Katarzyna Juda-Rezler

Warsaw University of Technology

TOP 10: Air pollutants which cause most concern

(supplementary material to lectures)

1. Sulphur dioxide (SO2): Coal, petroleum, and other fuels are often impure and
contain sulphur as well as organic (carbon-based) and mineral compounds. When
sulfur burns with oxygen from the air, SO2 is produced. Coal-fired power plants
and domestic furnaces are the biggest source of SO2, large amounts are also
produced by ships, which use dirtier diesel fuel than cars and trucks. SO2 affects
health and environment in many different ways. Sulphur dioxide air pollution
contributes to black smog, acid deposition, and health problems that include lung
disease. People with asthma are especially susceptible to the effects of sulphur
dioxide. SO2 is also causing injury to vegetation by direct exposure and local
species losses in aquatic and terrestrial systems by acidification. It damages
materials (building, monuments). Finally, SO2 is a precursor of secondary
particles. In troposphere SO2 is oxidized to sulphate (SO4−2) which is a major
secondary particle an also cooling factor in climate system.

2. Carbon monoxide (CO): This highly dangerous gas forms when fuels have too
little oxygen to burn completely. It spews out in car exhausts from gasoline-
fueled vehicles and other on-road and non-road mobile sources as well as from
domestic furnaces. It can also build up to dangerous levels inside home (poorly
maintained gas boiler, stove, or fuel-burning appliance). Exposure to CO reduces
the capacity of the blood to carry oxygen, thereby decreasing the supply of
oxygen to tissues and organs such as the heart. People with several types of heart
disease already have a reduced capacity for pumping oxygenated blood to the
heart, which can cause them to experience myocardial ischemia (reduced oxygen
to the heart). In the upper troposphere CO is oxidized to CO2 in the presence of
high intensity shortwave solar ultraviolet radiation. In this way, CO is also
“indirect greenhouse gas”, as it contributes to global warming by producing CO2,
which is a major greenhouse gas.

3. Carbon dioxide (CO2): This gas is central to everyday life and isn't normally
considered a pollutant: we all produce it when we breathe out and plants such
as crops and trees need to “breathe” it in to grow. However, carbon dioxide is also
a major greenhouse gas (GHG) released in massive amounts by industry, vehicle
exhausts and domestic sources. Since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution,
it’s been building up in Earth’s atmosphere and contributing to the problem of
global warming and climate change.

4. Nitrogen oxides (NOx = NO+ NO2): Nitrogen oxide (NO) and nitrogen dioxide
(NO2) are pollutants produced as an indirect result of combustion, when
nitrogen and oxygen from the air react together. They are emitted mainly from
industry (power plants) and from vehicle exhausts from cars, trucks, buses, and
non-road engines and equipment. Initially NO stand for ~90-95% of emitted
NOx. However, after emission NO is rapidly oxidized into NO2 in the troposphere,
that’s why they are considered together as NOx. Exposure to nitrogen dioxide has

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 been associated with a variety of health effects, including respiratory symptoms,
especially among asthmatic children, and respiratory-related emergency
department visits and hospital admissions, particularly for children and older
adults. NOx affect health and environment in many different ways: health and
ecosystems by direct exposure, but also plays an important role in the formation
of acid deposition, eutrophication and tropospheric ozone formation. Nitrogen
oxides are also “indirect greenhouse gases” (they contribute to global warming
by producing ozone, which is a greenhouse gas). Finally NOx are forming
secondary particles. In troposphere NOx are oxidized to nitrate (NO3−) which is a
major secondary particle.

5. Volatile organic compounds (VOCs): These carbon-based (organic) chemicals

evaporate easily at ordinary temperatures and pressures, so they readily become
gases. That’s precisely why they’re used as solvents in many different household
chemicals such as paints, waxes, and varnishes. VOCs are also released naturally
by vegetation (especially trees) and during wildfires. Unfortunately, VOCs are
also air pollutants: they’re believed to have long-term (chronic) effects on
people’s health and they play a role in the formation of secondary pollutants:
tropospheric ozone and secondary organic PM. Among VOCs species there is
benzene (C6H6) (see # 9).

6. Particulates (PM): Particulate Matter (PM) is a generic term for a broad class of
chemically and physically diverse substances that exist as discrete particles
(liquid droplets or solids) over a wide range of sizes, suspended in the air.
Particles originate from a variety of man-made stationary and mobile sources
(see below: traffic related particles), as well as from natural sources such as
forest fires. Particles may be emitted directly (primary PM), or may be formed in
the atmosphere (secondary PM) by transformations of gaseous emissions such as
oxides of sulphur (SOx), oxides of nitrogen (NOx), and volatile organic
compounds (VOCs). The chemical and physical properties of PM vary greatly with
time, region, meteorology, and the source of emissions. Particulates of different
sizes are referred to by the letters PM followed by a number, so PM10 means
particles of less than or equal to 10 micrometers (μm) in aerodynamic diameter,
roughly 10 times thinner than a thick human hair. PM10 represents inhalable
particles small enough to penetrate deeply into the lungs (i.e., thoracic particles).
PM10 is composed of a coarse fraction referred to as PM10-2.5 or as thoracic
coarse particles (i.e., particles with an aerodynamic diameter less than or equal to
10 μm and greater than 2.5 μm) and a fine fraction referred to as PM2.5 or fine
particles (i.e., particles with an aerodynamic diameter less than or equal to 2.5
μm). Thoracic coarse particles are emitted largely as a result of mechanical
processes and uncontrolled burning. Important sources include resuspended
dust (e.g., resuspended by cars, wind, etc.), industrial processes, construction and
demolition operations, residential burning, and wildfires. Fine particles are
formed chiefly by combustion processes (e.g., from power plants, gas and diesel
engines, domestic wood and coal combustion, and many industrial processes)
and by atmospheric reactions of gaseous pollutants (secondary particles). The
smaller (“finer”) the particulates, the deeper they travel into human lungs and the
more dangerous they are. Although scientific evidence links harmful human
health effects with exposures to both fine particles and thoracic coarse particles,
the evidence is much stronger for fine particles. Effects associated with
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 exposures to both PM2.5 and PM10-2.5 include premature mortality, aggravation
of respiratory and cardiovascular disease and lung cancer. Several epidemiology
studies have correlated adverse health responses with increased concentrations
of carbonaceous species in the PM as well as with the presence of trace elements
(TE) among them heavy metals (HM). (see #8)

7. Ozone (O3): Also called trioxygen, this is a type of oxygen gas whose molecules
are made from three oxygen atoms joined together, instead of just the two atoms
in conventional oxygen (O2). Ozone is a natural constituent of atmospheric air
with its maximum concentration in stratosphere (“the ozone layer”), that
protects the earth from harmful wavelengths of solar ultraviolet radiation. At
ground level, its present concentrations are much higher than natural levels, due
to its formation in the photochemical reaction chain as secondary pollutant. It
forms through the reaction of pollutants (NOx, VOCs, CO and others) emitted by
industrial facilities, electric utilities, and motor vehicle exhausts; chemicals that
are precursors to ozone formation can also be emitted by natural sources,
particularly trees and other plants (as VOCs). Tropospheric ozone is a toxic
pollutant for both human health, crops and vegetation (particularly trees). Short-
term exposure to tropospheric (ground-level) ozone can cause a variety of
respiratory health effects, including shortness of breath; it can also increase
susceptibility to respiratory infection and is associated with premature mortality.
Long-term exposure to ozone can permanently damage lung tissue. O3 damages
vegetation, impairing plant reproduction and growth, and decreasing crop yields.
Finally, ozone is a greenhouse gas contributing to warming of the atmosphere.

8. Lead (Pb) and other heavy metals (HMs) (especially: arsenic (As), cadmium
(Cd), mercury (Hg) and nickel (Ni)). Arsenic is not a heavy metal per se but it is
regularly added to the list of heavy metals, based on its toxicity. HMs are released
to the atmosphere from combustion processes and industrial activities. They
reside in or are attached to thoracic particutates (PM10). As well as polluting
the air, HMs are deposited on terrestrial or water surfaces and subsequently
buildup in soils or sediments. They are persistent in the environment (meaning
they cannot be broken down over time) and may bio-accumulate in food-chains
(see below: bioaccumulation).

• Pb: Historically, the major source of lead emissions to the air was
combustion of leaded gasoline in motor vehicles. Following the
elimination of leaded gasoline, the remaining sources of lead air emissions
have been industrial sources and domestic furnaces. Lead accumulates in
bones, blood, and soft tissues of the body. Exposure to Pb can affect
development of the central nervous system in young children, resulting in
neurodevelopmental effects such as lowered IQ and behavioral problems.
It bioaccumulates and adversely impacts both terrestrial and aquatic
systems.

• Cd: Cadmium, especially cadmium oxide, is likely to be a carcinogen. It

may cause damage to the reproductive and respiratory systems. Toxic to
aquatic life. Cadmium is highly persistent in the environment and
bioaccumulates.

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 • As: Inorganic arsenic is a human carcinogen. It can lead to damage in the
blood, heart, liver and kidney. May also damage the peripheral nervous
system. Highly toxic to aquatic life, birds and land animals. Organic arsenic
compounds are persistent in the environment and subject to
bioaccumulation.

• Hg: Mercury can damage the liver, the kidneys and the digestive and
respiratory systems. It can also cause brain and neurological damage and
impair growth. It bioaccumulates and adversely impacts both terrestrial
and aquatic systems.

• Ni: Several nickel compounds are classified as human carcinogens. It

may cause allergic skin reactions, as well as affects the respiratory,
immune and defense systems. Nickel and its compounds can have highly
acute and chronic toxic effects on aquatic life.

9. Harmful organic pollutants: especially benzene (C6H6) belonging to VOCs, and

PAH and PCDD, belonging to Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs):

• Benzene (C6H6): Incomplete combustion of fuels is the largest source of

benzene. It is an additive to petrol, and 80–85 % of C6H6 emissions are due
to vehicle traffic in Europe. Other sources of benzene include domestic
heating and oil refining, as well as the handling, distribution and storage of
petrol. Benzene is a human carcinogen, which can cause leukaemia and
birth defects. Can affect the central nervous system and normal blood
production, and can harm the immune system. It has also an acute toxic
effect on aquatic life. It bioaccumulates, especially in invertebrates. It can
damage leaves of agricultural crops and cause death in plants.

• Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs): are human-made chemicals that

last a long time in the environment and in our bodies and are
associated with many health impacts including cancers, allergies,
immune function, and neurodevelopment. Among them the most
important are:

1. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), in particular Benzo-

a-pyrene (BaP): BaP is a five-ring PAH and is found in fine
particulate matter that originates in incomplete combustion of
various fuels. The main sources of BaP in Europe are waste
burning, coke and steel production, vehicle exhausts, and domestic
home heating, in particular wood and coal burning. Other sources
include outdoor fires and rubber tyre wear. Prenatal exposure to
PAHs has been linked to significantly reduced birth weight in an
international study from Poland (Krakow) and USA (New York). 6
PAHs are carcinogenic to human, among them B(a)P. It is also
toxic to aquatic life and birds. Bioaccumulates, especially in
invertebrates.

2. Polychlorinated hydrocarbons, especially Polychlorinated

dibenzo-p-dioxins (PCDDs). They are mostly minor by-products

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 unintentionally produced during combustion. There have been
many incidents of dioxin pollution resulting from industrial
emissions and accidents. Dioxins are found throughout the world in
the environment and they accumulate in the food chain, mainly in
the fatty tissue of animals. Dioxins are highly toxic; there are 75
PCDD congeners, differing in the number and location of chlorine
atoms, and 7 of them are specifically toxic, the most toxic being
2,3,7,8-Tetrachlorodibenzodioxin (2,3,7,8 TCDD). They can cause
reproductive and developmental problems, damage the immune
system, interfere with hormones and also cause cancer (see more
in Lecture).

10. Other persistent organic pollutants: halogenated hydrocarbons

(halocarbons), especially chlorinated: chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs, freons),
hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs) and brominated: halons. They have been
widely used as refrigerants and as propellants in aerosol products. These species
are not directly harmful for humans and environment, however they destroy
the earth’s protective ozone layer (stratospheric ozone depletion), which
shields the earth from harmful ultraviolet (UV-B) rays generated from the sun.
This is possible as these species are persistent enough to be transported to
stratosphere where after their photolysis, free CI/Br atoms are released that
catalytically destroy ozone molecules. Stratospheric ozone absorbs UV-B
radiation, so its depletion allows more of this high energy radiation to reach the
Earth's surface which can result in potential harm to human health and the
environment, including: increased incidence of skin cancer and cataracts,
immune system damage, damage to terrestrial and aquatic plant life and
increased formation of ground-level ozone. CFCs and HCFCs are also greenhouse
gases, contributing to the problem of global warming and climate change. (see
more in Lecture).

*Important notices:

Traffic related particles can be distinguished into: exhaust traffic related particles, which
are emitted as a result of incomplete fuel combustion and lubricant volatilization during the
combustion procedure, and non-exhaust traffic related particles, which are either generated
from non-exhaust traffic related sources such as brake, tyre, clutchand road surface wear or
already exist in the environment as deposited material and become resuspended due to traffic
induced turbulence. It is estimated that exhaust and non-exhaust sources contribute almost
equally to total traffic-related PM10 emissions. However, as exhaust emissions control
become stricter, relative contributions of non-exhaust sources to traffic related emissions will
increasingly become more significant (JRC, 2014).

Bio-accumulation occurs where a substance is not excreted by an animal causing it to

accumulate over time in the animal’s body. This means the substance can eventually poison the
animal, and any other animals further up the food chain that consume it.

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Sources:
1. Juda-Rezler K., 2006: Air Pollutants Impact on the Environment. 2nd edition (in Polish).
Publishing House of Warsaw University of Technology, Warsaw 2006, 248 pp.
2. JRC, 2014: Grigoratos T. & Martini G., 2014. Non-exhaust traffic related emissions. Brake
and tyre wear PM, Literature review. Joint Research Centre Science and Policy Reports.
Publications Office of the European Union, Luxembourg 2014, 53 pp. doi:
10.2790/21481
3. EEA, 2013: Air quality in Europe — 2013 report. European Environment Agency Report,
Copenhagen 2013, 107 pp., doi:10.2800/92843
4. Web site: https://www.explainthatstuff.com/
5. Web site: www.epa.gov

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