AAE-EV0001

Hydrogen
Technology D
Fuel cells
Olli Himanen
Learning outcomes

After this lecture you should know:

- main fuel cell technologies
- FC applications
Fuel cell?
 Fuel cell
• Electrochemical device that converts
chemical energy of fuel and oxidant into
electricity and heat
• Not a thermal power device

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Why fuel cells?
 Why fuel cell?
• High efficiency, >60%
• High efficiency reached already in kW scale
• No SOx, NOx, PM, HC emissions
• Low noise and vibration levels
• Can be operated with multiple fuels: H2, CH4,
biogas, methanol, ethanol, ammonia, etc.

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Hydrogen economy
• Indirect electrification to reduce GHG emissions
• Hydrogen must be produced with small GHG emissions
• Enables sector coupling (electricity, heat, energy storage, transport, industry,
etc.)
• Example applications for clean/green hydrogen
• Replace current fossil hydrogen
• Decarbonize industrial applications (eg. steel making)
• Transport fuel (as such or as synthetic methane, methanol, ammonia, diesel, jet-
fuel,…)
• Needs huge amount of clean electricity!
• Currently 99% of global hydrogen is produced from fossil sources. Hydrogen is
mainly used in oil refineries and to produce ammonia and methanol. Replacing
this with electrolysis, would require 4000 TWh of electricity (more than
electricity production in EU!)

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Why hydrogen is now a hot topic?

• Reduction of GHG emissions (international agreements, national

targets, companies’ targets)
• Increased capacity of renewable electricity, cost reduction
• EU-regulation and plans (RED, CVD, AFID, REPowerEU,…)
• RRF, Innovation Fund, national investement supports,…
• Self-sufficiency, security of supply
Emissions of hydrogen production
• Globally ~99% of hydrogen is produced from fossil sources
• Hydrogen production via water electrolysis needs large
amounts of renewable energy capacity
• Current electricity grid mixes may result in higher GHG
footprint than fossil-based routes

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Different fuel cell technologies
Technology Electrolyte Temperature Typical applications
PEMFC proton conducting membrane 20-80 ºC cars, trucks
DMFC proton conducting membrane 20-80 ºC portable
HT-PEM proton conducting membrane 130-180 ºC stationary
AFC aqueous solution of KOH 20-90 ºC space
PAFC phosphoric acid 150-200 ºC stationary
MCFC molten sodium and potassium carbonate 600-850 ºC stationary
SOFC yttria stablized zirconium oxide 600-850 ºC stationary

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Single cell structure

• Anode (fuel electrode), electrolyte (ion

conductor), cathode (air/oxygen electrode).
• Flow channels to transport reactants to
electrodes and remove reaction products
• Gaskets for gas tightness
• Typically ~0.6-1.0 V, 0.2-2 A/cm2. Power
density ~0.25-1.5 W/cm2

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Single cell voltage
• Basic iV-curve or polarization curve of a fuel cell shows cell
voltage as a function of current density.
• Voltage decreases due to several loss-mechanisms: leakages,
side reactions, electrode kinetics, ohmic losses, mass transport
losses

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Fuel cell stack
• In practical applications, typical power level is in kW - MW range.
• Cells are connected in series to form a fuel cell stack (from tens to
hundreds of cells in series using interconnect/bipolar plates
• Interconnect/bipolar plates enable equal distribution of fuel and air,
connect cells electrically in series and provide mechanical support for
cells
• Gaskets are needed to minimize fuel and air leakages

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Fuel cell system

• Fuel cell stack(s)

• Fuel subsystem to provide correct amount of fuel to the stack (flow,
temperature, humidity, pressure, composition,…). Includes typically
flow controllers, heat exchangers, humidifiers, pressure controllers,
sensors, valves, filters, etc.
• Air subsystem
• Power electronics, DC-DC, DC-AC, battery
• Cooling system/heat recovery
• Control system
• Etc.

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Fuel cell technologies
Technology Electrolyte Temperature Typical applications
PEMFC proton conducting membrane 20-80 ºC cars, trucks
DMFC proton conducting membrane 20-80 ºC portable
HT-PEM proton conducting membrane 130-180 ºC stationary
AFC aqueous solution of KOH 20-90 ºC space
PAFC phosphoric acid 150-200 ºC stationary
MCFC molten sodium and potassium carbonate 600-850 ºC stationary
SOFC yttria stablized zirconium oxide 600-850 ºC stationary

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SOFC, Solid Oxide Fuel Cell

• Operating temperature ~500-800 ºC

• Hydrocarbon fuel reformed to hydrogen with Ni catalyst
• Hydrogen oxidized at Ni-YSZ anode
• Oxygen reduced at the cathode
• Oxygen ions transported through the YSZ electrolyte

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SOFC single cells

• Anode (600 - 750 ºC) and electrolyte supported (750 – 900 ºC)
• Porous Ni-YSZ anode
– Ni catalyst and electron conductor, YSZ ion conductor
• Dense YSZ electrolyte, ion conductor
• Porous LSM-YSZ, LSCF, LSC, etc. cathode
• Typically ~0.9 V, 0.3 A/cm2, 0.25 W/cm2 .
• Can be used also in electrolysis

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SOFC stacks

• Cells are connected in series to form a fuel cell stack using interconnect plates
• IC-plates enable equal distribution of fuel and air, connect cells electrically in
series and provide mechanical support for cells. Material Cr-Ni steel alloys.
• Gaskets are needed to minimize fuel and air leakages. Materials: glass, glass-
ceramic, compressible silicate minerals (Mica)

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SOFC stack example, Elcogen Oy

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SOFC fuel processing

Steam reforming reaction highly endothermic

• CH4+H2O→CO+3H2 (+206 kJ/mol)
• Nickel catalyst and >550 ºC needed
Water-gas shift reaction exothermic
• CO+H2O →CO2+H2 (-41 kJ/mol)
• Nickel also good catalyst
Combining these two leads to
• CH4+2H2O→CO2+4H2 (+167 kJ/mol)
Hydrogen oxidation highly exothermic (-244 kJ/mol)

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SOFC fuel processing

• Natural gas or biogas is typically partly reformed (~10-20%) before

feeding it to the SOFC stack, why?
• Reforming reaction in the prereformer or in the stack needs steam.
Where to get that steam?
– Should not complicate the system too much
– Long service interval and low maintenance costs
– Should not decrease system efficiency

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SOFC fuel processing
• Typically (70-90%) of the fuel is used in electrochemical reactions,
rest is burned in the afterburner unit and used to produce heat for the
system and external consumption
• Why not to use 100% of the fuel in electrochemical reactions to
maximize fuel utilization and produced electricity?

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SOFC system example
• Design a SOFC system, especially fuel and air flows
– Gas heating, processing
– Fuel recycling
– Afterburner for excess fuel
– SOFC stack (air inlet and outlet, fuel inlet and outlet)

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SOFC system example
• Example simplified layout of VTT’s 10 kW SOFC system

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SOFC system example
• VTT’s 10 kW SOFC system

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SOFC system example

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Example SOFC system

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 PEM Fuel Cell
• PEM=Polymer Electrolyte
Membrane/Proton Exchange Membrane
• Clean hydrogen as a fuel, ambient air as
an oxidant
• Operating temperature ~20-80 ºC
• Used in cars, buses, ships, forklifts,
backup power, etc.

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 PEMFC single cell
• Proton conducting membrane (Nafion®)
• Conducts protons, electrical insulator
• Platinum catalyst, ~10-50 g in FC cars
• Example: Gore-Select MEA, 18 µm
membrane, ~0.2 mg/cm2 Pt

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PEM Fuel cell stack
• Multiple single cells connected in series to
reach higher voltage and power (up to
hundreds of kWs)
• Bipolar plates made of stainless steel or
graphite, fuel channels on one side and air
channels on the other ->bipolar

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PEM fuel cell system layout

From Kaj Nikiforow’s dissertation:

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PEM fuel cell system
Example: 200 kW Ballard FC Wave,
DNV approved for marine applications

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Fuel cell cars
Example: BMW iX5 Hydrogen, 125 kW fuel cell system, 275 kW with a buffer
battery
• ~6 kg H2, range 504 km, refill time 3-4 min
• High-performance battery <10 kWh

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PEMFC efficiency
2016 Toyota Mirai, measured by Argonne NL

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Source: Volkswagen

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Different skills needed with FCs and electrolyzers
• Materials and corrosion
• System components (operating limits and parameters)
• Process engineering and design
• Electrochemistry
• Mechanical engineering
• Power electronics
• Thermal engineering
• Automation, control and diagnostics
• Modeling (CFD, thermal, mechanical, thermodynamics)
• Heat utilization
• Renewable electricity production
• Welding, thermal insulation
• Safety regulations
• Applications
• Business
• Etc. Etc. reformer
operating region
Your text here
dd.mm.yyyy
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Thank you very much!

Olli Himanen
Olli.p.Himanen@aalto.fi
Olli.Himanen@vtt.fi
+358403526298