GULLIES ON MARS

Roberto Bartali

ABSTRACT
Mars seems to be a dry planet because of its low temperature and low
atmospheric pressure, but it was wet in some time of its history and there are many
evidences that, under certain conditions, some liquid water is still flowing on its surface.
There is no doubt that, relatively large quantities of water ice, are present on the surface,
mainly in polar caps and in the subsurface.
Several spacecraft and exploration rovers are collecting data and analysing the
surface and subsurface looking for liquid water using different methods to assess the
amount of water present and where it is located.
I will explain briefly those methods and the evidences they found of the
existence of water on the red planet, as an introduction to the main topic of this work
focussed on the formation of gullies.
The study of gullies is very important because they are the youngest geologic
features observed on Mars and may contain the best evidence that liquid water is still
flowing today (probably cominig from deposits in the subsurface), even when it is in a
very low quantity and for a short period of time, respect to the past.
It is very difficult to make a definitive conclusion, because there are many
evidences that point to the presence of sub surface aquifers supplying gullies and
sometimes, forming new ones, but there are also several, and well supported, hypothesis
that not include a flow of water.

EVIDENCE OF WATER ON MARS

One and half centuries ago, Lowell and Schiapparelli, observed some features on
the surface of Mars, that they recognized, or interpreted, as channels and believed they
contain liquid water flowing from polar caps to equatorial latitudes, starting a whole set
of theories about martian’s life. When, in the decade of 1960 and 1970, several
spacecrafts, approached the red planet, images returned to Earth, showed that there were
neither channels, water nor life. The new scenario was an oxidized and dry desert.
Earlier measurements also showed that polar caps were filled with solid CO2.
New, measurements and technology improvements, showed (during the decade
of 1980 until now)
that both polar caps
(figures 1 and 2)
contain also large
quantity of water
ice [Titus 2004].
Several
spacecrafts and
exploration robots
were sent to assess,
not only, if really
there is water, but if
there is also (as a
direct consecuence)
some kind of life.
High resolution images and direct measurements on the surface, show that
Lowell and Schiapparelli saw large geologic fractures, not channels; but surprisingly,

1
channels exist inside craters and other geologic features, and, million of years ago, they
contained large amount of flowing water and large low and flat plaind may be filled by
steady water.
Today we know that Mars was very wet in the past and that there are, yet, water
because there are morfological, geological, mineralogical and spectrocopic evidences
for that.
Grady [Grady 2006] provides a good general summary of several water
evidences. I will give here a concise description of most important evidences, this is
because this section wants to be only an introduction showing that Mars was, and still
is, not as dry as it seems to be.

Morphologic evidences
Comparing satellite and high altitude images of Earth with those returned from
Mars by several spacecraft, it is evident that the coincidence of morphologies are very
strong. These includes river beds, rivers delta and tributaries(figure 3 and 4) [Baker
2006], showing
slow erosion that
are found all over
the southern oldest
and heavily
cratered regions.
While water can
not be stable under
present martian
climatic condition,
they may formed
by ground water flows, perhaps during a period of different
inclination of the rotation axis, when climate was hotter [ESA
1999].
Gullies, channels and valleys, aprons, flat surfaces
resembling lakes and ocean floors, plateaus, sedimentary strata,
outcrops, glacier displacements and morraines, on northern
highlands and on slopes in volcanic regions, show that, almost in
the past, large quantity of water flowed.
Mars morphology shows great differences, possibly due to
a large impact, during or soon after, the planet accretion. Northern
flat hemisphere looks very different from the higly cratered
Southern one. Possibly, billions to millions years ago, an immense
ocean covered the Northern hemisphere of Mars.
On our planet, Arctic glaciers [Lee 2006] and Antarctic dry
valleys [Head 2007; Morgan 2007; Dikson 2007], are places where
gullies are found and resembles martian present conditions.
A region called “Swiss Cheese terrain” in the South polar
region shows nearly circular depression of 8 meters, with a
remarkable uniformity and flatness [Malin 2001; Thomas 2000]
though to be composed of stable water ice covered by more
volatile CO2.

2
Black holes
This is a new discovery on the surface of the red planet, a hole with no rims over a flat
surface (figure 6). It consist of a near circular hole and judging by the absence of
shadows it seems to be very deep. There is no rim, so it is inconsistent with a meteoric
impact crater [Univ. Arizona 2007]. It is very similar, if not identical, to many features
localized in the San Luis Potosi and Oaxaca states of Mexico; the only difference is that
terrestrial “Sotano”, (figure 7 and 8) as they are called, are encircled by a dense

vegetation [Lazcano Sahagun 1986]. These holes are carved by vortex of liquid water in
a calcium rich rocks, but host rocks can be every kind of evaporites or carbonates.

Geologic features
Sedimentary depositions (figure 9), not seen from space, were observed and
analysed by the two rovers Spirit and Opportunity, but the latter landed really in the
right place, just in front of a large outcrop os sedimentary layers [Squyres 2004].
Sediment lamination are of different thickness, down to millimeter size, and the
composition of rocks, shows that they are sandstones consisting of reworked grains
cemented in a sulfate rich environment, there are also basalt mud showing some degree
of alteration. The sandstone is likely formed by dissecation [McLennan 2005].
The presence of festoon cross laminations (figure 10) in outcrops seems to be
formed by the reworking action of water during sedimentary deposition. Formations at
Eagle crater suggest a deposition secuence, upward, during several cycles of wetter
environments.

Large amount of concretions in the form of hematite spherules formed in a

groundwater and brine saturaded environment [Christensen 2004]. These spherules are

3
harder and denser than the rock matrix where they are found and contains large amount
of hematite (50% to 90%). Their dispersed presence and abundance is not consistent
with a formation derived by fusion during meteorite impacts or volcanic eruptions.
Many rocks in Meridiani Planum, relatively far from impact craters, show
poligonal textures which are fractures across bedding structures, that may not formed
during sedimentary deposition, but in a later evaporation or dehydration phase of salts
contained in the rocks. This rocks are flats and dispersed on the surface or partially
buried near the surface.
Sedimentary rock on Earth (figure 11) are very similar to those showed by
Opportunity images.

Spectroscopic measurements
One of the best evidences of water in the form of ice is gived by the Mars
Express OMEGA instrument [Mars Express 2006]. It demonstrated that the South polar
cap is composed by water ice covered by a thin
layer of frozen CO2 [Titus 2004], this is because
the light from the Sun is reflected with different
amount and at different wavelenghts depending
on the composition of the surface elements, so it
is possible to distinguish the presence of water,
CO2 and dust.
This discovery is consistent to the data
send back by the Mars orbiter Laser Altimeter
[MOLA 2003] showing that the South polar cap
(figure 1) do not maintain its shape if it is
composed mainly by carbon dioxide.
Gamma ray spectrometer onboard of Mars
Odyssey [Mars Odyssey], also measured the
abundance of hydrogen buried below the surface
spred evenly on the planet, but the concentration
is higher on polar regions. The most likely source
of this hydrogen is water ice.
All these intruments, together, helped the
discovery that water ice is buried below the
surface of Mars at different depth (figure 12).

Albedo measurements
Near infrared spectroscopy shows two distinct types of surface (figure 13), one
with high albedo consisting of highly oxidized and fine grained materials, and another
with low albedo consisting of iron in the form of pyroxene and hematite.
Thermal emission spectrometer revealed that high albedo surface consist of
plagioclase, magnesite [Bandfield 2000; Bandfield 2003] and zeolite [Ruff 2004], the
latter contains water molecule, there is a similarity with basalt on Earth mainly
composed of andesite.
Low albedo surface spectra is similar to terrestrial basalt containing high abundance of
plagioclase, high calcium clinopyroxene and olivine in small amount [Bandfield 2000].
Mars is composed mainly of igneous basalt, but its composition is highly
influenced by surface and mantle ice. There is a close relationship between the depht of
the ice layer and the chemical altered basalt. Alteration in the southern hemisphere
occurs at high latitudes, decreasing slowly toward the equator. Instead, for the northern

4
hemisphere, there is a more uniform alteration, clearly greather to high latitudes [Wyatt
2002; Wyatt 2004].

Water altered minerals

Fine grained ferric oxydes are abundant in soil and they also cover rocks almost
everywhere [Bell 2000; Squyres 2004]. These grains are sulphates, chlorides and salts
formed by evaporation that are unambiguous evidence of water alteration.
Spectral analysis of smooth plain in Meridiani Planum by the Thermal Emission
Spectrometer (TES) [TES 2006] revealed gray crystalline hematite mixed with

plagioclase and pyroxene. Comparing those spectra with those emitted by hematite in
the laboratory at different precursor phases, suggest a low temperature formation (150-
300 ºC) from dehydroxylation of goethite. Opprtunity rover confirmed, in situ, the
presence of hematite [Christensen 2000; Christensen 2004]. Layered bedrocks in
Meridiani Planum are rich in Calcium and Magnesium sulphates and also contain
Jarosite [Squyres 2004] this imply an extensive alteration and fluvial activity during the
formation of hematite, but it seems that only localized concentrations of standing water
was responsible of such alteration. The chemical alteration was limited after the
formation of hematite because the mineral is mixed with basaltic sands that do not show
chemical alteration. Large amount of the OH radical in the rock, where jarosite is found,

5
suggest that it was formed by precipitation of sulfate rich brine [Klingelhofer et al
2004].

INTRODUCTION TO GULLIES
Water on Mars was present and abundant in the past, all the above presented
evidences are irrefutable. At present, almost all the water outside polar caps, is buried.
The depht of the liquid water layer may be from one meter to kilometers, and, it is
greatest at the Equator and near the surface at high latitudes.
If some of that buried water is allowed to reach the surface, we can observe its
effect during the short time before its sublimation due to the low atmospheric pressure
and cold temperature. If this happen, it can carve new gullies or rework older ones.
A gully is a landform created by running water. When water flows, it lubricate
and it erodes the soil creating a debris flow when carving a channel. If the activity of the
gully is recurrent, and, the carried material and water flux is greather than the one of the
last activity, the channel can be enlarged, these new debris material are deposited over
the old one and it can be recognized because its color is lighter. Walls of gullies have a
steep inclination and normally are clean, with no residual material; the bed of the
channel is also very clean. Channels can be straight or sinuous, depending on the kind
of the slope and the obstacle that water has to skip. This imply that the flow is slow. At
the end of the channel, debris are deposited forming a cone shaped apron.
The upper section of a gully is called “alcove” (figure 5, 15, 16) that act as the
reservoir of ice or snow, it is a depression in the form of a theatre, it is the place from
where water starts to flow downward (melted surface ice, or spring from an
underground reservoir) [Treiman 2005]. Lenght and wide of a gully depend on the
quantity of water available, the velocity and mass of the flow, the intensity of the flow,
the time duration of the flow, the composition of the soil, the type of rock in the alcove,
temperature and wind speed [Sears 2005].
They forms on a
hillside or walls of
chasms, pits, impact
craters, peaks within
craters and basins,
knobs, and mesas. There
must be an impermeable
layer (containing water)
and a permeable layer of
rocks, otherwise, the
gully cannot form,
because there is no
deposit and no outflow.
To understand
the formation of gullies
on Mars, and, if they are
formed by the outflow
of liquid water from the
interior of the planet,
several researches are conducted on Earth, but finding places with enough similarity to
the conditions observed on Mars is difficult. Present day Mars is a very dry and cold
desert, the best places to find conditions like those, are in the dry valleys in Antarctica
[Head 2007; Morgan 2007; Dickson 2007] and in the high latitudes glaciers near the

6
North Pole [Lee 2004; Lee 2006] (Canada and Greenland); Neverthless, gullies are
observed worldwide, but they formed under very different climate conditions.
Gullies in Antarctica are of different age and evolution stage, almost half of
them are active at present. They formed by surface and very near surface snow and ice
melting. Due to the very dry climatologic conditions (precipitation less than 10
centimeter per year), the melted water come from glaciers, whose topography, geometry
and position maintain them in shadow almost all the year. Another source of water is
wind blown snow accumulated in parts of the alcove or the channel not exposed to
insolation. Dark (low albedo) material can increase the rate of snow or ice melting. The
occurrence of Gullies on the equator facing slopes is greather than the quantity of
gulllies on slopes that are oriented toward the Pole, this is because they are exposed
directly to Sun light.

MARTIAN GULLIES
Mars is a desert planet,
liquid water can not be present on
the surface because temperature
and pressure are below the triple
point, so if some water appear on
the surface, it sublimate
inmediately; but, as I showed
above, this scenario was not too
bad in the past when large quantity
of liquid water flowed and covered
the Red planet. This thirty years
long paradigm, was broken when
Malin and Edgett [Malin 2000]
discovered several gullies in the
high resolution images returned by
the Mars Global Surveyor camera
(figure 17). If liquid water can not persits on the surface, why and when they formed?
Very few impact craters are observed over the gullies, this fact imply that they formed
recently. So there are two possible explanations: gullies are formed by other way than a
flow of liquid water, or there are mechanisms that allow liquid water to flow and carve
them. In the following sections I will show several different mechanisms that try to
explain the formation of gullies on Mars in its recent or past geologic history.

Orientation of gullies
On Earth, gullies seems to be oriented facing the equator, this is logic because if
the alcove receive more heat, the ice can melt easier. But on Mars this is not always
true, even when the full planet has been covered by several spacecrafts, maybe we need
much more high resolution images covering areas not yet explored at the necessary
resolution and illumination angle.
Mohan and Bridges [Mohan 2004] characterized gullies between 30º and 71º
South, from Mars Global Surveyor images, mesuring for each one the latitude, the
longitude, the width of the gully at the top, middle, and bottom, the length, the
morphology, the drainage density, the distance from the summit wall, and its azimuth.
They found that most gullies are on the North and South slopes of selected craters,
without any preferente. But the dimension (lenght, width and drainage density) of
gullies facing toward South are greather than those facing to the North, but there is no

7
relation with their morphology and the latitude. They conclude that solar insolation may
be a factor that affect the quantity of fluid, favouring ice melting, but also it is possible
that larger gullies are youngest and better preserved, so not all gullies were formed at
the same geologic time, maybe due to different axis inclination.
Berman et al.
[Berman 2005], also
with images of
THEMIS and MOC
(Mars Global
Surveyor), found,
instead, that there is
a clearly preference
of gullies respect to
the latitude (figure
18). At middle
latitudes (-30º to -
48º S.) they
observed only
gullies on the polar
face slope; going at
higher latitudes (-44º
to -56º S.) there is a
reversing preference, observing only gullies on the equatorial face slope. But this trend
is not definitive, because they also found that craters, with gullies on both slopes, are
also present from 37º South to 67º South, even more, there are also a series of craters at
latitudes between 42º South and 50º South that contains gullies on the East and West
sides.
Balme et al. [Balme 2006] suggest that there is an obvious relationship between
the orientation of gullies and the latitude for those inside craters at mid latitudes. This
imply that climate and insolation play a fundamental role in the formation of gullies
because they change the content of water in the atmosphere, othrwise, too large ground
water quantity are needed to explain formation from a seepage of liquid water as
suggested by Malin and Edgett [Malin 2000].
With respect to gullies on the northern hemisphere, Williams [Williams 2007],
found that there is no special orientation because gullies appear at nearly the same
quantity on both crater’s walls. This trend is different from that of southern gullies,
because, as I see above, there is a tendency to pole facing gullies. The orientation may
depends on different factors like the insolation, the geometry of the acquifer, the
quantity of dust in snow and rock permeability, but he also suggest that gullies may also
represent (with their orientation) a different climate condition due to changes in the
obliquity of Mars, so they formed, at least on two different geologic times [Lanza
2006]. Lanza also suggest that gullies formed where some ideal conditions of
temperature and pressure allowed subsurface water to be released.
Bridges et al. [Bridges 2005] observed a clear trend to the orientation of gullies
on the northern hemisphere of Mars, specially at high latitudes. At mid latitudes there is
no clear orientation trend. But they found an interesting difference between poleward
facing gullies with very smooth material and equatorial facing ones, filled by bright
toned material. They suggest that pole facing slope gullies are frozen in time from
melting during the last change of obliquity and they may be form taday, but at a slower
rate.

8
 Really gullies on Mars, on average, show more similarity than differences
[Heldmann 2004] between those on the northern hemisphere respect to those on the
southern hemisphere. On both hemisphere they are not isolated, but clustered regionally
(figure 27). Most prominents clusters in the northern hemisphere are Arcadia Planitia
Tempe Terra, Acidalia Planitia and Utopia Planitia; on the southern hemisphere, where
they are more abundant, due to a more chaotic geology, are found in Dao Vallis, chaotic
terrain around Terra Sirenum and on the South Polar Pits.

FORMATION OF MARTIAN GULLIES

Mars Global
Surveyor, during its
mission, took images of
several places on a time
span of a few years.
Surprisingly its camera
detected various new
gullies, dark and light
streaks (figure 19). This
was a great surprise
because the common
tough was that gullies
were old formation,
because their
morphology suggest the
presence of liquid water;
but water is not stable at
current temperature and
pressure. So a whole set
of theories and models
were presented to explain the formation of such features [Heldmann 2007].

Formation by dry granular flow

Due to the apparent
inconsistence of the stability
of liquid water on Mars and
its dry and cold climate,
some researchers developed
models that do not need a
flowing water for gullies
formation.
Reiss et al. [Reiss
2007] classified the
morphology of gullies and
avalanche scars into four
classes (figure 20) and
analized them respect to the
distribution, slope angle,
orientation and climatic
condition with the aim to
understand the formation

9
process involved in each one. The four types are described as follow:
Type I. These features originate in small alcoves at the dune rims, which coalesce into
small channel tracks showing a dendritic pattern on the steeper upper part of the slope.
The small channels merge into sinuous main channels, which have a constant width
from the source region to their end and show lateral embankments mainly in the lower
part. This kind of formation lacks the debris apron.
Type II: Characteristics of this type of formation are V-shaped alcoves, sinuous main
channels and depositional aprons; small dendritic channels in the alcove merge into a
single small channel; occasionally the channel runs out onto the apron.
Type III: These features start in lengthy alcoves which merge directly into straight, deep
and short main channels. The debris aprons are extense.
Type IV: These features start at the dune rims, occasionally in small alcoves forming
straight linear channels, slightly cut into the dune material, which rarely reach the base
of the dune.
Treiman et al. [Treiman 2004], aided with the granular flow theory [Daerr 1999],
show that there is no needs of liquid water to form gullies and clear and dark slope
streaks (figure 19), because they are formed by the flow of granular material. These are
interpreted as an avalanche of thin layers of bright dust deposited by wind, which
expose a darker layer formed by coarse or different color (or composition) material.
They develop a triangular shape which is consistent to the granular flow theory. The
lateral spread of the triangular avalanche can be explained as the friction exerted by the
rolling small grains on their lateral neighbours. This friction is sufficient to set some of
them into motion. If the grains are coarse or there are small and large grains mixed
together, the avalanche develop an upward propagation. This way, large grains start to
roll spontaneously, because their supports (small grains) located below them are no
longer there.

Formation by CO2 processes

It is known that CO2 can sublimate over the whole Mars surface, but at low
latitudes the temperature is too hot to form large quantity of CO2 ice and at high
latitudes, this sublimation is very slow due to the lower temperature.
Cedillo-Flores et al. [Cedillo-Flores 2007] suggest that gullies are formed by the
fluidification of CO2. In their model carbonic dioxide snow and dust tranpoted by
winds, accumulate during colder seasons.
During the Spring, CO2 sublimate due to the
elevation of temperature. The weight of the
ice layer and the process of sublimation
together produce a mixture of dust, ice and
soil grains. Then, this fluidified material run
downslope because of gravity, carving the
gully. Gullies can form each martian year or
each time Mars experiment a change of
obliquity.
Solid or liquid CO2 can be the
alternative agent for the formation and
development of gullies because it is more
stable at present conditions on Mars [Ishii
2007] and the atmosphere contains up to
95% of carbon dioxide. Counting and
measuring gullies on mid-latitudes impact

10
craters, it seems that there is some kind of relation between the seasonal cycle of frost-
defrost, condensing and sublimation of carbon dioxide ice, with the formation of gullies.
CO2 ice, seems to be made of small particles with high reflectivity in the visible part of
the spectrum. If the CO2 ice sublime from the bottom, and form a layer of pressurized
gas between the ice and the ground, can trigger an avalanche and fluidize ice particles.
Mars low gravity can also play a role in the fluidization process of CO2, this fluid and/or
granular flow can carve the slope and form a gully. Figure 21 is an example of a crater
with gullies covered by a CO2 frost. The seasonal cycle of CO2 works as follow [Ishii
2004]: on midwinter CO2 condense on slopes, at mid to high latitudes, (this fact also
imply an orientation trend of gulllies); on the following summer the frost erodes the
slope and sublime into the atmosphere because of the increased insolation.
There is another model involvig CO2 for the formation of gullies, which is
developed by Musselwhite and co-researchers [Musselwhite 2001]. They point out that,
the generalized orientation of gullies on poleward face slopes, make them as the coldest
places because they are in shadow almost all the year, with the actual inclination of
(about 24º) the rotation axis. Under these conditions, CO2 ice can be stable just below
the surface and in diffusive contact with the surface. In other words, it act as a cold trap.
They say that the key to understand the formation of gullies is the position of the
seepage respect to the crater rim, which is always about 100 neters below it. Pressure at
this locations are consistents to the triple point of CO2. Poleward facing slopes at high
latitudes can contain large amount of CO2 ice below the surface, and, this is a cold
barrier that serve as a trap against the liquid CO2 below it. The highly cratered terrain
seems to be cery porousand CO2 in the atmosphere can diffuse relatively easy into 100
meters of rocks from the surface. Lithostatic pressure below the surface is higher than
atmospheric pressure (proporcional to gravity, rock density and depht below the
surface), but pressure inside the void spaces, due to the porosity, is the same
atmospheric pressure. This is true until voids are filled. When the temperature increase,
due to insolation, CO2 subsurface ice expands, and when the voids are completely filled,
pressure increase toward its lithostatic value. As temperature increase, from the surface
to the interior, solid CO2 ice change its phase and become stable in the gaseous phase,
but there is, now liquid CO2 behind. As the inward side of the ice trap melts (due to the
continuous temperature increment), the liquid CO2 become mobile and rapidly drain out
from the cliff face. In other words there is a violent eruption of CO2 that rapidly
vaporize because of the much lower atmospheric pressure and cold temperature. The
expansion should produce a fluidized flow of gas and particles carried from the interior.
This model predict formation of gullies each martian year or during cycles of different
obliquity, depending on the capacity of refill the CO2 acquifer.

Formation by melting snow and ice

Liquid water in the sub-surface of Mars is thought to be not enough to be considered the
main source of gullies, due to its instability on the surface. Snow deposition during
periods of higher obliquity and its subsecuent melting is an alternative model for gullies
formation [Bridges et al. 2005; Soare et al 2006]. The source of the flow is localized on
the uppermost part of the mantle hosting the alcove, so they inferr that water, that fills
gullies, come from the mantle; more precisely, gullies start in the boundary of mantle
and non-mantled slopes, or where they are found together. It seems that gullies begin in
the non-mantled slope, when both are present. Snow pack formation and its longevity
depends on latitude, orientation, insolation and temperature, but all these variables
depend on the inclination of the rotation axis. As they show, gullies are found in regions
where the presence of water ice in the sub-surface, and possibly extending km inside the

11
mantle, is inferred by the high level of water related hydrogen. Even when gullies,
under certain conditions, can be active today, most of them are old and formed during a
period (or periods) of high obliquity. The presence of gullies of different orientation, is
also consistent with the melting of sub-surface ice at various geologic times. So by these
authors, gullies are formed by mantle ice or packed snow melting.
A little different model, also involving the melting of snow and ice, is proposed
by Christensen [Christensen 2003]. In this model obliquity plays a fundamental role:
when it is high, water is transported from poles to mid latitudes forming water rich
snow layers; when obliquity is low, mid latitude temperature favoured snow melting.
Liquid water produced remain stable becase it is covered by an insulating layer of snow.
Gullies form on slopes covered by snow and remain hide until the snow is removed.
Liquid water erodes the slope material carving the gully, when the covering layer of
snow, completely melt or sublime, the gully appears. Today, patches of snow, covered
and protected against sublimation, can exist below an overlay of dessicated layer of dust
sediment (figure 22). If this is the case, on favourable places, melting occurs and so,
formation of gullies can be possible under present conditions. Melting is possible even
if the surface temperature is bleow freezing because sunlight is absorbed at depht more
efficiently than at the surface.
There is also the possibility that
atmospheric water vapour condensed,
can melt in troughs of slopes oriented
poleward, which is the most common
orientation for gullies at middle latitudes
[Kossacki 2004]. They run simulations of
the seasonal cycle of condensation and
sublimation of carbon dioxide and water,
showing that water ice on the gullies
walls can change to the liquid phase.
Their results, when the simulation is
applied to a gully of 10 meter wide, on a
slope inclined 30º and oriented 50º South
and 50º East, assuming a surface wind
speed of 5 m/s; the amount of the
obtained moisture is only 0.2 kg/m2 and
can appear in a given place for a very
short time, just one day. But, if the
amount of water on the cold surface is
larger than that calculated in simulation,
gullies can form even in the present
climate conditions. The mechanism of
formation is related to the water cycle: atmospheric water vapour condense as water ice
and is deposited on small ondulations on gullies walls (probably originated by surface
wind). Insulation rise the temperature and ice melt.

Spring Groundwater formation

After Malin and Edgett [Malin 2000] discovered gullies in impact crater walls
and showed that, almost geomorphologically speaking, they were similar to terrestrial
gullies formed by liquid water flow, several researchers tryed to explain the possibility
that martian gullies formed the same way.

12
 Recently,
Malin [Malin 2006]
discovered that some
gullies showed sign of
activity (figure 23)
during past years.
Comparing images,
taken in 1999 and
2001 with others of
the same field taken in
2005, apeear a deposit
of debris with light
tone, interpreted as a
fresh deposited
material above dark
old one. Only a very
fluid material (like
liquid water) has the
hability to divert
around low relief
obstacle and to freely
flow even if the inclination is very low or absent. Observed at high resolution, these
bright deposits, show that have relatively long, extended, digitate distal and marginal
branches; they divert around obstacles, so the velocity is very low.
Water needs to flow to carve the gully, so temperature and pressure at the surface must
be above the triple point,
otherwise it can sublimate;
and temperature in the sub-
surface (the acquifer) must
be above the freezing value
(figure 24). This is
interesting, because if this
model is correct, the base
of the alcove is the depht at
which liquid water is stable
under the surface of Mars.
Heldmann et al [Heldmann
2004; Heldmann 2005]
using data from the
Thermal Emission Spectrometer, calculated the depht at which the temperature is above
the melting point (273K); for 90% of the 136 gully systems observed this depth is 200
meters. Alcove basements are on average below this value (350 meters), so the
temperature above the surface at that depth is expected to be higher than the melting
point. An interesting result is that none of the alcove examined allow the presence of
CO2 in liquid form.
With this data on hand, the spring water or seepage model is consistent to
observed features.
Some “special case” places on Mars, allow the presence of liquid water (at least
for short periods of time) on the surface. An example is Centauri Montes [Fasset 2007],
where summer temperature is at least 280K. Another place where temperature and

13
pressure are above the triple point is Terra Sirenum [Fasset 2007] where temperature
reach 297K. Terra Sirenum is where Malin and Edgett discovered active gullies [Malin
2006].
The problem of temperature is also addressed by Edlund [Edlund 2006],
calculating the temperature and pressure on the sub-surface of the alcove base, to
determine if they are above the triple point. Calculations were done with data from the
Gamma Ray Spectrometer (which measured the amount of subsurface ice content) for
each gully site. Approximately 81% of the gullie systems allow water in liquid form.

Groundwater flow system

Instead of small acquifers buried behind the alcove it is possible that very large
sub surface acquifer exist. From data of the Gamma Ray Spectrometer we have a
complete map of the sub-surface water (figure 26) in the form of ice, if parts of that ice
is maintained liquid, then water can supply a large quantity of gullies regionally
clustered.
A model of mechanism that can explain the formation of gullies related to large

subterranean acquifers is presented by Marquez et al. [Marquez 2006]. They observed

that gullies in Gorgonum-Newton, Dao and Nirgal Vallis regions show a pattern
following the regional slope consistent with a fully developed groundwater flow system.
In the Gorgonum–Newton region the groundwater would flow from different systems to
the low elevation lands craters (figure 25). In Newton Crater and its surroundings,
gullies are oriented radially respect to the centre of the basine basin, and also radially
distributed from high-elevation sites. Marquez et al. Suggest that the source of ground
water could be related to the outcrops of young and partially eroded ice rich deposits.
This molten water can also recharge acquifers, like the mechanism that works on our
planet, but the rate of recharge on Mars is very low and may depends not only on
seasonal cycles, but on global climatic changes triggered by a change in the obliquity.

14
15
CONCLUSIONS
Magician say “The trick is there, but you do not see it”; astronomer say “The
water on Mars is there, but we do not see it”.
Water is buried, only a small part is present as part of the thin atmosphere and in
large mass on polar caps. Mars show us many tricks and many of them inply the
existence of liquid water flowing freely on the surface. But where is all that water?
The wet past of Mars is also undoubtable, so how Mars acquired all its water? The
answer to these questions are not easy, but time after time we are soving the puzzle
which pieces are observations and measurements done by different instruments,
spacecrafts and rovers. How much time it will take?
Maybe we will never known the full story of Mars, because each time we are closer
to place the last piece of the puzzle, a new discovery open a lot of new questions. This
is the case of gullies. Everybody was happy with the image of Mars as a dry desert, but
gullies appeared in the scene, when and why they formed? If liquid water is their main
source, where is the water?
In this work I tried to show a full set of evidences that water existed and still exist
on Mars today. Obviously the red planet suffered enormous climate changes due to
changes in the obliquity. Minerals, sedimentary rocks, spectroscopic measurements and
landforms, all count that story. Evidences all point to an affirmative answer: Mars was
filled of water in the past and still contain a relative large quantity at present time, but
this water can not be present in liquid form on the surface because the temperature is too
cold and the atmospheric pressure is too low. Under these conditions can be in the
liquid phase only under the surface or in very localized places with the help of geology
and topography.
In the second part of this work, I addressed the topic of gullies. These landforms are
similar to many we can see on Earth, and all known terrestrial gullies involve the action
of flowing liquid water, at least at some stage of their development.
The problem on Mars is that there is no flowing liquid water on the surface because
temperature and pressure maintain the surface condition always below the triple point
for water. Even if liquid water emerge from an acquifer, it will last liquid for a very
short time because it sublime rapidly.
So, gullies are there and they are in large quantity, and the question is: which is the
mechanism that forms gullies?
Many models were presented here, I tried to explain briefly their main arguments
adding comments. Unfortunately all models work well only in limited cases and with
certain conditions. Up to date, there is no complete theory that can explain the formation
and development of martian gullies.
One of the problem is that maybe there is no just one mechanism, but several
because gullies present different features. So a unified theory for gullies I think that not
apply.
Many models are just a variation of the theme, so I think that there are only 4 main
trends and each one can include several models:
1-dry flow of particles
2-carbon dioxide in liquid or solid form
3-water from small local or large sub surface acquifers
4-water from melting ice or atmospheric condensation
I can not tell which one works better, but I am inclined to the presence of liquid
water, but it is possible that different mechanism act simultaneously. It is also possible
that each model is correct if applied to some specific case, and, obviously if applied to
the wrong set of gullies it will appear totally inconsistent with observations.

16
 Due to their different morphology and orientation, gullies may be formed during
different geologic eras under very different climate conditions, even more, by very
different mechanisms. These mechanism can be some, or even all, that listed here. It is
also possible that models explained above are only a subset of a more complete one.
I think, also, that there is a strong bias in the data sets used by researchers, this is
reflected in papers because if we want to know, in general form, why, when and how
gullies are formed, we need to use as much data as possible. This data must reflect,
almost statistically, all gullies in a planet wide census. We have images and data
available from many instruments carried by half a dozen spacecrafts. Each instrument is
capable to observe at different wavelenght and resolution, only a full set of observation
can tell us the origin and the development of a process or, in this case, a morphologic
feature. Many research are focussed and based on a reduced data set, this way their
results are not consistent with others.

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19
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20
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21
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Dobrea E.Z., PRESENT-DAY IMPACT CRATERING RATE AND
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OBSERVATIONS OF MARTIAN GULLIES AND CONSTRAINTS ON
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Groundwater flor formation

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IMAGE CREDITS

Figure 1
South Polar Cap: MOC2-1108, Malin Space Science System, www.msss.com
Figure 2
North Polar Cap: MOC2-1478, Malin Space Science System, www.msss.com
Figure 3
Channels on Mars: http://wapi.isu.edu/Geo_Pgt/Mod09_Mars/mars.htm
Figure 4
Rivers on Earth: http://wapi.isu.edu/Geo_Pgt/Mod09_Mars/mars.htm
Figure 5
Gully: Head J.W. et al, Lunar and Planetary Science XXXVIII, 1617.pdf, 2007
Figure 6
Deep hole on Mars: Candidate Cavern Entrance Northeast of Arsia Mons PSP_003647_1745,
http://hiroc.lpl.arizona.edu/images/2007/details/cut/PSP_3647_1745_cut_b.jpg
Figure 7
Sotano “La Lucha”: http://66.84.43.96/expedicion/html/sotanolalucha.html
Figure 8
Sotano “Las Golondrinas”:
http://www.jornada.unam.mx/viajera/?destino=san+luis+potosi&seccion=06
Figure 9
Sedimentary rocks: http://photojournal.jpl.nasa.gov/jpeg/PIA08065.jpg

22
Figure 10
Close-up sediments: http://www.jpl.nasa.gov/missions/mer/images.cfm?id=1862
Figure 11
Sediments on Earth: unknown (my archive).
Figure 12
Depth of ice: http://mars.jpl.nasa.gov/odyssey/gallery/martianterrain/images/PIA09336-
Bandfield_fig4_rgb_br.jpg
Figure 13
Albedo: Elements, V2, N3, 2006.
Figure 14
Mineral abundance: http://tes.asu.edu/
Figure 15
Martian gully:
http://liftoff.msfc.nasa.gov/Shared/News2000/MarsWater/gully.jpg
Figure 16
Terrestrial gully
http://liftoff.msfc.nasa.gov/Shared/News2000/MarsWater/gully.jpg
Figure 17
Gullies on Mars:
http://www.msss.com/mars_images/moc/june2000/sp_pit/sp_pit_100.jpg
Figure 18
Gullies orientation: Berman D.C. et al, SURVEY OF CRATERS WITH ARCUATE
RIDGES AND GULLIES IN THE NEWTON BASIN REGION ON MARS, Lunar and
Planetary Science.
Figure 19
New structures:
http://www.msss.com/mars_images/moc/2006/12/06/gullies/not_dust/index.html#Fig1b
Figure 20
Morphology of gullies: Reiss D., Jaumann R. Kereszturi A., Sik A., Neukum G.,
GULLIES AND AVALANCHE SCARS ON MARTIAN DARK DUNES, Lunar and
Planetary Science XXXVIII, 2007.
Figure 21
CO2 frost: Ishii T., Sasaki S, FORMATION OF RECENT MARTIAN GULLIES BY
AVALANCHES OF CO2 FROST, Lunar and Planetary Science XXXV, 2004.
Figure 22
Snow mantle: Christensen P.R., FORMATION OF RECENT MARTIAN GULLIES
THROUGH MELTING OF EXTENSIVE WATER-RICH SNOW DEPOSITS, Nature
422, 2003.
Figure 23
New gullies formed: Malin M.C., Edgett K.S., Posiolova L.V., Shawn M., McColley
S.M., Eldar Z. Noe Dobrea E.Z., PRESENT-DAY IMPACT CRATERING RATE AND
CONTEMPORARY GULLY ACTIVITY ON MARS, Science vol 314:1573-1577,
2006
Figure 24
Alcove diagram: Heldmann J.L., Carlsson E., Johansson H., Mellon M.T., Toon O.B.,
OBSERVATIONS OF MARTIAN GULLIES AND CONSTRAINTS ON
POTENTIAL FORMATION MECHANISMS II. THE NORTHERN HEMISPHERE,
Icarus 188: 324–344, 2007.

23
Figure 25
Groudwater flow theory: Marquez A. De Pablo M.A., Oyarzun R., Viedma C.,
EVIDENCE OF GULLY FORMATION BY REGIONAL GROUNDWATER FLOW
IN THE GORGONUM–NEWTON REGION (MARS), Icarus 179: 398–414, 2005.
Figure 26:
H2O derived map: Elements, V2M3, 2006, ISSN 1811-5209
Figure 27
Clusters of gullies: Malin M.C., Edgett K.S., EVIDENCE FOR RECENT
GROUNDWATER SEEPAGE AND SURFACE RUNOFF ON MARS, Science 288:
2330, 2000.

24