives the teacher a chance to predict possible problems in the class and
think about ways to deal with them. By thoroughly researching the target language
and being prepared for difficult questions, for example, the teacher can feel confident
in the classroom.

Sequencing
lesson stages

Good lessons usually follow a logical sequence!

Here are some guidelines for sequencing the stages of a lesson (Ur, 1996):
1. Put the harder tasks earlier (when students are fresher and more energetic).
2. Have quieter activities before lively ones (it can be quite difficult to calm down a
class after a lively, exciting activity).
3. Provide some kind of summary of the activity / stage that has just finished and
make a prediction of what will take place in the next stage / activity of the lesson.
4. Try to link the activities of lesson / exercises in a textbook in a whole like the
scenario of a film.
5. End on a positive tone (summary of what you have achieved, a positive evaluation,
a joke, etc.).
6. Try to round off the lesson and to avoid being in the middle of something when the
bell rings.

Remember!

To demonstrate these principles in action, Robertson (2000:17) takes the example of a

teaching sequence based around a language point and planned a sequence as follows:
1. Warmer - to engage and activate.
2. Lead-in - to establish a context for the target language.
3. Language presentation - to show the students a model of the target language and
establish its concept.
4. Controlled practice - to allow the students to become familiar with the concept
and form of the target language.
5. Freer practice - to allow students to activate their English.
6. Feedback - for reinforcement, consolidation and correction.
Task 1

Different learners have different preferences. Some enjoy working alone; others love
to work with a partner or in a group. For some, the traditional teacher-led classroom is
their preferred style. When planning your lessons, it’s important to keep these
different preferences in mind. If you include only one interaction pattern, you may be
excluding some learners in favour of others. Planning a variety of interaction patterns
within your lesson is the key to involving them in the lesson.

Look at part of a novice teacher’s lesson plan. Which activities could be done in
different interaction patterns? How could you add a variety of interaction patterns to
this lesson to involve learners more?

Stage Aim Procedure Interaction

To introduce topic of
Lead in Tell a story about my family Whole class
family members
To clarify the
Draw my family tree on the
meaning, form and
board. Ask questions to check
Presentation how to pronounce Whole class
understanding. Say words to show
family members
pronunciation.
vocabulary
To provide written Learners draw their family tree.
Practice practice of the target Monitor and note down wrong Individual
language spellings
To provide feedback Write wrong spellings on the
Feedback Whole class
on practice task board and correct them

Task 2

Work in pairs. Put these stages of a lesson into a logical order. How long would you
expect to spend on each stage in a 45-minute lesson?
Level: Intermediate
Task: Writing a story to practise past simple and past continuous

Stage Procedure* Time

a. The teacher divides the class into three groups. Each group makes up a
story.
b. The teacher asks questions to check understanding.
1 c. The teacher asks learners about their favourite stories when they were 5 mins
young. Learners volunteer stories.
d. The teacher clarifies the form with examples (she went / she was going)
on the board and then gives out a series of rules of use of the verb forms.
Learners decide which rules go with which verb form and pick out
examples from the text.
e. Learners complete sentences, deciding whether the past simple or
continuous is more appropriate.
f. The teacher gives out a short story and asks learners to underline
examples of the past simple in blue and examples of the past continuous
in red.
 g. The teacher forms new groups, comprising one person from each of the
other groups. The learners tell each other their stories.
*Optionally, Procedure can be divided into two columns, one for the teacher, one for
the students, such as:
Stage of What the What the learners Interaction Time
lesson teacher say/do
says/does

Putting the
lesson plan
on paper

There is no “correct” way of writing the lesson plan. There is no standard format or
length for a lesson plan; these vary according to the type of lesson, stage of course,
etc. Nevertheless, all plans should include at least the following items:

Written lesson plans can usually be divided into two parts.

I. One part is the introductory page / pre-plan and gives background to the lesson
with
 facts about class;
 aims and objectives of the lesson;
 teaching aids;
 assumptions about what the students know/can do;
 anticipated problems

A lesson plan sample

Name of teacher: School:

Date: Time of lesson:
Class: Level:
No. of students: Textbook: Unit: Lesson:

Lesson aims:
1.
2.
3.

Materials:

II. The subsequent part is the ‘development’/ 'procedure' of the lesson. It roughly
includes the rest of elements of a lesson such as.
 Stage (a part of a lesson) + optionally, aim (of that specific part);
 Procedure (a description of how something will be done);
 Interaction (who is working with whom – individual work i/w, pair work p/w,
whole class);
 Time (estimate of how long an activity might take).
 __________________________________________________________
Activity 1
Aim:

Procedure: Interaction Timing

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
____________________________________________________________

Activity 2
Aim:

Procedure: Interaction Timing

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
______________________________________________________________

Activity 3
Aim:

Procedure: Interaction Timing

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
_____________________________________________________________

Etc.
Remember!

Willis D and J. Willis (2007:190) states that “the names of the stages of a lesson are
not so important (you can even name them after the activity they illustrate, e.g. warm-
up, lead-in, controlled practice etc.). What is more important is their sequencing.”
Moreover, Callum Robertson, in his articles Action Plan for Teachers (2000),
identifies 3 important elements in lesson planning: Engage (the students) → Study (the
new content for the lesson) → Activate (getting the students to do something with the
content).

To demonstrate these principles in action, let us take the example of a teaching

sequence for a grammar point as follows:
 1. Warmer - to engage and activate
2. Lead-in - to establish a context for the target language
3. Language presentation - to show learners a model of the target language
and establish its concept
4. Controlled practice - to allow learners to become familiar with the concept
and form of the target language
5. Freer practice - to allow learners to activate their English
6. Feedback* - for reinforcement, consolidation and correction

*There are other elements to lessons such as homework and revision.

Instead of
conclusion

Essentially, planning is an art, not a science, but applying systems and strategies to the
process can be very helpful. This allows teachers to map out in their heads (and on
paper) a learning path for themselves and the students on their courses that will make
the journey both purposeful and entertaining. Thus the ‘ingredients’ of a good lesson
are the following:
 clear goals – realistic and appropriate for the class
 clear and logical stages which link naturally
 wide range of activities and interaction
 variety - keeps the students motivated and engaged
 students’ involvement - try to give them as much time using the language
as possible; personalise language so they can use English for describing
their own lives. Elicit where possible, don’t ‘lecture’.
 element of fun
 etc. (add your own ‘secret ingredient’)
 Lesson Planning 2: Defining Aims
Warm-up

Choose the statement(s) you agree with. Then find a partner who has made similar
choices to you, and agree on their order of importance.
Lesson aims are important because...
a. trainers (and directors of studies) require them
b. they make planning easier
c. they make lesson plans look more professional
d. they frame the criteria by which the lesson will be judged
e. learners need to know the focus of the lesson
f. they set a goal that can be used to test the learners' achievement.

Think about
it!

General considerations on formulating lesson aims

The question that may arise at the beginning of the lesson planning is ‘what will my
pupils be able to do by the end of the lesson? In giving the answer to this question the
teacher will formulate the aims of the lesson, i.e. what pupils will be able to do, not
what teacher is going to do. Thus, for each lesson it is very important for you to
formulate the aims of a lesson as in the following examples:

Aims: By the end of this lesson / unit, the students will be able to:
1. order meals in a restaurant;
2. ask about and say telephone numbers
3. ask about and give their age.
or
By the end of the lesson, the students will have gained further practice in:
- skimming to get an overall impression of a text;
- improving their reading speed by timed reading;
- justifying answers to questions by reference to the text;
- relating the content of the text to their own experience.
Remember!

The more exactly you have described your aims in terms of what the students will be
able to do, the easier it is to check them.

Aim = Teaching with a purpose

 Here is part of a lesson in which a teacher was preparing her learners for a story. We
can call this the pre-reading stage of her lesson. In this stage, the teacher did a
number of things, and each had a purpose, or aim. A course can have an aim,
individual lessons can have an aim, and stages within a lesson have aims too.

Let’s look at what the teacher did in her pre-reading stage, and why.
Procedure: What did she do? Aim: Why did she do it?
Show the cover of the book and
Create interest in the story
introducing the character
Check that learners understand key
Mime and ask questions to show meaning
vocabulary from the story
Show pictures from the story and ask
learners to put them in the order they think Provide learners with a reason for reading
they will happen

Aims can add focus to lessons and stages. A stage can have more than one aim, as in
the lesson that you saw, but having a lot of different aims can lead to a lack of focus.
It’s often a good idea to think about your main lesson aim first, and then to ensure that
the stages in your lesson work towards that aim. In other words – think about what
you want your learners to achieve and how you will help them achieve it. This should
help you to plan your lessons with your learners’ needs in mind.

Think about
it!

Final tips for designing lesson aims:

- Aims need to be clear, precise, achievable, and preferably stated from the point of
view of students learning rather than of the teacher teaching.
- Teachers with vague aims in language lessons have probably not understood, or
given sufficient thought to, the language being taught.
- The main aim of a lesson needs to be achieved, to some extent at least, even if this
means being less effective in achieving the secondary aim.
- Every action, every word of the teacher should have a purpose – whether this has
been planned, or is instinctive.
- You should review the success of your lesson and to what extent you have achieved
your aims.
- Resist the temptation to dismiss a lesson as a ‘disaster’.
- You should think more about the students’ learning than about the teaching process
in isolation.
- Ask yourself ‘What did the students do/learn/practise in my lesson?’ – You might
have a nice surprise!

Task 1

Choose the aim that best matches the teacher's description of her lesson below. What
is unsatisfactory about the other aims?
 I’m going to start by telling them about a recent holiday I had which was a bit of a
disaster, and this will involve some past tense examples. Then I’m going to get them to
work in pairs to reconstruct my story in writing, and I’ll check that they’ve used the
same verbs correctly. Then I’ll ask them to think of their own stories, about trips or
holidays where things went wrong, and to prepare to tell these stories to each other.
To do this they’ll first need to plan their stories, and I’ll hand out dictionaries so they
can look up any words they might need. Then I’ll put them in pairs to tell their stories.
Then I’ll change the pairs so they can tell their stories again, to someone different.
This way they can get more fluent, hopefully.

a. to do some speaking
b. to present and practise the past tense
c. to practise writing
d. the learners will tell each other stories about disastrous holidays
e. by the end of the lesson the students will be able to develop oral fluency when
narrating past events
f. by the end of the lesson the learners will have learned some new words

Task 2

Read the lesson descriptions (A and B).

a. Identify each teacher's main aims and at least one subsidiary aim.
b. Formulate each teacher's aims (both main and subsidiary), using the rubric: By the
end of the lesson ...

Lesson A Lesson B

I’ve got a short text about a driving
instructor. So the students are going to
read that and answer a couple of
comprehension questions I've chosen the
text because there are lots of examples of
the present perfect simple and
continuous. So the text is a way of
contextualising the language so that I can
contrast the verb forms.
I've recorded two of my colleagues
talking about their weekend, and I'm
going to use this as a model for the
learners to do the same thing, in pairs.
There are one or two useful expressions
in the recording, such as different ways of
expressing evaluation: not bad, pretty
good, quite nice, etc., so I'll want to focus
on these at some point so that hopefully
they will use them in the speaking
activity.

Task 3

Classroom activity
Read the lesson plan below and try to guess the main aim and then the aims of each
stage.

Aim:
Time: 50 minutes
Lesson stage and Aim Procedure Interaction
timing
Lead in Tell a story about epals. Whole class
5 mins
Game Mime a hobby, learners Whole class
10 mins guess.
Learners take it in turns to
come to the front of the
class, pick a card and
mime the hobby that is on
it. The rest of the class
guess.
Display cards on the board
as a reference for writing
later on.
Brainstorming Write lesson objectives on Pairs >
5 mins board. Ask questions to whole class
check understanding.
Pairs think of components
of a personal profile.
Write a mind map on the
board using learners’
ideas.
Reading Learners read the model Individual
5 mins text and compare the
content with their ideas
from the previous stage.
Writing Learners write their Individual
15 mins profile.
Feedback Learners present their Whole class
10 mins personal profiles to the
class. Other learners listen
and ask questions.
At the end of the activity,
correct any common
errors.
Finally, review the lesson
objectives.
(Professional Practices for English Language Teachers, British Council, 2015)
 Unit 7
Warm-up Dealing with learners’ mistakes

What do you think?

1. Look at the four remarks made by teachers. Which ones do you think are/would be
closest to your feelings?
Helen: Correcting students seems a bit of waste of time – they only make the same
mistakes the next time.
Jenny: I hate it when my learners make mistakes. I don’t want them to learn bad
habits.
David: I try to differentiate between slips and errors. I try to help learners when they
make errors but ignore it if I think it is just a slip.
Norman: I love it when learners make mistakes. I really feel I can teach them
something that will help.

2. Put a tick next to the comments you identify with.

□ I think I should correct every mistake.
□ I try to correct most errors but I don’t think it is important to correct slips.
□ I correct more during accuracy phases of a lesson than fluency phases.
□ I always try to let the learner who made the mistake correct himself/herself before I
do.
□ If the learner who made the mistake can’t correct himself/herself then I ask if
another student can.
□ I never just say ‘that’s wrong’ – I always try to show the student which bit of what
they said was wrong.
□ Making mistakes is an important and positive part of learning a language so they
should be dealt with.

A note on
terminology

A mistake has been used to mean that although the learner produces an incorrect
utterance or written mistake, they actually know the correct form – they simply got it
wrong because they weren’t concentrating or perhaps trying to speak or write too fast.
 However, we can use the term slip to refer to this, clearly distinguishing it from an
error.

An error is used to mean that the learner produces an incorrect utterance and is not
able to correct themselves. They don’t know how to use the piece of language
correctly.

‘Mistake’ will be used here as umbrella term covering both concepts – a slip and an
error – for the ease of communication and because it is often unclear which of the two
categories an incorrect utterance, or written mistake, falls into.
Remember!

Rather than simply giving to your learners the answer on a plate, help them to make
their own corrections. This may raise their own awareness about the language they are
using:
“What you tell me, I forget; what I discover for myself, I remember”.

Practice tasks

Some correction techniques

1. Imagine you have a class of 28 learners. You have divided them in six groups of
four and they are discussing the best way to advertise a new computer game.
The teacher’s role is to monitor – or to listen to what the students are saying. After the
students have finished, the teacher can put some of the mistakes (or good examples of
language) on the board. There is no need to identify who made the errors but the
teacher can ask all the learners to look at the mistakes and try to correct them.
Answer the following questions.
a) Who corrects the mistakes?
b) What would the alternative be if this strategy were unsuccessful?
c) What is the advantage of delaying the correction until after the activity?

2. You are teaching a group of elementary learners. You are teaching them how to talk
about the past. One of the students says, “Yesterday we go to the beach.” Do you…
a. ignore the mistake
b. say, “Yesterday we went to the beach”.
c. say, “In the past, so …”.

Think about it!

One of the differences between correcting mistakes in fluency activities and accuracy
activities is that the teacher does not have the luxury of time – the time between
hearing the mistake and drawing it to the learners’ attention. The same principle
apply: It’s important to highlight where the mistake is, or the type of mistake, and
also to involve the learners in the correction process.
 3. Teachers often use gestures to indicate the type of mistake or where it is in the
utterance. A small number of gestures that a class becomes used to and immediately
understands can speed up the correction process.
Match the gestures with the mistakes.

a) I must to phone Cindy tomorrow.

b) It is beautiful day.
c) You can tell me the time?

There are many other correction techniques teachers use. Look at the three
described below and say which one you would definitely use.
1. The teacher repeats the utterance up to the mistake.
Student: It depends of you.
Teacher: It depends …
Student: It depends on you.
2. The teacher tells the learner the correct form.
Student: It depends of you.
Teacher: On you. It depends on you.
3. The teacher indicates where the error is by using a grammar term. For example,
Student: It depends of you.
Teacher: Preposition.
Student: It depends on you.

Remember!

If the mistake is actually an error rather than a slip, the learner will not be able to self
correct and the teacher could invite others to participate by saying something such as
“Can anyone help?”

4. Below are some more methods of correcting pronunciation problems. Match the
mistakes on the left with the correction on the right.
a) student produces “willage” for “village”
b) student puts the stress on the first syllable
of ‘photographer’
c) student uses an inappropriate intonation
pattern
Task
1) teacher repeats the utterance,
while indicating the direction of
the voice by waving their arm
2) teacher says ”bite your bottom
lip when you say it”.
3) teacher says “de DA de de”.

Correcting Speaking
Complete the following chart by matching the appropriate advantages and
disadvantages for each correction technique.

Correction technique Advantages Disadvantages

 A. Teacher says the correct 1) Good for visual learners
answer.
B. Teacher indicates the
mistake, but gets the
learner to self-correct.
C. Teacher uses their
fingers to ‘show’ where
the mistake was made.
D. Teacher repeats the
sentence but indicates the
mistake by stressing it, or
stopping just before the
mistake happens.
E. Teacher writes up what
the learner said on the
board and indicates the
mistake.
F. Teacher asks other
learners what the mistake
was and to correct it.
a) Can be embarrassing for
the learner who made the
original mistake
2) Helps the learner think b) Learners may simply
about what they are repeat the mistake again,
saying. but this time emphasizing
it as the teacher did.
3) Clear and learners can c) Sometimes learners are
see there was a mistake unable to correct
and what it was. themselves.
4) Direct and quick d) Learners don’t have the
chance to ‘notice’ their
mistakes.
5) Makes all the learners e) Unless the teacher then
think about what was said. asks the learner to correct
the sentence and say the
correct version, it’s not
very useful.
6) Helps learners realize f) Can sometimes be
that there was a mistake confusing and only really
and where it occurred. works for word order or an
incorrect or missing word.

Instead of
conclusion!

- Correct a lot – learners generally expect it and want to be corrected.

- Correct clearly and briefly.
- Involve learners in correction work through self and peer correction – avoid simply
telling them the correct version all the time.
- You do not always have to correct immediately. Delayed correction can also be
useful.
- Mistakes that involve a breakdown in communication do need to be dealt with
immediately whatever stage of the lesson it is.
- If the objective is accuracy, then immediate correction may be useful; if the aim is
fluency, then immediate correction is NOT appropriate as it diverts the flow of
speaking.
 Unit 8
Testing learners

Warm-up

Beliefs about assessment

Complete the chart and then discuss your ideas in class.

Agree Not sure Disagree

1. Learners should be assessed every
lesson.
2. Assessment can help teachers plan what
they need to teach.
3. Assessment needs to be part of the
teaching-learning process.
4. We should use the same activities for
assessment that we usually use for
teaching.
5. It doesn’t matter if assessment uses new
activity types.
6. Assessment can motivate learners.
7. Learners can’t assess themselves.
8. You can use games for assessing
learners.
9. You must give every piece of
assessment a mark.

Definition of
terms
 Evaluation displays the characteristics of an activity at a large scale; it has its own
aims/objectives, own procedure and strategies; it is a process in itself.

Assessment is referred to in terms of this process leading to evaluation by collecting

information in order to measure a learner’s progress; assessment may be formal, as in
testing, or informal, as in simply observing learners doing tasks.

Testing is assessing learners’ level or progress either at the outset of a course

(placement testing, diagnostic testing), during a course (progress testing) or at the
end of a course (achievement testing).

Testing is an integral part of teaching – teachers do it all the time in their lessons
because testing means to find out what students know and remember. Five examples
of classroom testing are:
 concept questions: test if students understand meaning
 eliciting: tests what students know and remember
 language exercises: test what Ss know
 comprehension tasks: test what Ss understand
 drilling: tests Ss’ pronunciation, for example
Since the students’ course has included not only reading and writing, grammar and
lexis, but also speaking, listening, phonology and function, tests can be used to test
anything that has been studied. Somehow tests often seem to focus far more on the
first four than the last four.

Types of
tests

However, beyond classroom practice, Ss may take the following types of tests:
 Placement
 Diagnostic
 Progress
 Achievement
We will look at these types of testing and at the difference between subjective and
objective assessment.

Placement tests are carried out by a school when Ss first arrive. They are designed to
find out the approximate level of the student in order to place him/her in the right
class. These tests tend to involve grammar (often multiple-choice questions), and
speaking (a brief chat with a teacher). Most placement tests are standard and are used
each time there are new arrivals.

Diagnostic tests include placement tests, but also include other types. Teachers give
diagnostic tests or tasks on a frequent basis with teaching in order to identify how
much students already know, their existing strengths and weaknesses. These tests are
not generally graded because they are used only for syllabus design or remedial work.

Progress tests are what teachers will give their Ss from time to time. At some schools
they are a requirement, at others, they are strongly encouraged. Typically, they take
place once a week/every two weeks and their aim is usually seen as testing what Ss
 can remember of what they have recently learned. Such tests do not have to be in test
format. They can be done as quizzes, for example, with students in teams answering
questions.

Achievement tests measure what students have learned or achieved from a program
of study; usually at the end of a course of study and should be part of every language
program and specific to the goals and objectives of a specific language course. These
tests must be flexible to respond to the particular goals and needs of the students in a
language program. They can take two forms. It can be an internal test given by you at
the end of the course, usually done in exam format. And it can be an external exam
written and marked by an outside body (FCE, CAE, CPE). You are unlikely to be
asked to teach exam classes until you have a lot of experience, so this unit will not
focus on the exams themselves.

All these tests mentioned above can be marked in two ways:

1) Objectively, i.e. there is a clear correct answer, and every marker would give the
same marks to the same question;
e.g. The capital city of Scotland is (a) Glasgow (b) Aberdeen (c) Edinburgh.
The TOEFL test is a classic example of objectivity as it is entirely multiple-choice, as
above. Marking is unaffected by the marker, consistent, accuracy-based, and easy to
assess.
2) Subjectively, i.e. the marking depends largely on the personal decision of the
marker; different markers might give different marks for the same question. Obvious
examples are essay writing, exam ‘interviews; (speaking exams). With such testing, it
is imperative that Ss know what the marking criteria are. Marking is affected by the
interpretation of the marker and is therefore less consistent and harder to assess.

Remember!

1) For any type of assessment it is important to have clear criteria for what is being
assessed. Criteria should be objective and take into account age, level and skills.
2) Testing should always be seen as part of the learning process and should be done in
as pleasant an atmosphere as is possible in the circumstances.
3) It is also important to remember that what might seem easy for the teacher may not
be the same for the learners.

Criteria of
a good test

According to Scrivener (2005: 190) there are three criteria of a good test.
1. A good test will be fair and appropriate to the students (and to anyone who needs to
know the results, e.g. head teacher, other teachers, parent, etc)
2. It will not be too troublesome to mark.
3. It will provide clear results that serve the purpose for which it was set.

Task 1
 Decide if the following examples fulfill the three criteria for a good test mentioned
above.
1. It is the day when new students arrive at your school. When you chat to them, they
seem to be very different in level. You give them a placement test to decide which
level class they should go into. Everyone gets a mark between 63 and 67 out of 100.
2. You set a test for your class using material from the next three units of the book
that they will be studying over the next month.
3. Your students have been studying a balanced course of skills and language
improvement work for the last ten weeks. For the end-of-term test, you have asked
each student to write five essays. It is now midnight and you have the pile of essays in
front of you.

Task 2

Read the learners' complaints. Complete the sentences explaining the problem with
the test design requirements in each case.
a) The instructions just said 'fill the gaps' - so I did and got nearly all of the questions
wrong because I was only supposed to use one word. A lot of the students did the
same as me.
Instructions need …
b) The course was all about listening and speaking and I really liked it - but at the end
we had to do a writing test and I didn't do very well.
The content of the test should …
c) I got the test back from the teacher and I hadn't done very well. I was the worst in
the class. The teacher just wrote 'You must work harder' at the bottom but I was
working quite hard.
Feedback should be …

Think
about it!

Testing techniques
Traditional ‘pen-and-paper’ tests are usually made up of two types of questions:
 Discrete item tasks, i.e. testing specific individual language points and are
likely to be marked objectively;
 Integrative tasks, i.e. a number of items and skills tested in the same question
and are more likely to be marked subjectively
Some questions may involve elements of both. Language systems (grammar, lexis,
phonology, functions) are easier to test objectively; language skills (speaking, writing,
listening, and reading) tend to be tested subjectively.

Instead of
conclusion

Complete the following.

a. Tests are motivating for students.
Students ___________ (rewrite the first sentence). 1 mark
b. The Cambridge FCE, CAE, and CPE exams are: (a) placement tests (b) diagnostic
tests (c) progress tests (d) achievement tests. 1 mark
c. We test students informally in class all the time. True or false? 2 marks
d. The marking system should be ________ (rely). 1 mark
e. The reliability of the marking system is affected by the ________ given to each
section. 5 marks
f. When I was at school I __________ tests. 1 mark
g. be-interesting-do-to-tests-format-and-varied-should (rewrite using all words).
8 marks
h. One of the biggest disadvantages of testing is ___________. 10 marks
i. Objective assessment is ___________.
Subjective assessment is __________. 1 mark

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APPENDIX 1

A Glossary of Basic EFL Terms

In this glossary you can find definitions and clarifications of many of the specific
terms used in this book. Items are listed alphabetically and represent a compilation of
some remarkable authors such as Harmer, McKenzie-Brown, Scrivener, Tomlinson
and others.

Achievement tests
Language tests which test what the learner has been taught. It measures what students
have learned or achieved from a program of study; should be part of every language
program and be specific to the goals and objectives of a specific language course.
These tests must be flexible to respond to the particular goals and needs of the
students in a language program.
Acquisition
The process of picking up a language without instruction and without a sustained
conscious effort to learn the language. Acquisition usually occurs as a result of highly
motivated exposure to the language in use plus the need and opportunity to
communicate in the language. Children acquire their first language in this way and are
capable of picking up any language anywhere without tuition. Adults are capable of
acquiring the ability to communicate in a foreign language in this informal way too
but most seem to need some conscious, formal learning as well in order to achieve
accuracy.
Aims
The aim of a lesson is its goal or objective. It is what you plan the students will learn
during the lesson. The aim is usually the first thing to consider when planning lessons.
Aims need to be clearly expressed and need to be realistic and appropriate for your
class. Here is an example of an aim - do you think it is suitable? Aim: To teach the
future. This aim would be an extremely over ambitious one! There are many ways to
talk about the future in English and to ‘teach’ them all successfully in a single lesson
would be an impossible task. When looking at introducing new grammar, the teacher
needs to restrict the aims to a single concept which can be covered in the time
allowed. Here’s a more suitable way to express an aim: Aim: To present and give
practice in the use of ‘going to’ for future plan.
Approach
Theoretical positions and beliefs about the nature of language, the nature of language
learning, and the applicability of both to pedagogical setting.
Audio-visual aids
Aids such as video, films, television, computer equipment which allow the learners to
see a situation as well as to listen to the language used in it.
Authentic materials
Materials such as (Internet) newspaper articles, brochures, train tickets, letters, emails,
advertisements, recording of the news, airport announcements, etc. which were
originally used in real situations and were not designed for use in language teaching.
Such materials are used in the classroom to expose the learners to language in real
use.
Bottom-up information processing
Students learn partially through bottom-up information processing, or processing
based on information present in the language presented. For example, in reading
bottom-up processing involves understanding letters, words, and sentence structure
rather than making use of the students’ previous knowledge.
Brainstorm
May be a whole-class or individual/pair/group activity whereby learners try to ‘pool’
their knowledge/information/ideas etc. on a topic
Choral repetition
Technique in accuracy and reinforcement; used m pattem practice and drills; may be
in the form of a ‘jazz chant’
Classroom management
The moment-by-moment decisions and actions concerning organization of the
classroom and activities, e.g. seating and grouping arrangements, starting and
stopping activities, dealing with unexpected problems, etc.
Cloze test
A test of language proficiency in which the learner has to fill in blanks in a continuous
passage. There are many variations on the cloze test but the basic type involves the
setter selecting a passage and then deleting every nth word. Most EFL cloze tests
require learners to complete a passage from which every seventh or eighth word has
been deleted but an advanced level test might be based on a deletion rate of five or
six.
Coherence
The linking together of consecutive utterances in accordance with the function of the
utterances. Thus an invitation followed by an acceptance or a generalization followed
by an example would be coherent whereas a factual enquiry followed by an anecdote
would not be coherent.
Cohesion
The logical linking of consecutive or related utterances.
Example: I agree that he’s a very experienced player. He’s played for Yugoslavia
many times and he’s played in a European Cup Final. However, I don’t think the club
should pay all that money for him.
Communicative activity
An activity that has communication as its main aim (as opposed to practice of
particular language items). A communicative activity will normally involve an
‘information gap’. See information gap.
Concept questions
Questions that focus on the meaning of a language item.
Contextualisation
Concept where the topic/theme/activity is introduced by a (usually short) presentation
which may involve Q/A or quick brainstorm, visual usage, quick survey of opinion or
other techniques (cf ‘warmer/warm-up’ activities).
Controlled practice
A practice exercise in which the learners are told exactly what to do and how to do it.
It is hoped that nearly all the learners will get nearly all the exercise right and will
therefore develop correct habits and gain useful knowledge about the language.
Cue cards
1) Cards shown to learners to guide their responses in a drill.
2) Cards given to participants in a role-play or simulation to tell them who they are
and what they are going to do. These are sometimes called role cards.
Deductive teaching
Also known as deduction, from the verb “to deduce”; a teaching technique in which
the teacher presents language rules and the students then practice those rules in
activities. Deductive teaching is usually based on grammar-based methodology and
proceeds from generalizations about the language to specifics. (See “Inductive
teaching”.)
Diagnostic test
A test designed to discover what a learner or group of learners can do and cannot do
in the language. Such a test would be used at the beginning of a course to provide
information on which schemes of work could be based or during a course to provide
information relating to a particular area of language scheduled to be taught to the
learners.
Discrete point tests
Tests which aim to provide very specific information about learners’ abilities in
particular skills or in particular language areas (e.g. knowledge of irregular simple
past forms). This type of test focuses on one item at a time and therefore tests
knowledge of it rather than ability to use it in real situations.
Drill
Language practice exercise designed to give students many opportunities to use the
correct forms, to involve them in repetition or very controlled oral practice, and thus
to establish correct habits.
ELT
English Language Teaching
EFL
English as a Foreign Language
Eliciting
A technique used to involve students more in lessons. Eliciting involves drawing
language from the students (rather than giving it to them).
Errors
Systematic deviations from the norms of the language being learned. They are usually
caused by false generalizations about the language by the learner and are inevitable
and essential part of language learning. Many such errors are developmental and
disappear as the learner gains more exposure to the language in use.
ESL
English as a Second Language
ESP
English for Specific Purposes
Exposure
All the language which the learner hears or reads.
Extensive reading/listening
Reading or listening to longer pieces of text without pausing and worrying too much
about details, usually for pleasure.
False beginner
Someone who has studied the language before, but appears to have forgotten more of
it. Progress can be fast, as the ‘lost’ language may return relatively quickly. A true
beginner, by contrast, has none of this deep-stored knowledge, and progress will
likely be much slower.
False friend
A word that reminds you of one in your own language and misleads you into guessing
that it has the same or a similar meaning in the new language (e.g. ‘library’ in English
and ‘librarie’ in Romanian).
Feedback
Feedback is a response from the teacher to the class after an exercise or task has been
completed. It takes a number of forms but could, for example, be praise or correction
of errors the teacher has heard.
Freer practice
Freer practice activities, sometimes called ‘less-controlled’ activities, are used to
activate the students’ language. Through these activities, students have the
opportunity to use the target language in a reasonably natural contextualised situation.
This means that they may need to use a wide range of English as well as the target
language. Role plays and discussions are examples of freer practice activities.
First language
A person’s first language is one the one (s)he learned first as a child and which (s)he
has continued to use. It is often referred to as L1. Synonyms: mother tongue, native
language.
Fluency
Speaking naturally without worrying too much about being 100% correct.
Formulaic expressions
Expressions which are learned as whole utterances (e.g. How do you do?) or as
patterns which the learner can use by inserting a relevant word in a vacant slot (e.g.
What does ___ mean?)
Function
The purpose for which language is used in particular situations.
Graded readers
Books written or simplified so as to be suitable for use as extensive reading material
for particular levels of learners.
Grade
To grade your language means to simplify what you say so that it is understandable
for the class. When teaching lower levels, teachers need to grade their language
carefully
Grading
Deciding on the particular order in which you are going to deal with selected teaching
points.
Groupwork
Students working together with a number of other students (rather than in pairs or as a
whole class).
Inductive teaching
Also known as induction, from the verb “to induce”; a facilitative, student-centred
teaching technique where the students discover language rules through extensive use
of the language and exposure to many examples. This is the preferred technique in
communicative language teaching.
Information gap
One person knows something that the other doesn’t. Such gaps of information
between people give us a need and desire to communicate with each other.
Input
The language gained from exposure which is available to the brain for language
processing.
Intensive reading/listening
Reading or listening to a short text with as much concentration and understanding as
possible.
Interaction
Communication between people involving the use of language (between two people
having a conversation, between writer and readers, between speaker and listeners etc).
Jigsaw reading/listening
A jigsaw activity involves different groups of students (or individuals) reading or
listening to different content. When they come back together thet can report back and
compare what they have learned.
L1
The learner’s first language, e.g. Romanian for a Romanian person.
L2
A language being learned which is not the learner’s first language, i.e. a second or
foreign language, e.g. English for a Romanian person.
Language skills
Teachers commonly talk about four language skills: listening, reading, speaking,
writing. Listening and reading are ‘receptive skills’; speaking and writing are
‘productive skills’.
Lead-in
A lead-in is a way to introduce the topic of a lesson. The teacher may use a story,
anecdote or pictures to lead the students into the subject of the day.
Learning factors
For EFL teachers, four factors outside aptitude and attitude affect the rate at which a
student learns a second language. These are (1) the student’s motivation, including
whether it is instrumental or integrative; (2) the amount of time the student spends in
class and practicing the language outside class; (3) the teacher’s approach to teaching;
and (4) the teacher’s effectiveness and teaching style. The most important of these
motivators are the first two, which are also the two the teacher has least control over.
See also “aptitude”, “attitude” and “TEFL vs. TEFL”.
Learner-centred approaches
Approaches to language teaching based on the needs and interests of the learners
rather than on a fixed syllabus or coursebook. Such approaches would ideally involve
the learners in decisions about what and how they learn and woud require the teacher
to be an organized and guide rather than an instructor.
Lexis
Another name for vocabulary.
Lesson pace
Rhythm of a lesson where the pace reflects learner needs, responses and learning
progress. This is complemented by the material, linguistic and psychological factors
which may (consciously) influence the teacher regarding the priorities within a lesson
Lesson plan
An outline or plan that guides teaching of a lesson; includes the following: pre-
assessment of class; aims and objectives; warm-up and review; engagement, study,
activation of language (controlled, guided and free practice); and assessment of
lesson. A good lesson plan describes procedures for student motivation and practice
activities, and includes alternative ideas in case the lesson is not long enough or is too
difficult. It also notes materials needed..
‘Lock-step’ teaching
Situation in which learners are doing exactly the same task with exactly the same
expected outcomes and using exactly the same materials at the same time. Generally,
much of this may be avoided by careful classroom management and lesson planning.
Objective test
A test which has a limited, predictable and definite number of possible answers and
therefore only requires the marker(s) to follow a marking key.
Objectives
Statements of what the learners should be able to do in the language by a certain
point. For example: By the end of the lesson the learners will be able to order meal in
a restaurant and get what they want without causing problems for the waiter or
themselves. Ideally, objectives should be measurable and stated in terms of the target
language.
Open-ended questioning
As it suggests technique of questioning where the answer is not automatically
predictable. This may be achieved in the form of learners making suggestions,
expressing opinions or ideas or judgmental utterances (e.g. character interpretation). It
is often preferable to ask “What don't you like about Cartoon Network" than merely to
ask questions like “What are your favourite cartoon characters?”, although this is,
indeed, an example of an open-ended question.
Over-correction
Correcting so much that students become reluctant to try out what they have learned.
Peer correction
Also known as peer review, peer editing, or peer feedback; in writing, an activity
whereby students help each other with the editing of a composition by giving each
other feedback, making comments or suggestions; can be done in pairs or small
groups.
Placement tests
Tests used to place students in a specific language program; such tests should reflect
program levels and expectations for students at each proficiency level offered by the
language program.
PPP
The well-known abbreviation for a common language teaching methodology where
language is central (structure/function or lexical area), and is ‘identifiable’ as the
‘target’ item PRESENTATION - PRACTICE – PRODUCTION. It is common (in
disguised form) in most modern textbooks, aiming for a natural, sub-conscious
assimilation of target language in the presentation phase with focus on the particular
item in the practice phase and then (controlled or freer) production when learners
seem to have assimilated satisfactorily. (See below)
Presentation: the stage of a lesson when the teacher actively teaches particular
language points through demonstration, exemplification, explanation, description,
definition, etc.
Practice: exercises, activities, drills, etc. designed to give the learners opportunities to
produce correct sentences which include particular language items or structures they
have recently been taught.
Production: (1) the use of language; (2) the section of a lesson/unit requiring the
learners to use particular language skills or items. Usually production comes after
presentation and practice of the teaching point but in some ‘modern’ approaches
production comes first and then the teacher decides what to present and practice.
Pair-work
A well-known technique using the idea that LTT (Learner Talking Time) will be
extended if learners do activities in pairs. These may range from doing something
together (matching, gap-filling or grammar exercise) to doing a real ‘information-gap’
or ‘problem-solving’ activity.
Pre-... activity
As in ‘pre-listening activity’. An activity (often short) which leads in to the main
focus activity. It may be used with any of the 4 main skills and may take the form of
predicting (anticipating), looking at lists, selecting, looking at questions, vocabulary
focus etc.
Pre-teaching
A conscious focus on certain areas (structure/lexis) that will occur in a following text
or listening text. Pre-teaching vocabulary used to be a technique which was a ‘sine
qua non’ of approaching any new text, often in the form of isolation, explanation and
translation. In communicative approaches, it may be subsumed under
contextualisation or pre-... activities.
Problem-solving
A task for learners to try to solve (often in pairs or groups); the starting-point is
identical but learners may come up with different solutions and different emphases
(linguistically and from content point of view). Teacher's role in monitoring and
getting feedback is crucial.
Productive skills
Speaking and writing, i.e. those skills requiring production of language.
Proficiency level
Describes how well a student can use the language (often categorized as beginner,
intermediate or advanced).
Proficiency tests
General tests that provide overall information on a student’s language proficiency
level or ability; can be used to determine entry and exit levels of a language program
or to adjust the curriculum according to the abilities of the students.
Rapport
Usually pronounced in the French way (rapo:) to convey the classroom atmosphere
and the way the teacher and learners behave towards one another and how "naturally"
the learning environment may be experienced.
Realia
A name for real-world objects that are brought in to the classroom as tools or aids.
Receptive skills
Listening and reading, i.e. those skills requiring the ability to receive communication
but not to produce it. Also called passive skills.
Reliability (of a test)
One of the criteria by which we judge the quality of a test. We say that a test is
reliable if it is consistent from person to person, time to time or place to place, the
same learners on 2 or 3 occasions get the same score each time.
Role-card
An item of material where the role for a subsequent role-play activity is written on a
card for the ‘character’. Depending on student level, the role described may be
restricted or very freely outlined. The objectives of this phase of the lesson should be
carefully considered as well as the teacher's role as monitor and guide.
Role plays
A kind of freer practice activity, a simulated situation designed to give students
practice in real world English. Imagining the class is a restaurant where some students
play customers and some are waiters is an example of a role play.
RP
Received Pronunciation: a UK pronunciation variety, originally from south-east
England, but sometimes seen as a kind of standard educated pronunciation. UK-
published coursebooks mainly offer RP on their recordings.
Scanning
A technique in reading skills' development where a text is read (looked at) fairly
quickly in order to find specific information. The idea is to develop learners' abilities
to consider the discourse and information-structure of a text in a non-linear manner. In
real-life situations the reader does not plough through every word and sentence in
order to find whatever he/she is looking for. A criticism is that learners who
frequently do scanning activities without more detailed text comprehension activities
cannot discriminate between primary and subsidiary information in a text. Another
criticism is that language areas of potential difficulty or exploitation may be ‘passed
over’ without comment as they do not form part of the scanning exercise or activity
itself.
Skimming
A further technique in reading where the reader very quickly looks at the text to
ascertain a very fundamental idea or feature of the text. Although interpretations
differ, skimming is often referred to as ‘reading for gist’ although the use of the word
‘reading’ is perhaps misleading! Imagine you see a headline “The Black Death” in a
newspaper - you might look at the text to see if it is an historical account or if it is the
title of a new novel or an article on oil pollution affecting wild-life or something else
entirely. You do not ‘read’ the text as such to get your answer.
Stage
One distinct part of a lesson, usually a single activity. Stages may link together to help
make a complete lesson.
Subjective test
A test which requires the marker(s) to evaluate and not just to follow a mark sheet,
e.g. a test involving writing an essay.
Syllabus or curriculum
The longer-term teaching plan; includes topics that will be covered and the order in
which they will be covered in a course or program of studies.
Task
Usually synonymous with ‘activity’ but a task generally has a language-based focus
and is not merely an activity to add variety, fluidity or pace to a lesson.
Task-based learning
A relatively new concept or quasi-methodology where the completion of tasks,
without pre-conceived ideas of language areas involved/used and where the outcome
is dependent on the learner's own contemplation and structuring of the task. The initial
and still most influential approach is that outlined by N.S. Prabhu in Second Language
Pedagogy, 1987.
Teacher-centredness
A term to describe how a teacher may still dominate the action and direction of a
lesson. It is contrary to contemporary thinking but is still common. Think of how
teachers often give grammatical explanations, outline the plot of a novel or the traits
of characters in literary texts or give bibliographical background on authors etc. Much
of this information may be superfluous or, at least, obtainable in a more active way by
the learner. The teacher-centred classroom may also manifest phenomena such as
teachers interrupting pupils in full flow, teachers answering their own questions
without giving time for students to think about the answer or teachers telling learners
what to think about certain topics! It is easier for the teacher to dominate than to shift
responsibility to the learner!
TEFL vs. TESL
TEFL is an acronym for Teaching English as a Foreign Language; TESL, for
Teaching English as a Second Language. See a fuller description at English language
learning and teaching. TEFL usually takes place in non-English-speaking countries,
while TESL takes place in the English-speaking world. When we speak of English as
a foreign language (EFL), we are referring to the role of English for learners in a
country where English is not spoken by the majority (what Braj Kachru calls the
expanding circle). English as a second language (ESL) refers to the role of English for
learners in an English-speaking country, i.e. usually immigrants. This difference is
very important, because it strongly affects student motivation. In particular, it affects
their motivation to learn.
Testing
An apparently self-evident term but, in fact, a highly complex set of notions related to,
amongst other things, what sort of test needs to be administered? Is it valid and
reliable? Is it fair and well-constructed? Does it achieve what the tester intended?
Teachers usually develop their own rationale about testing which may (or may not) be
justified. In language teaching, testing should be seen to complement learning and be
instructive to learner and teacher alike.
Top-down information processing
Students learn partially through top-down information processing, or processing based
on how students make sense of language input – for example, through using students’
previous knowledge or schema.
Voice projection
A crucial element in classroom management and control for all teachers. This implies
knowing how to use a full range of projections within the classroom to get the
message across and achieve the best responses from learners.
Warm-up/Warmer
Name given to a type of activity done (usually but not exclusively) at the beginning of
a lesson to warm up the atmosphere. It may have a revision, consolidation or purely
rapport-building focus. It may or may not have particular language in mind although
the best warmers can be shaped to include certain types or areas of language. For
example, “One thing 1 really like about X” usually stimulates learners to think of
adjectives or simple present form but may not automatically. A warmer like “What's
the time, Mr Wolf?” may be a reinforcement of numbers but may have more of a
social purpose. Warmers should ideally be brief, easy to prepare and warm learners
up- not dampen their enthusiasm with feelings of lack of success, losing or failure.

APPENDIX 2

Common European Framework of reference for Languages (CEFR)

Basic language user: A0, A1, A2

CEFR – A0
You are at Absolute beginner level if you have…
No knowledge of the language to be studied at all.

CEFR - A1
You are at ‘Breakthrough’ Beginner level if you can…
- Understand and use familiar expressions and very basic phrases aimed at meeting
your everyday needs
- Introduce yourself to others and can ask and answer questions about personal details
such as where you live, people you know and things you have
- Interact in a simple way if the other person talks slowly and clearly and is prepared
to help
Other standards approximately equivalent to CEFR A1:
TOEFL: 8-12 (speaking)
TOEIC: 60-105 (listening); 60-110 (reading)
Cambridge Exam: KET 45-59
British general qualifications: Foundation Tier GCSE

CEFR - A2
You are at ‘Waystage’ Elementary level if you can…
- Understand sentences and frequently used expressions related to areas of most
immediate relevance (for example, very basic personal and family information,
shopping, local geography, employment)
- Communicate in simple and routine tasks requiring a simple and direct exchange of
information on familiar and routine matters
- Describe in simple terms aspects of your background, immediate environment and
matters in areas of immediate need
Other standards approximately equivalent to CEFR A2:
TOEFL: 13-18 (speaking), 11-16 (writing)
TOEIC: 110-270 (listening), 115-270 (reading)
Cambridge Exam: PET (45 to 59) / KET Pass with Merit, Pass
British general qualifications: Higher Tier GCSE

Independent language user: B1, B2

CEFR - B1
You are at ‘Threshold’ Intermediate level if you have…
- Understand the main points of clear standard input on familiar matters regularly
encountered in work, school, leisure, etc
- Deal with most situations likely to arise while travelling in an area where the
language is spoken
- Produce simple connected text on topics which are familiar or of personal interest
- Describe experiences, events, dreams, hopes and ambitions, and briefly give reasons
and explanations for opinions and plans
Other standards approximately equivalent to CEFR B1:
IELTS: 4-5 (5 is borderline between B1 and B2)
TOEFL: 57 to 86
TOEIC: 275 - 395 (listening), 275 - 380 (reading)
Cambridge Exam: FCE (45 to 59) / PET Pass with Merit, Pass / KET Pass with
Distinction
British general qualifications: GCE AS level / lower grade A-level
CEFR - B2
You are at ‘Vantage’ Upper-intermediate level if you can…
- Understand the main ideas of complex text on both concrete and abstract topics,
including technical discussions in your field of specialisation
- Interact with a degree of fluency and spontaneity that makes regular interaction with
native speakers quite possible without strain for either party
- Produce clear, detailed text on a wide range of subjects and explain a viewpoint on a
topical issue giving the advantages and disadvantages of various options
Other standards approximately equivalent to CEFR B2 ;
IELTS: 5-6.5 (5 is borderline between B1 and B2)
TOEFL: 87 to 109
TOEIC: 400-485 (listening), 385-450 (reading)
Cambridge Exam: CAE (45 to 59) / FCE grade B or C / PET Pass with Distinction
British general qualifications: GCE A-Level (known as A2)

Proficient language user: C1, C2

CEFR - C1
You are at ‘Effective operational proficiency’ Advanced level if you have…
- Understand a wide range of demanding, longer texts, and recognise implicit meaning
- Express yourself fluently and spontaneously without much obvious searching for
expressions
- Use language flexibly and effectively for social, academic and professional purposes
- Produce clear, well-structured, detailed text on complex subjects, showing controlled
use of organisational patterns, connectors and cohesive devices
Other standards approximately equivalent to CEFR C1:
IELTS: 7-8 (8 is borderline between C1 and C2)
TOEFL: 110 to 120
TOEIC: 490-495 (listening), 455-495 (reading)
Cambridge Exam: CPE (45 to 59) / CAE grade B or C / FCE grade A

CEFR - C2
You are at ‘Mastery’ Proficiency level if you can…
- Understand with ease virtually everything heard or read
- Summarise information from different spoken and written sources, reconstructing
arguments and accounts in a coherent presentation
- Express yourself spontaneously, very fluently and precisely, differentiating finer
shades of meaning, even in the most complex situations
Other standards approximately equivalent to CEFR C2:
IELTS: 8-9 (8 is borderline between C1 and C2)
TOEFL: 29-30 (reading)
Cambridge Exam: CPE grade A, B or C / CAE grade A

(Source of language learning standards approximately equivalent to CEFR: Wikipedia)

APPENDIX 3

Do the following VAK questionnaire. All the answers are Yes or No. Tick just one
answer per question. To get the best results honesty is very important.

Learning Styles Yes No

1 When you are describing a party/holiday to a friend, do you describe the
music, sounds and noise you experienced?
2 Do you use your hands when you speak?
3 To keep up with the news/sport, do you prefer the radio or TV rather
than reading a newspaper?
4 When you use a computer, do you find the visual prompts useful, eg the
icons/pictures in the tool bars, highlights and underlines, etc?
5 When you have to take down information, do you prefer drawing
diagrams and pictures to writing notes?
6 When you play noughts and crosses or draughts, can you picture the ‘o’
and ‘x’ or counters in different positions?
7 Do you like to take objects apart and repair things, eg your bike,
engines, etc?
8 When you are trying to remember the spelling of a word, do you tend to
jot it down a few times in different ways until you find the one which
looks right?
9 When you are learning something new, do you like spoken instructions,
talks and/or lectures?
10 Do you like making things?
11 When using a computer, do you find the bleeps and sounds useful to tell
you that you have done something wrong or to show when you have
finished something?
12 When you revise/study or are learning something new, do you like to
use diagrams and/or pictures?
13 Are you quick and efficient at copying information down?
14 If something is said to you, do you usually remember it, without it being
repeated?
15 In your spare time do you like doing something physically active eg
sport, walking, gardening, etc?
16 When you have spare time, do you like to listen to music?
17 When you are looking at a shop display, do you prefer to look around
peacefully on your own?
18 Do you find it easier to remember people’s names than their faces?
19 When you spell, do you usually have to write the word down?
20 Do you like to be able to move around when you are working?
21 Do you learn to spell by saying the words out loud?
22 When you are describing a party/holiday to a friend, do you describe
what people looked like, what they were wearing and the colours?
23 When starting a new task, do you like to get on and do something
straight away?
24 Do you learn well by watching someone demonstrate a particular skill?
25 Does saying things out loud help you to learn?
26 Do you like showing people how to do something as opposed to writing
a series of instructions?
27 Do you like role play and acting things out?
28 Do you prefer to go out and about to find information rather than sitting
in the library or at your PC?
29 When you visit a shop, do you enjoy talking about the items on display,
and listening to the comments of others?
30 Do you find it easy to follow a map?
31 Do you feel that one of the best ways to appreciate goods in a shop is to
be able to reach out and touch them?
32 When you read a story or an article in a magazine do you picture the
scene in your mind?
33 Do you tend to hum, or talk to yourself, when completing tasks?
34 Do you look at the pictures in magazines before deciding what to read?
35 When you are planning a new journey, do you like to talk to someone to
find out where to go?
36 Have you always found it difficult to stay still for long and prefer
generally to be active?
(Professional Development - VAK Learning styles questionnaire:
http://www.staffs.ac.uk/sgc1/faculty/personal-skills/documents/learning_styles_questionnaire.pdf)

Now determine your learning style.

Circle only the number of the questions that you answered YES to:
4 1 2
6 3 5
8 9 7
12 11 10
13 14 15
17 16 19
22 18 20
24 21 23
26 25 27
 30 29 28
32 33 31
34 35 36
Total circled _____ Total circled _____ Total circled _____
Visual/Seeing Auditory/Listening Kinaesthetic/Doing

APPENDIX 4
Multiple Intelligences Survey
© 1999 Walter McKenzie, The One and Only Surfaquarium
http://surfaquarium.com/MI/inventory.htm
Part I
Complete each section by placing a “1” next to each statement you feel accurately
describes you. If you do not identify with a statement, leave the space provided blank.
Then total the column in each section.

Section 1
_____ I enjoy categorizing things by common traits
_____ Ecological issues are important to me
_____ Classification helps me make sense of new data
_____ I enjoy working in a garden
_____ I believe preserving our National Parks is important
_____ Putting things in hierarchies makes sense to me
_____ Animals are important in my life
_____ My home has a recycling system in place
_____ I enjoy studying biology, botany and/or zoology
_____ I pick up on subtle differences in meaning

_____ TOTAL for Section 1

Section 2
_____ I easily pick up on patterns
_____ I focus in on noise and sounds
_____ Moving to a beat is easy for me
_____ I enjoy making music
_____ I respond to the cadence of poetry
_____ I remember things by putting them in a rhyme
_____ Concentration is difficult for me if there is background noise
_____ Listening to sounds in nature can be very relaxing
_____ Musicals are more engagingto me than dramatic plays
_____ Remembering song lyrics is easy for me

_____ TOTAL for Section 2

Section 3
_____ I am known for being neat and orderly
_____ Step-by-step directions are a big help
_____ Problem solving comes easily to me
_____ I get easily frustrated with disorganized people
_____ I can complete calculations quickly in my head
_____ Logic puzzles are fun
_____ I can't begin an assignment until I have all my "ducks in a row"
_____ Structure is a good thing
_____ I enjoy troubleshooting something that isn't working properly
_____ Things have to make sense to me or I am dissatisfied

_____ TOTAL for Section 3

Section 4
_____ It is important to see my role in the “big picture” of things
_____ I enjoy discussing questions about life
_____ Religion is important to me
_____ I enjoy viewing art work
_____ Relaxation and meditation exercises are rewarding to me
_____ I like traveling to visit inspiring places
_____ I enjoy reading philosophers
_____ Learning new things is easier when I see their real world application
_____ I wonder if there are other forms of intelligent life in the universe
_____ It is important for me to feel connected to people, ideas and beliefs

_____ TOTAL for Section 4

Section 5
_____ I learn best interacting with others
_____ I enjoy informal chat and serious discussion
_____ The more the merrier
_____ I often serve as a leader among peers and colleagues
_____ I value relationships more than ideas or accomplishments
_____ Study groups are very productive for me
_____ I am a “team player”
_____ Friends are important to me
_____ I belong to more than three clubs or organizations
_____ I dislike working alone

_____ TOTAL for Section 5

Section 6
_____ I learn by doing
_____ I enjoy making things with my hands
_____ Sports are a part of my life
_____ I use gestures and non-verbal cues when I communicate
_____ Demonstrating is better than explaining
_____ I love to dance
_____ I like working with tools
_____ Inactivity can make me more tired than being very busy
_____ Hands-on activities are fun
_____ I live an active lifestyle

_____ TOTAL for Section 6

Section 7
_____ Foreign languages interest me
_____ I enjoy reading books, magazines and web sites
_____ I keep a journal
_____ Word puzzles like crosswords or jumbles are enjoyable
_____ Taking notes helps me remember and understand
_____ I faithfully contact friends through letters and/or e-mail
_____ It is easy for me to explain my ideas to others
_____ I write for pleasure
_____ Puns, anagrams and spoonerisms are fun
_____ I enjoy public speaking and participating in debates

_____ TOTAL for Section 7

Section 8
_____ My attitude effects how I learn
_____ I like to be involved in causes that help others
_____ I am keenly aware of my moral beliefs
_____ I learn best when I have an emotional attachment to the subject
_____ Fairness is important to me
_____ Social justice issues interest me
_____ Working alone can be just as productive as working in a group
_____ I need to know why I should do something before I agree to do it
_____ When I believe in something I give more effort towards it
_____ I am willing to protest or sign a petition to right a wrong

_____ TOTAL for Section 8

Section 9
_____ I can visualize ideas in my mind
_____ Rearranging a room and redecorating are fun for me
_____ I enjoy creating my own works of art
_____ I remember better using graphic organizers
_____ I enjoy all kinds of entertainment media
_____ Charts, graphs and tables help me interpret data
_____ A music video can make me more interested in a song
_____ I can recall things as mental pictures
_____ I am good at reading maps and blueprints
_____ Three dimensional puzzles are

_____ TOTAL for Section 9

Part II
Now carry forward your total from each section and multiply by 10 below:

Section Total Multiply Score

Forward
1 X 10
2 X 10
3 X 10
4 X 10
5 X 10
6 X 10
7 X 10
8 X 10
9 X 10

Part III
Now plot your scores on the bar graph provided:

100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0 Sec 1 Sec 2 Sec 3 Sec 4 Sec 5 Sec 6 Sec 7 Sec 8 Sec 9

Part IV
Now determine your intelligence profile!

Key:
Section 1 – This reflects your Naturalist strength
Section 2 – This suggests your Musical strength
Section 3 – This indicates your Logical strength
Section 4 – This illustrates your Existential strength
Section 5 – This shows your Interpersonal strength
Section 6 – This tells your Kinesthetic strength
Section 7 – This indicates your Verbal strength
Section 8 – This reflects your Intrapersonal strength
Section 9 – This suggests your Visual strength
Remember:
� Everyone has all the intelligences!
� You can strengthen an intelligence!
� This inventory is meant as a snapshot in time – it can change!
� M.I. is meant to empower, not label people!

APPENDIX 5
WHAT MAKES A GOOD TEACHER?

Look at the chart below. There are 25 statements made by pupils and a teacher about
what they think makes a good teacher. Consider each one carefully. Then, put a tick in
the column marked  against the 6 qualities which you think are the most important.
Now decide which of your 6 choices you think is most important and which is least
important in the column headed ‘order of importance’.
CHARACTERISTICS  ORDER OF
IMPORTANCE
A good teacher:
1. is patient, understanding, kind and sympathetic.
2. is young in heart.
3. uses the cane or strap when necessary.
4. knows where to find the things he/she wants.
5. encourages you to work hard at school.
6. knows a great deal about the subject he/she is
teaching.
7. is cheerful and good-tempered.
8. takes an interest in you as an individual.
9. makes certain that the classroom is tidy and
attractive.
10. is strict and doesn’t allow ‘playing about’.
11. has no favourites.
12. explains the work you have to do and helps
you with it.
13. is able to organize all kinds of activities in the
classroom.
14. lets you have some of your own way.
15. has work ready for you as soon as you get into
the classroom.
16. looks nice and dresses well.
17. gives interesting lessons.
18. makes sure you have the pens, paper and
books you need.
19. never uses corporal punishment.
20. gives you time in the lesson to finish your
work.
21. has sense of humour.
22. is well-mannered and polite.
23. is interested in your opinion.
24. is friendly with pupils in and out of school.
25. praises you for behaving well and working
hard.

(adapted from Society and the Teachers’ Role by Musgrove and Taylor)
APPENDIX 6
APPENDIX 7