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Investigation of The Validity of 3-D Virtual Fitting For Pants
Investigation of The Validity of 3-D Virtual Fitting For Pants
Abstract
The effectiveness of 3D virtual fitting technology when visualizing the fit and silhouette of pants by
analyzing the similarities between real and virtual fit using 20 fit locations, 3 lower body shapes, and
fit status was investigated. We produced 61 custom pants for the participants and virtually tried each
on a personalized 3D body scan avatar. The technology was not generally effective for visualizing
pant fit. Especially, the waist placement of the virtual pants was lower than that for the actual pants.
The virtual software indicated less ease than the actual pants and could not express stress folds due
to slight misfit. The front silhouette of the virtual pants spread wider than the real pants. The virtual
pants for females with a hip tilt shape had the greatest divergence from the actual pants. The virtual
pants with good fit appeared more effectively than did those with poor fit.
Keywords
3-D virtual fitting technology, pants, body shape, fit, body scan, wearable technology
Currently, several retailers, including Target, Kohl’s, and Levi’s, are successfully piloting the use of
three-dimensional (3-D) simulation technology to produce their garment samples (Salmon, 2014;
Yoon, 2013). The clear benefits demonstrated by early adopters of this concept are that 3-D technol-
ogy offers both retailers and manufacturers ‘‘speed’’ and ‘‘lower overall costs.’’ According to a
report by Salmon (2014), 3-D virtual fitting technology lets apparel manufacturers produce far fewer
physical samples for each garment beforehand, decreasing to two samples from the average of three
to five that were needed formerly. Further, this technology can cut the total amount of time needed
for designing and prototyping by an estimated 50%.
Such 3-D simulation technology also improves the communication between the designers, pat-
ternmakers, and technical designers (Salmon, 2014; Yoon, 2013). With most production now
occurring offshore and fit sessions taking place in multiple locations worldwide, it has been dif-
ficult to create conditions that produce a consistent fit from location to location and to communi-
cate any problems and inconsistencies of a prototype back to the vendor producing the garment
(Song & Ashdown, 2010). Currently, when samples are produced offshore, designers and
1
Department of Clothing and Textiles, Kyung Hee University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
2
Department of Fiber Science and Apparel Design, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, USA
Corresponding Author:
Hwa Kyung Song, Department of Clothing and Textiles, Kyung Hee University, Seoul 130-701, Republic of Korea.
Email: hksong@khu.ac.kr
technical designers communicate on a sample fit using only pictures of the samples on fit models
or dress forms in their tech pack; according to Virginia Meckley, Manager of Technical Design at
Victoria’s Secret, one of the biggest challenges in the apparel business is the lack of accurate
visual tools (Speer, 2008).
3-D scans and 3-D simulation technologies can be valuable, potential tools for visual fit analysis.
3-D images of the clothed figure can be zoomed and rotated, making it possible to comprehend the
depth, origin, and path of stress folds on the entire body (Song & Ashdown, 2010). Although 3-D
technologies have been adopted by only large companies and on a relatively small scale for design-
ing and prototyping, retailers are starting to understand the implications of 3-D technology, given
how impactful the benefits of the technology can be for the entire industry (Salmon, 2014). If the
accuracy of this 3-D simulation technology is demonstrated, more apparel retailers will opt to use
these technologies more often (Apeagyei & Otieno, 2007).
Several researchers have investigated the accuracy of the 3-D garment simulation technology for
visualizing fit. Although Eccles (2011) indicated that pants are the most challenging clothing item
for good fit, few researchers have verified the virtual fit information and 3-D visualization process
for pants. Lee, Nam, Cui, and Choi (2007) analyzed the degree of similarity between real and virtual
fit, while Kim and LaBat (2013) evaluated the accuracy of the 3-D simulation technology in an
online shopping scenario from the customer’s perspective.
The researchers in this study investigate whether the 3-D virtual fitting technology can effec-
tively visualize the fit and silhouette of pants by analyzing the following three key factors: lower
body shapes, various fit statuses, and fit locations using the fashion designers’ or technical
designers’ perspectives. The results of this study provide greater understanding of precisely how
fashion and technical designers evaluate the accuracy of 3-D virtual fit technology for a better
visual fit analysis. The study also provides valuable new information for 3-D virtual fitting soft-
ware developers.
Literature Review
3-D Applications for Garment Simulation
The first 3-D application for cloth simulation in the field of computer graphics appeared in the early
1990s (Carignan, Yang, Magnenat-Thalmann, & Thalmann, 1992; Lafleur, Magnenat-Thalmann, &
Thalmann, 1991). These early virtual representations used approximation and simplification meth-
ods. For instance, they simply simulated the drape of a flag or a rectangular cloth over a typical geo-
metric shape (Volino, Cordier, & Magnenat-Thalmann, 2005). With advances in technology from
the first decade of the 21st century, such as the dynamic manipulation techniques for cloth mesh and
real-time garment prototyping, 3-D applications for garment simulation evolved further and are now
developed enough for the apparel industry to utilize them successfully for virtual garment design and
prototyping.
Two cloth simulation systems are currently available. The first provides general cloth simulation
and animation and is used to design garments. These systems are usually plug-ins for 3-D computer-
aided design (CAD) programs. For instance, MayaCloth is integrated into Maya, Reactor, Stitch, and
SimCloth, while ClothReyes is integrated into 3-D Studio Max, and Dynamics is integrated into
Cinema 4D (Volino et al., 2005).
The second system is used for two-dimensional (2-D) apparel pattern assembly and draping
on 3-D virtual mannequins for visualization or prototyping of garments still in the production
stage. Several of these 3-D virtual fitting CAD programs have been developed by apparel pat-
ternmaking CAD companies, namely, 3-D Runway Creator for Pattern Design Software (PDS)
by Optitex (Israel), V-Stitcher by Gerber Scientific (USA), 3-D Fit by Lectra (France), i-designer
by Technoa (Japan), Vidya by Assyst (Germany), and CLO 3-D by CLO Virtual Fashion
(Korea; Lee & Sohn, 2011). These programs usually operate as follows: (a) either a parametric
virtual mannequin is modified by inputting body measurements or a 3-D body scan of an indi-
vidual is imported into the system, (b) mechanical properties for a variety of fabrics are stored
in the system, (c) seams of patterns are paired to identify how they are stitched together, and
(d) the patterns are placed and curved around the virtual mannequins where virtual stitching
and draping are then performed.
clothing, the i-Fashion mall delivers fitting reports for each customer, including ease amounts
and degrees of pressure.
1. Identify the accuracy of 3-D virtual fitting technology for a pants item:
a. analyze the similarities between real and virtual fit depending on fit locations, lower
body shapes, and fit status (overall analyses) and
b. assess the similarities, if any, between real and virtual fit, using lower body shapes and
fit status at each designated fit location (specific analyses).
2. Investigate issues regarding virtual fabric expression and use of 3-D body scan avatar for fit
assessments.
We considered that 3-D virtual fit can be visualized differently depending on three factors,
namely, (a) fit status, (b) lower body shapes, and (c) fit locations. We considered fit status (e.g.,
tight/good/loose, or short/good/long) as an influential variable on the final visualization of the fit
and silhouette of the virtual pants. Among the findings in past studies, Lee et al. (2007) found that
garments with adequate size (good fit) represented a more similar fit than garments without size
(tight or loose fit). However, that study also had its limitations, as it relied only on the fit data for
three participants (lean, normal, and obese type) and three statuses for different fit (tight, good,
or loose). In addition, the researchers did not analyze fit at each location, but only evaluated a gen-
eral degree of similarity between virtual and real fit using a 5-point scale (1 ¼ strongly dissimilar to
5 ¼ strongly similar). Therefore, it was not fully possible to analyze how certain fit statuses affected
the most accurate representation of virtual fit at each fit location.
Few researchers have assessed the accuracy of 3-D virtual fitting software in terms of fit analysis
from the viewpoint of patternmakers or technical designers, especially for the visualization of pants.
This study should provide valuable new information for software developers and apparel profession-
als who plan to use the technology.
Group 1 (curvy shape)—The curviest silhouette between waist level and hip level, and the
most prominent abdomen silhouette;
Group 2 (hip tilt shape)—The most prominent buttocks and a lower body tilted toward the
back; and
Group 3 (straight shape)—A noncurvy silhouette and less prominent buttocks.
Method
The data collection for the current study included four major stages: (a) development of and con-
struction of custom pants, (b) collecting photographs of participants in pants, (c) development of
Figure 1. (a) Five variables identified from the principal component analysis, (b) graph showing the means of
the PC and z-score variables used for cluster analysis across three body shape groups, and (c) front and side
silhouettes of three body shape groups.
3-D virtual try-on files from pants patterns, and (d) visual analysis of the real and virtual pants fit by
expert judges.
Analysis Method for Comparing the Fit of Virtual and Real Pants
Objective 1A (overall analysis). The purpose of Objective 1A was to analyze for any similarity between
real and virtual fit for three body shapes, two fit statuses (good or poor fit), and 20 fit locations. Orig-
inally, a 3-point scale was used to rate the fit (e.g., tight [1], good [2], and loose [3]). However, to
judge whether the similarity actually varied based on good or bad fit, the researchers recoded the
scale choice for good fit (2) as good fit (0) and the rest of the scale choices (e.g., tight [1] and loose
[3]) as bad fit (1).
Then, a multiple regression model was used to calculate heteroskedasticity-consistent standard
errors and co-variance by using the Eview statistics package. A dependent variable was found to be
‘‘similarity between real and virtual fit’’ (a 5-point scale). Three independent variables (fit status, body
shape, and fit location) were changed to dummy variables. There were several reasons why the mul-
tiple regression analysis, using dummy variables, was used instead of analysis of variance (ANOVA),
and these could have also been considered an acceptable analysis method for this study. First, the use
of dummy variables as predictors in regression provides a simple demonstration of the fundamental
equivalence between ANOVA and multiple regression analysis. An advantage of the multiple regres-
sion analysis is that it allows the use of more than two variables as predictors and does so simultane-
ously (Warner, 2008). Second, the regression analysis can include the interaction between two
dummy-coded variables to allow for a potentially clearer and more precise interpretation of results.
The process of creating dummy variables is the following: When there are multiple groups (num-
ber of groups ¼ k), group membership can be represented by scores from a set of (k 1) dummy
variables. The independent variables in the regression model were:
nineteen dummy-coded ‘‘fit location’’ variables (‘‘front waist placement’’ was coded as 0 on
all 21 dummy variables);
two dummy-coded ‘‘body shape’’ variables (‘‘body shape 1’’ was coded as 0 on the two
dummy variables);
a dummy-coded ‘‘degree of fit’’ variable (‘‘good fit’’ was coded as 0 and ‘‘bad fit’’ as 1);
the interaction between ‘‘body shape 2’’ and ‘‘the degree of fit’’ variables; and
the interaction between ‘‘body shape 3’’ and ‘‘the degree of fit’’ variables.
Objective 1B (specific analysis). The purpose of Objective 1B was to assess the similarity between real
and virtual fit based on three lower body shapes and three fit statuses (e.g., tight, good, or loose) at
each fit location. We conducted a multiple regression model for Objective 1B, but two differences
from the model for Objective 1A remained. First, we conducted a multiple regression model at each
fit location. Second, we judged whether the similarity between real and virtual fit varied depending
on a more detailed fit status (e.g., tight, good, or loose). We thus kept a 3-point scale. The indepen-
dent variables at each fit location were:
two dummy-coded ‘‘body shape’’ variables (‘‘body shape 1’’ was coded as 0 on the two
dummy variables);
two dummy-coded ‘‘degree of fit’’ variables (‘‘good fit’’ was coded as 0 on the two dummy
variables);
the interaction between the variables ‘‘body shape 2’’ and ‘‘the degree of fit’’; and
the interaction between the variables ‘‘body shape 3’’ and ‘‘the degree of fit’’ variables.
Results
Overall Validity of the Virtual Fitting Software
Table 1 shows the results for the multiple regression analysis. The regression indicated that the pre-
dictors explained 10.04% of the variance, R2 ¼ .10, F(23, 5,430) ¼ 22.46, p < .01. The coefficient
(b) for each of the dummy variables in the regression model, using multiple dummy variables, rep-
resents the difference between the mean of the corresponding group and the mean of the comparison
group, whose code was 0 for all the dummy-coded variables. Therefore, the results can be inter-
preted as follows:
1. Fit status (good fit was coded as 0 and bad fit as 1). The virtual images of pants with a good
fit represented a silhouette and fit more effectively than did pants with a bad fit (b ¼ .35,
t ¼ 6.52, p < .01).
2. Body shape group (‘‘body shape 1’’ was coded as 0 on all the dummy variables). The coeffi-
cient score (b ¼ .16) for Group 2 corresponds to the mean difference between Groups 2 and
1, the comparison group whose codes were all 0 (t ¼ 3.15, p < .01). The mean scores for
Group 3 were not significantly different from those for Group 1. Therefore, the virtual repre-
sentation of fit for the pants from Group 2 was the least effective of any of the analyzed groups.
3. Fit location (front waist placement was coded as 0 on all the dummy variables). The coefficient
score (b) for each fit location corresponds to the difference between the mean for the similarity
score for each fit location and the mean score for front waist placement, the comparison fit
location whose codes were all 0. Comparing these coefficient scores enabled an identification
of the fit locations that were best represented by the 3-D virtual program. In Table 1, four fit
locations (back waist placement, crotch placement, hem width, and stress folds on the back of
Table 1. Results of Regression Analysis for Overall Assessment of Validity of 3-D Virtual Fitting Software.
Variable b SE t p
the pants) did not have significantly different scores from the scores for front waist placement
(p < .01). However, the results for the rest of the locations were significantly different.
A comparison of these coefficients is shown in the graph in Figure 2. The coefficient score (b) for
front waist placement was 0, the mean score for similarity was 2.4. Therefore, the mean score for
each location was b þ 2.4. Locations where the 3-D software did not represent fit well (mean score
of similarity < 3) were waist placement, crotch placement, hem width, stress folds on the back of the
pants, stress folds between the crotch and knee, stress folds between the front waist and front crotch,
and pant length.
Body shape (b) Fit status (b) Virtual pants were __ than real one
2
Variable R F (8, 537) Constant (b) 2 3 Tight Loose Tighter Looser
Ease Waist ease (F) .117 8.98** 3.54 .87** .94* 17.4 82.8
Waist ease (B) .267 24.54** 3.71 .98** 1.28** 33.3 66.8
Abdomen ease .083 6.06** 3.49 .37 * .48* .95** .68** 31.0 69.0
Hip ease .108 8.11** 3.58 .78** 21.0 79.1
Crotch ease (F) .092 6.87** 3.42 .49** .77** .79** 37.7 62.5
Crotch ease (B) .203 2.88** 3.36 .46* 35.9 64.1
Thigh ease (F) .088 6.50** 3.55 .44** .69** .74** 31.9 68.1
Thigh ease (B) .035 2.45* 3.43 .81* .44* 33.3 66.7
Virtual pants had __ wrinkles than real one
Little Much No Less More
Stress fold amount Between waist and crotch (F) .132 10.23** 2.97 .72** 28.1 65.6 6.4
Between waist and crotch (B) .077 5.62** 2.99 .73** 23.7 68.4 8.1
Between crotch and knee (F) .093 6.93** 3.22 .31** .32** .61* .53* 6.0 77.7 16.3
Between crotch and knee (B) .167 13.44** 2.96 .77** .70** 23.5 66.4 10.2
Virtual pants had ___ hem than real fit
Narrow Wide Narrower Wider
Hem width/depth Hem width .078 5.73** 2.53 .61** 4.2 95.8
Hem depth (F) .037 2.58*** 3.08 73.0 27.1
325
326 Clothing and Textiles Research Journal 33(4)
For front waist placement, the results from this analysis were not significantly different, depend-
ing on the individual fit status. The constant (b) was 2.51, which was the lowest score among the
different fit locations. To sum up, front waist placement of the virtual pants appeared to be different
from the real pants, regardless of fit status. For back waist placement and crotch placement, the pants
with ‘‘appropriate and high placement’’ were represented more effectively than were the pants with
‘‘low placement.’’ However, for pants with an ‘‘appropriate length,’’ the virtual image represented
the silhouette more effectively than did the pants with ‘‘short or long length.’’ Virtual pants also gen-
erally had a lower waist placement (74.1–81.3%). Accordingly, the virtual pants appeared to have a
longer in-seam length than that of the actual pants (74.1–81.3%). For side seam placement, the final
results were not significantly different but still were dependent on fit status. The side seam place-
ment of virtual pants generally appeared more forward than that of the actual pants (73.0%).
The virtual pants for the participants in Group 2 represented the greatest divergence from the fit
of their actual pants among all the body shape groups. Group 2 had a lower body tilted toward the
back (see Figure 1). Accordingly, between the abdomen and front knee level, Group 2 pants had
more gaps between the body and the pants; therefore, the pants also had more stress folds than those
of the other groups.
Figure 3. Issues on virtual fit expression (a) the software expressed less wrinkles than the actual amount,
(b) the hem width from the front view was wider than that of real pants, but the hem width from the side view
was narrower than that of real pants.
studies, only a few researchers investigated the accuracy of 3-D garment simulation technology for
visualizing garment fit, especially for pants. Lee et al. (2007) simply analyzed the degree of simi-
larity between real and virtual fit, using but three participants (lean, normal, and obese body type)
and three overall different pant fit categories (tight, adequate, and loose). However, we developed 61
individual pant samples for three lower body types using an automated custom fit program that
allowed us to obtain pants with various fit problems. We also asked the fit judges to analyze the pant
fit so we could analyze how 3-D representation was different based on a variety of fit statuses.
Kim and LaBat (2013) also evaluated the accuracy of 3-D simulation technology. They selected
36 general consumers as evaluators, so the analysis was from the customer perspective in the online
shopping scenario. However, we asked expert fit judges who actually worked as designers or tech-
nical designers to evaluate the similarities between the real and the virtual fit. Another difference
between Kim and LaBat’s study and the current one is that Kim and LaBat’s used a 7-point Likert-
type scale with end points being extremely poor fit (1) and excellent fit (7), while we used a Likert-
type scale with different end points for each scale based on fit locations (e.g., tight [1]-loose [3] or
short [1]-long [3]). The fit judges in the current study additionally evaluated the degree of similarity
between real and virtual fit using a 5-point Likert-type scale, ranging from 1 (very different) to 5
(very similar) at each location. Therefore, we could analyze how 3-D representation was different
depending on a variety of fit statuses at each designated fit location.
From these results, we concluded that the overall accuracy of virtual fitting technology is mod-
erately good for use, especially for pants with good fit, but not to the extent that apparel professionals
could fully use it as a visual fit analysis tool. We noted five main issues and offer suggestions on
ways to improve the 3-D simulation technology.
First, 3-D virtual pants were not donned at the right place, especially at the waist. Specifically,
waist placement of the virtual pants appeared to be different from that of the real pants regardless
of fit status. Most of the cases in which virtual fit and real fit looked different were when the waist
placement of the virtual pants was lower than that of the actual pants. This problem made it difficult
for the judges to judge crotch placement and pant length. Accordingly, it became difficult to judge
ease at the waist, hip, and crotch. In preparing the questionnaire, we also had difficulty in donning
the virtual pants because the pant waist placement changed depending on the initial alignment of the
pant patterns on the body. To solve this problem, further tools should be developed to let apparel
professionals mark the landmarks of waist location on the 3-D avatar before donning the pants and
to let the 3-D virtual program place the waist of the pants on these landmarks accurately.
Second, the 3-D virtual software generally represented less ease than the actual pants, and the
software could not express small stress folds from slight tightness and looseness. It was found that
the 3-D virtual image had no stress folds (6.0–28.1% of the cases in which expert judges considered
virtual fit and real fit to be different), or fewer stress folds than the real pants demonstrated (64.8–
74.3%). At the prototype development stage in the industry, the prototypes may only have slight fit
problems because the company will alter patterns that have already been shown to fit well. The 3-D
virtual program should be improved to express small stress folds from such slight misfits, especially
those between the waist and the crotch.
Third, the 3-D virtual program could not represent the silhouette of the pants, especially from the
crotch to the hem. Toward the hem, the front silhouette of the virtual pants spread wider than that of
the real pants, while the profile view was narrower. Currently, a few apparel companies, especially
Target and Kohl’s, have tested the utilization of 3-D virtual programs to view garment silhouettes
before producing their prototypes. Moreover, online apparel companies have utilized the technology
to visualize clothing silhouettes for their customers to judge before they purchase the clothing
(i-Fashion Center for Apparel Technology, 2007; My Virtual Model Inc., 2012). We found, how-
ever, that this technology may not yet be developed enough to represent style and silhouette appro-
priately for customers to make their final purchase decisions more easily.
Fourth, the unique finding of this study was that virtual pant fit is affected by body shape. The
results show that the virtual representation of pant fit for Group 2 (hip tilt and the most prominent
buttocks shape) was the least effective of any of the body shape groups, especially at front crotch and
thigh ease and for back waist placement. This finding means that if the samples are virtually fitted on
the fit model avatar with this shape, then virtual fit is not represented well. We determined that hip
tilt and the most prominent buttocks shape cause the loose fit and wrinkles at the front crotch and
front thigh, and a gap between the body and the pants at the back waist due to this loose fit.
One of the most critical issues to be addressed for the virtual program is the reality/clarity of fab-
ric color and texture. If the scanned fabric image is filled into the pants, then stress folds are
obscured. However, when the color is filled from the pallet, the 3-D virtual fabric looks smoother
and thicker than the actual fabric. Apparel professionals want to see virtual clothing filled with
an actual fabric image to test the harmony between fabric and design. Thus, the software should be
improved to show stress folds if the scanned image is used to apply texture and color to the virtual
garments.
However, this study is somewhat limited, as the results are based on only one kind of fabric and
one pant style. Further, the study was based on a photo of a body in pants (for real fit) and a screen-
captured image of a scanned body in virtual pants (for virtual fit). In future studies, as fit judges are
trained in the use of 3-D simulation technology, they can then analyze virtual fit by zooming in on
and rotating the 3-D image. They can also participate in fit sessions with a live fit model in clothes.
The results of such a comparison between virtual and real fit will then be more accurate, reliable, and
thus more accepted.
Early adopters such as Target and Kohl’s already understand the weak points of this new tech-
nology, but they keep using it because they know how impactful the benefits of speed and lower
overall production costs can be for their companies. Target plans to use virtual technology to
develop 80–90% of all their apparel products by 2018. If more researchers in the apparel product
development field pay closer attention to the value of 3-D virtual fit representation and provide
appropriate feedback to 3-D virtual fitting software developers, this new technology can be devel-
oped further and address the limitations. Then more apparel companies will be willing to use 3-D
virtual fitting technology as a valuable tool, producing tremendous savings in company production
time and costs, as well as ongoing benefits to their customers.
Funding
The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.
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Author Biographies
Hwa Kyung Song earned a PhD degree at Cornell University, and she is an assistant professor in the Depart-
ment of Clothing & Textiles at Kyung Hee University. Her recent research topics include body shape analysis
using 3-D body scan data, comparison of 3-D clothed scan with virtual fitting image, and improvement of auto-
mated made-to-measure patternmaking process.
Susan P. Ashdown is the Helen G. Canoyer professor in the Department of Fiber Science & Apparel Design at
Cornell University. Her research is on the interaction between apparel design and technology, 3-D body scan-
ning, apparel fit and sizing, and changes in apparel design, production, and distribution driven by new
technologies.