“ECONOMICS OF PADDY CULTIVATION

WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO

VAIKOM TALUK”

Dissertation submitted to
MAHATMA GANDHI UNIVERSITY
In the partial fulfilment for the award of degree of
MASTER OF ARTS IN ECONOMICS

BY

ANUPAMA MONACHAN

Reg.no: 210011001611

Under the Supervision and guidance of

Asst. Prof. JOJI JACOB
Department of Economics

P.G DEPARTMENT OF ECONOMICS

ST. THOMAS COLLEGE PALAI
SEPTEMBER 2023
 DECLARATION

I hereby declare that the dissertation titled “ECONOMICS OF PADDY CULTIVATION WITH
SPECIAL REFERENCE TO VAIKOM TALUK” is exclusively a bonafide record of research
work done by me under the supervision of Asst.Prof. JOJI JACOB , DEPARTMENT OF
ECONOMICS, S.T THOMAS COLLEGE PALAI and is submitted to Mahatma Gandhi university
in partial fulfilment of the requirement for the award of Degree in Master of Arts in Economics and it
has not been previously formed the basis of the award of any degree, diploma, fellowship or similar
title of any other University or Institution.

Place: Palai Signature

Date: ANUPAMA MONACHAN
 ST.THOMAS COLLEGE, PALAI

CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that the dissertation titled “ ECONOMICS OF PADDY CULTIVATION WITH
SPECIAL REFERENCE TO VAIKOM TALUK “, is an orginal work done by Ms. ANUPAMA
MONACHAN (Reg.no: 210011001611), ST. Thomas college Palai in partial fulfilment of the
requirements for the award of degree in Master of Arts in Economics of Mahatma Gandhi University,
Kottayam under my supervision and guidance. This work has not been previously formed the basis of
the award of any degree,diploma, fellowship or similar title of any otherUniversity or Institution. She
is permitted to submit the dissertation.

Dr. BIJU K.C Asst. Prof. JOJI JACOB

Head of the department of Economics Supervising Teacher
ST. Thomas college Palai Department of Economics
ST. Thomas college Palai

Place : Palai
Date:
 CONTENTS

Chapter No: TITLE Page No

1 Introduction

2 Review of literature

6 References

7 Appendix
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This is to express my deepest gratitude to all those who have extended their timely support and
helping hand in completing this study.
I thank the God Almighty , without whose blessings it would not been possible to complete the study
successfully.
I extend my sincere gratitude to Rev. Dr. James John , the principal of S.T Thomas college Palai for
enabling to carry out this work.
Iam gratefull to Dr.Biju K.C , head of the post graduate department of Economics, and all members
of the faculty of Economics , S.T Thomas college palai for their unstinted encouragement and support
to me in completing this dissertation.
I indeed grateful to my parents and friends for their unlimited encouragements at various stages of the
study.
“ECONOMICS OF PADDY CULTIVATION
WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO
VAIKOM TALUK”

Kerala, the southernmost state of India, occupies a unique position on the map of the country and lies
between 8 degree 18- and 12-degree 48 north latitude and between 74 degree 52- and 77- degree 24
east longitude. Rice is a socially and politically important crop of Kerala. The wet humid tropical
climate of Kerala is conducive to the cultivation of rice and traditionally rice occupied a prime
position in Kerala’s agriculture. However, area under rice has been declining over the years, with a
possibility of extinction of rice farming in the state. The livelihood security of the rural agrarian
population revolving around rice farming is in danger. The employment opportunities in this sector,
especially for women are declining at a rapid rate. It has become important to sustain and promote
rice cultivation by promoting the multiple livelihood opportunities linked with rice farming, among
the socially and economically disadvantaged groups.
Even though the food habits of the people of Kerala had remarkably changed over the last few
decades, rice still continues to be their staple food. The diverse topographic, climate, and social
conditions of the state enable its people to cultivate a wide variety of seasonal and perennial crops.
The gross cropped area and the net sown area in the state have declined over a period of time. The
changes in land utilisation pattern in the form of massive conversion of paddy lands for the cultivation
of cash crops and non-agricultural purposes have landed Kerala in a state of food insecurity. With the
growing pressure of population and development of the secondary and territory sectors, agricultural
land throughout the state is being converted for the construction of residential buildings, commercial
establishments, which in turn reduces the net area sown in the state.
The gap between demand and supply of rice which was around fifty percent till the mid
seventies was widening every year as the area under rice declined at a very fast rate due to large scale
conversion of paddy lands for raising other cash crops such as coconut, rubber, banana etc. the
steeping increase in food prices indicate the state’s large dependence on other states and an urgent
need of a mechanism to face the immediate food crisis.
“Paddy cultivation in Kerala is mainly carried out by the Group of farming samithies, known
as “padashekara samithies” which plays an leading role in the production of rice across state. The
low land availability and high cost of other production factors such as farm labour, fertiliser, the
excessive reliance on unpredictable international commodity prices and the monsoon vagaries have
resulted in low farm viability in Kerala. However, in terms of rural livelihood options, food security,
raw materials for the food processing industries and exports rural agriculture are very important.
Several initiatives have been undertaken in the state to encourage the production of crops” (Economic
review)
Kerala economy is known as a consumer economy- its production base referred to as very
weak or poor- in agriculture and manufacturing. Being a state with high public debt (debt-GDP ratio
of 36%), the long-term fiscal sustainability of the state depends on strengthening the production base.
Agriculture, the backbone of any economy, contributing 56% to GSDP IN 1960-61 has recorded a
tremendous decline in terms of both production and area though productivity has increased from
1483kg per ha in 1971 The doubling of population has created a rising demand for its staple food
crop-rice. This increased demand has been met by depending on the other states and also on the PDS
share from the central govt- The state only contributes approximately 15% of the total demand in the
state. Conversion of paddy fields to cash crops is widespread. The net result is a major decline in area
and production of rice in Kerala, which has made serious inroads into the state's food production
capacity. In addition, it affected the diverse kinds of ecosystem services provided by the crop. Rice
ecology in the state is varied and is strongly conditioned by local climate and land forms. It
rangesfrom below sea-level cultivation (e.g., Kuttanad, Pokkali and Kole lands) to rice paddies in
the High Ranges of Idukki and Wayanad (800-1500Â m above sea-level). Rice cultivation also has
profound environmental implications including climate change impacts. This paper reviews the
literature on ecological and historical aspects of rice production in Kerala.
In the case of Kottayam district, agriculture department deals with the formulation and
implementation of various programmes to augment production of food crops.it undertakes activities
among farmers to promote scientific methods of cultivation, plant protection and also arranges the
supply of high yielding varieties of seeds, planting materials and plant protection chemicals to
farmers. Through the functioning of Krisi bhavans, district soil testing laboratory at kozha
(kuravilangad), state ag-mark grading laboratory at Kottayam, state seed farm at kozha are some of
the main institutions and initiatives which encourage food crop cultivation in Kottayam district.

SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

Rice is the staple food of over half of the world population. The prominence of commercial
crops and low profitability are the primary reasons behind the decline its decline. From the broad
perspective for achieving self-sufficiency in food production the need to promote paddy cultivation is
of having much importance. Now both central and state government are having a keen vision for the
promotion and enhancement of paddy cultivation. In the matter of rural employment creation and
poverty eradication paddy cultivation plays a vital role. The initiatives from both central and state
government are focusing upon the nurturing and revival of rice cultivation and through it, attain self
sufficiency in food grain production. At the current context input prices for rice cultivation is high and
it lowers interest in paddy cultivation. Here it explores more on to the cost benefit, general problems,
economic social conditions of paddy cultivators and various government policies and its
implementation in a detailed way. Sustainable agricultural practice in the field of paddy is essential
for tackling poverty. The upliftment of rice farming practices is inevitable need of the hour, at present
in the matter of rice Kerala is assumed to be a consumerist state proper policies and planning can help
to rejuvenate farming practices.

STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

Currently Kerala economy is in service oriented track and youngsters are attracted more
towards white collor jobs. Agriculture sector in Kerala is in a stagnant state, it is more evident in the
case of paddy cultivation. Conversion of paddy fields for other purposes, low profitability absence of
skilled labour, un predicted climate fragilities in recent years etc may force farmers to withdraw from
it. Absence of efficient coordination in marketing aggregate this crisis. Here it tries to explore socio
economic condition of paddy farmers, their level of profit, how they cope up with uncertain climate
vulgarise etc. it also focuses upon the recent governmental policy measures for the promotion of
paddy fields and their implementation. It is also important to note the hurdles they must face from
sowing to harvesting. Fragmented land holdings are another concern in the matter of paddy cultivation
it hinders bulk production. There are lot of risks associated with rice cultivation such as economic,
geographical, social it deteriorates production and marketing of rice. Both central and state
government initiated various policies for the promotion of paddy cultivation, but the accessibility of
benefits is yet another concern. Rising price of seeds, fertilizers posses’ serious threat Infront of
farmers and it may result in the formation of barren lands and switching of crop. Real estate
expansion also results in declining of land area for rice cultivation.

OBJECTIVES

1.To examine the socio – economic profile of paddy farmers in Vaikom taluk
2.To estimate cost – benefit analysis of paddy cultivation
3.To evaluate various government policies for the promotion of paddy cultivation and their
implementation
4.To analyse major problems in paddy cultivation.

DATA SOURCES AND ANALYTICAL METHODS

1.5.1 sampling method

It is not possible to cover the entire population of the for the analysis so sampling method is used. 50
samples from Kottayam district are my target and it is collected from vaikom thaluk.
Sampling size 50
Sampling period:

1.5.2 tools for data collection

Direct questionnaire method and google forms are used for the study

1.5.3 sources of data

Both primary and secondary data are used for the analysis.
In this study both primary and secondary sources are having greater roles. In the case of primary data
it is collected mainly from the targeted samples and through direct questionnaire. It will give much
accuracy for the study. Secondary sources are mainly from published sources like magazines
newspapers etc.

DATA ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION

Data analysis and interpretation is the process of assigning meaning to the collected
information and determining the conclusions, significance, and implication of the findings.
Here uses statistical tool spss for the analysis and interpretation.it gives much accuracy and
validity to the findings. The major advantages of this is quick and easy to learn,can handle large
amount of data,and greater user interface.
CHAPTERISATION
The entire study is divided into 5 chapters
chapter1 - Introduction
The first chapter deals with introduction, significance of the study, statement of the problem,
objectives, methodology, limitations and chapterisation
chapter 2 Review of literature
chapter3- An overview of socio-economic profile of paddy farmers in Kottayam district and general
analysis of paddy cultivation in Kerala
chapter 4 – Data analysis and interpretation
The fourth chapter deals with the analysis and interpretation of the responses and it is carried through
spss software
chapter 5 - findings, suggestions, and conclusion
The fifth chapter is a summary of findings of the study, conclusion derived from analysis and
suggestions, which are helpful for further analysis.

Limitations
1. Study is confined into vaikom taluk
2.
 CHAPTER 2 REVIEW OF LITREATURE

A literature review is the synthesis of the available literature regarding a specific topic. This
synthesis merges the conclusions of many different sources to explain the overall understanding of the
topic, thus laying a foundation for both the research question and primary research.

2.1 Trends in paddy cultivation in Kerala

Nithin K. N (2021) this primarily high lightens the structural transformation in paddy cultivation and
trend variation. Paddy, which was the first choice among the crops in 1970s has been pushed to the
third position after coconut and rubber. It also analyses the problems faced by paddy cultivators in the
present scenario. It is revealed that Palakkad, Alappuzha, Thrissur are the major paddy growing
districts of Kerala and they altogether contribute about 71 percent of the total paddy produced in the
state. The results of the Garretts ranking technique showed that the major problems faced by farmers
were shortage of labour, high labour cost and fragmented land holdings.
MP Abraham (2019) this thesis provides vital information regarding trend analysis of area production
and productivity. It gives much emphasis upon structural changes in the land use, the declining
profitability from paddy crop, shortage of farm labours, conversion of land for other purposes. It is
very useful for identifying the causes for the decline in paddy cultivation and for suggesting policy
recommendations for revamping paddy cultivation.
Jayan Jose Thomas (2010) It throws light on to the sharp fall in the area under paddy cultivation as
well as the quantity of rice produced in the state has had important implications for the Kerala’s
economic, ecological and social development. It also analyses support from local institutions, land as
a speculative asset in a much-detailed way.
Pm Thomas (2002) its key attention is on kuttanad region and its trend and pattern in paddy
cultivation over the years. More than two thirds of the total land area in the region is wetlands.
Enriched by the slit deposit of pamba, meenachil, manimala the loamy soil in this region is very fertile
and suitable for cultivation. It also explores economic viability of paddy cultivation, measures to
improve paddy cultivation in the region and also the competition from commercial crops.

2.2 Traditional rice cultivation in Kerala

J Krishnan Kutty (2021) This study explores the dynamics of traditional rice cultivation in Kerala. It
examines the economic, institutional, and social demographic factors involved in the production and
marketing of rice. Even though traditional rice farming was not found to be cost effective in implicit
terms when imputed personal labour and owned land costs were not considered.
S Rasheed (2021) traditional paddy varieties have been the source of economic, cultural, food and
nutriential needs of local communities since ages. Currently traditional farming practices are not yet
seen anywhere and the inclination towards mechanized farm practices are rising at an alarming rate.
Michael Blakeney Jayashree Krishnan Kutty, Rajesh k Raju and kadambot H.M Siddique (2020) it
looks upon the concepts such as agricultural innovation, traditional rice cultivation, geographical
indicators and intellectual property. It focuses more on benefits from paddy cultivation, registered
farmers and their wellbeing in a much-detailed way.
Deepak Johnson (2017) it discusses about traditional rice growing region where rice cultivation
continues and is characterised by rising levels of productivity. This is the Kole wetlands region, an
area of 13632 hectares with a vast expanse of fields below sea level spread across the districts of
Thrissur and Malappuram.
S Leena Kumari (2010) it discusses about viruppu mundakam sequence practised on irruppu niloms
covering the midlands and the agro cultural zone. It also analyses various geographical features and
agro eco systems like pokali agro ecosystem, onattukara agro eco system, high range eco system in a
convincing way. How the traditional farming practices may act as a back bone in past years is
analysed in this thesis. With the advent of mechanisation and new farming practices traditional
practice of rice cultivation severely hit.

2.3 Restoration of paddy cultivation in Kerala.

P.K Viswanathan (2021) this thesis shows insights on to the aspects of protecting the remaining paddy
fields and wetlands in the state that has been facing serious challenges of depletion, degradation,
permanent conversion due to housing expansion, real estate development etc. The decline in rice
cultivation in the state is attributed to several factors, mainly categorised as price and nonprice factors,
which included; loss of profitability and high cost of production of rice and other food crops,
perceptible decline in the size of operational holdings, constrains in the development of land and
water resources, changed agrarian relations, shortage of labour for performing agricultural operations
vis-a vis high wage rates and loss of interest in farming through this thesis the need for restoration of
paddy fields and its various economic and social dimension is considered.
K. V George Kutty (2018) it discusses about ways to rejuvenate paddy cultivation in Kerala and there
by attain food security. The various government policies at the central, state and, local level is having
a key role in the thesis. Lack of skilled labour force in paddy cultivation is one of the challenging
factors in paddy cultivation it also pays special attention on to it.
Gopi, m. Manjula (2018) it presents a wide dimension regarding genetic diversity of rice landraces.
The rich genetic diversity of rice in Kerala offers scope to adapt to multiple agro ecologies, provides
resistance to biotic and abiotic stresses and cultural significance. These rice landraces are important in
creating an enabling environment for farming in the context of climate change. The need for
“conservation incentive “is a key strategy discussed in the thesis.

2.4 policy measures of state government for promoting rice cultivation

Ram (2021) it discusses about policy lag, policy failure, institutional support, innovations in the
paddy cultivation. Policy measures from the government side is one of the constructive factor which
enhances productivity. In the case of current scenario un predicted climate vulgarise may result in
heavy risk in paddy cultivation so the need and intervention of government through various policies is
very much crucial
V panikulangara (1976) it pays special attention on to the notion of legislatural procedures for
enhancing rice cultivation in Kerala. It also identifies the factors which may act as a barrier for the
successful implementation of policies and programmes to boost rice cultivation.

2.5 Economic viability of paddy cultivation

Aiswarya Sabu, S Padma Rani, vidhyavathi Arumugam (2020) integrated farming system practised
mostly by small and marginal holdings in kuttanad region of Kerala state, India and also attempts to
give a clear dimension regarding the economic viability of paddy cultivation in kuttanad region.
Geographically kuttand region may have lot of specialities and this makes it to be rice bowl of Kerala.
The unexpected floods and climate change affected rice cultivation in this region. High price for
inputs and cost of mechanisation aggregated risk and uncertainty in farming practices.
Ranjith. p, K.R Karunakaran (2019) Here it tries to explore economic aspects, efficiency measures,
and resource use in the paddy cultivation. So, this study attempts to bridge these gaps by providing
the economics of production of pokali system and to estimate its technical, allocative and economic
efficiencies and resource use efficiencies. It uses marginal physical product to estimate economic
viability in farming system
J.T Srinivasan (2012) it analyses economic viability of paddy cultivation in a detailed way. At present
the high price for inputs, mechanisation in the farming practices, wages of workers etc may act as a
negative factor in enhancing rice cultivation. Lack of profitability is one of the prime factor which
may result in switching from paddy cultivation.
P G Padmanabhan, N.C Narayanan, K.G Padma Kumar (2001) It presents economic viability of an
integrated and sustainable resource use model for kuttanad. This thesis is rooted in perceptional study
of different groups of farmers in the region to assess the economic viability and scope of replication of
the model. Its insights on to the real aspects such as orientation towards perennial cash crops in view
of their agricultural sustainability. This orientation has resulted in the state becoming deficit in food
crop production. The gap between demand and supply of food grains is also analysed here. Escalation
in costs of production is having supreme importance in this thesis.

Research Gap
Most of the studies are in general nature and does not penetrate on to the root problems such as
dominance of real estate and land area availability, pressure from social circumstances which result in
switching of crop. In the case of various government policies, the accessibility domain among rural
masses is not identified, and also delays in implementation, and exclusion from beneficiaries list is a
serious concern.
Area covering full environment and social concern of vaikom are not available among this
thesis. This geographical zone play a pivotal role in promoting paddy cultivation in Kottayam district.
The Krishi bhavan policies and assistance are not highlighted anywhere in all these thesis.
Almost all the studies are focusing upon general problems, trend pattern, the need for
restoration of paddy fields etc and all give slightly importance on to cost benefit analysis, socio –
economic profile of paddy cultivators. Remittances channels and various money flows other than
paddy cultivation are not handled properly in all this thesis. At present rice cultivation is in a stagnant
state so it is essential to understand other money channels which helps them to be stable.
The factors which may sustain in continuing paddy cultivation is of having supreme
importance but paradoxically it is not mentioned anywhere in all the thesis. The need of restoration of
paddy fields is highlighted in certain models, but proper actions and policies are not mentioned.
Due to the above-mentioned defaults the significance of my study gain yet another dimension.
It incorporates cost benefit analysis of paddy cultivation, socio economic profile of paddy farmers in
Kottayam district various policy measures its implementation, accessibility and also general problems
associated with paddy cultivation such as marketing hurdles, absence of skilled labour, input price
hike etc
 CHAPTER 3

3.1 Rice cultivation at the global level

Rice is the primary staple food for more than half the world's population—with Asia, Sub-Saharan
Africa, and South America the largest consuming regions. The bulk of global rice is classified as
Oryza Sativa, a plant species which is believed to have originated in Asia from the Graminaceae
(grass) family. Although rice is produced over vast areas of the world, the physical requirements for
growing it are limited to certain areas. Economically sound production typically requires high average
daytime temperatures but cooler nights during the growing season, a plentiful supply of water applied
as needed, a smooth land surface to facilitate uniform flooding and drainage, and a subsoil hard-pan
that inhibits percolation.

The immediate impacts of climate change on rice production systems and food security will be felt in
the form of adverse effects of extreme weather events on rice production. Floods also cause indirect
damage to rice production by destroying the properties and production means of farmers, and
infrastructures supporting rice production such as dams, dikes, roads, etc.
Rice growth and production are affected by: the environment, soil properties, biotic conditions, and
cultural practices. Environmental factors include rainfall and water, temperature, photoperiod, solar
radiation and, in some instances, tropical storms. Soil factors refer to soil type and their position in
uplands or lowlands. Biotic factors deal with weeds, insects, diseases, and crop varieties.
Rice can be grown in different environments, depending upon water availability.Generally, rice does
not thrive in a waterlogged area, yet it can survive and grow herein and it can survive flooding.
*Lowland, rainfed, which is drought prone, favors medium depth; waterlogged, submergence, and
flood prone
*Lowland, irrigated, grown in both the wet season and the dry season
*Deep water or floating rice
*Coastal wetland
*Upland rice (also known as hill rice )
RICE PRODUCTION ANALYSIS – ASIA
The rice plant (Oryza sativa species) was domesticated in Asia some 8,000 to 10,000 years ago. At the
beginning of the 21st century, it is still the leading cereal in human food systems and the main source
of energy and significant share of proteins consumed by almost three billion people. In some Asian
developing countries, the annual consumption per capita can reach 200kg of white rice, but it falls to
approximately 50kg of high quality grains in rich, industrialised countries like Japan. The annual
global production of rice amounts to over 600 million tonnes of paddy rice (the whole grain before
milling), 90% of which is located in Asia where the largest producing countries are China, India,
Indonesia, Bangladesh, Vietnam and Thailand. The crucial production of the “grain of life” depends
on a myriad of very small family holdings often managing less than one hectare of paddy fields per
household, for example in China, compared to four hectares in Thailand where the availability of
farmland is far superior. Rice lands occupy some 150 million hectares worldwide, i.e. 15% of the
global farm area and almost a quarter of the world’s cereal crop lands. More than 200 million rice
farmers are involved in this production, with a growing number of part-time farmers combining this
activity with other economic ones, like in Japan in the past. This industry is therefore the most
important human activity on earth. is reflected by the fall in the price of rice in the world markets.

The Asia-Pacific Region, where more than 56 percent of the world’s population live, adds 51
million more rice consumers annually. As a result of this the thin line of rice self-sufficiency
experienced by many countries is disappearing fast. How the current 524 million tonnes of rice
produced annually will be increased to 700 million tonnes by the year 2025 using less land, less
people, less water and fewer pesticides, is a big question. The task of increasing substantially the
current level of production will face additional difficulties as the avenues for putting more area under
modern varieties and using more fertilizers for closing the yield gap, bringing in additional area under
rice or under irrigation are becoming limited. The irrigated rice area currently occupies about 56
percent of the total area and contributes 76 percent of the total production. It would be hard to
increase this area due to the problems of soil salinity, high cost of development, water scarcity,
alternative and competing uses of water, and environmental concerns. Thus, increased productivity on
a time scale has to make the major contribution across ecosystems by using more advanced
technologies.

China:
The greatest rice-producing country in the world is China. The average annual production of
rice in China is 130 million metric tons, which is about 36 per cent of the world production. In China
rice culture has been developed in early phase of civilisation, therefore, it is a traditional rice-
producing country
major rice-producing regions of China are as follows:
(i) Szechuan Region:
It is the largest rice-producing region in China. Favorable geographical conditions, cheap
labour, fertile riverine alluvial soil and traditional skills enable this region to produce huge amount of
high quality of rice.
(ii) Lower Yaugtze Basin
(iii) South-West Region of China
(iv) Kwantung Region
(v) Szechun-Hunan Region

2. India:
India is the second largest rice-producing country in the world. Its average annual production
is 95 million metric tons, which is about 20 per cent of the world total. Rice is the staple food and
cultivated in most of the states of India. Among the regions Ganga-Brahmaputra valley contributes the
largest amount of rice followed by coastal regions.
The major rice-producing states in India are West Bengal, Bihar, Tamil Nadu, Andhra
Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Karnataka, Assam and Odisha. With the help of irrigation,
improved seeds, use of fertilisers, multiple cropping, the production of rice is increasing but its
average yield is still low in comparison to other important rice-producing countries.

3. Indonesia:
It is the third largest rice-producing country in the world. The average annual rice production
of Indonesia is 37 million metric tons. In Indonesia rice is produced in many islands but the main rice-
producing areas lie in Java, Sumatra and Borneo.

4. Bangladesh:
The total rice average of nearly 10 million hectares and the annual output of nearly 30 million
metric tons make Bangladesh a major world rice producer. The bulk of the rice fields are unirrigated
in the Ganges delta region, where annual rainfall is more than 250 cm and soil is heavy and wet all the
time.

5. Japan:
Japan is the country which has not only developed rice cultivation under adverse
topographical conditions but is also a leading producer of rice. It ranks 10th in world rice production.
In Japan rice dominates the low alluvial filled valleys and coastal plains. Kwanto plain is the main
rice-producing region of Japan.
The Japanese have introduced high-yielding ‘Japonica’ paddy hybrids which increase output
tremendously. The average yield of rice in Japan is as high as 6,166 kg/hectare. Some of the fast
maturing species that the Japanese agronomists have devised can be harvested within 95 days. Double
cropping of rice is also practised in the southern regions of Japan.
Apart from above mentioned countries, South-East Asian countries are also leading producers
of rice. In fact, all the countries of South-East Asia produce rice. But, the main countries are Vietnam,
Thailand, Myanmar and Philippines. These countries rank 5th, 6th, 7th and 8th in world rice
production. Thailand and Myanmar are considered the ‘rice bowl of Asia’. Other countries of South-
East Asia which produce rice are Cambodia, Laos and Malaysia.Pakistan also produces rice and ranks
12th in world’s rice-producing countries. Rice is also produced in South Korea. In Taiwan, paddy is
grown on the wetter west coast.

3.1 Paddy cultivation in India

Rice is indias most important foodgrain crop, accounting for nearly 40 percent of total food grain
production. The success of the green revolution and the achievements of the fourth plans foodgrains
target will,the be the reason behind its vast spread ,but at the contemporary world paddy cultivation is
in a stagnant state. India is the world's second-largest producer of rice, and the largest exporter of rice
in the world. Production increased from 53.6 million tons in FY 1980 to 120 million tons in FY2020-
2021
Rice is one of the chief grains of India. Moreover, this country has the largest area under rice
cultivation. As it is one of the principal food crops. It is, in fact, the dominant crop of the country.
India is one of the leading producers of this crop. Rice is the basic food crop and being a tropical
plant, it flourishes comfortably in a hot and humid climate. Rice is mainly grown in rain-fed areas that
receive heavy annual rainfall. That is why it is fundamentally a kharif crop in India. It demands a
temperature of around 25 degrees Celsius and above, and rainfall of more than 100 cm. Rice is also
grown through irrigation in those areas that receive comparatively less rainfall.Rice is the staple food
of eastern and southern parts of India.
Rice can be cultivated by different methods based on the type of region. But in India,
traditional methods are still in use for harvesting rice. The fields are initially plowed and fertilizer is
applied which typically consists of cow dung, and then the field is smoothed. The seeds are
transplanted by hand and then through proper irrigation, the seeds are cultivated. Rice grows on a
variety of soils like silts, loams and gravels. It can tolerate alkaline as well as acid soils. However,
clayey loam is well suited to the raising of this crop. Actually, the clayey soil can be easily converted
into the mud in which rice seedlings can be transplanted easily. Proper care has to be taken as this
crop thrives if the soil remains wet and is underwater during its growing years. Rice fields should be
level and should have low mud walls for retaining water. In the plain areas, excess rainwater is
allowed to inundate the rice fields and flow slowly. Rice raised in the well-watered lowland areas is
known as lowland or wet rice. In the hilly areas, slopes are cut into terraces for the cultivation of rice.
Thus, the rice grown in the hilly areas is known as dry or upland rice. The yield of upland rice per
hectare is comparatively less than that of wet rice.
The regions cultivating this crop in India are distinguished as the western coastal strip, the
eastern coastal strip, covering all the primary deltas, Assam plains and surrounding low hills, foothills
and Terai region- along the Himalayas and states like West Bengal, Bihar, eastern Uttar Pradesh,
eastern Madhya Pradesh, northern Andhra Pradesh and Odisha. India, being a land of the eternal
growing season, and the deltas of the Ganges-Bramhaputra(in West Bengal), Kaveri River, Krishna
River, Godavari River, Indravati River and Mahanadi River with a thick set-up of canal irrigation like
Hirakud Dam and Indravati Dam, permits farmers to raise two, and in some pockets, even three crops
a year. Irrigation has made even three crops a year possible. Irrigation has made it feasible even for
Punjab and Haryana, known for their baked climate, to grow rice. They even export their excess to
other states. Punjab and Haryana grow prized rice for export purposes. The hilly terraced fields from
Kashmir to Assam are ideally suited for rice farming, with age-old hill irrigational conveniences.
High yielding kinds, enhanced planting methods, promised irrigation water supply and mounting use
of fertilizers have together led to beneficial and quick results. It is the rain fed-area that cuts down
average yields per hectare.

In some states like West Bengal, Assam, and Orissa two crops of rice are raised in a year. The
Winter season in northwestern India is extremely cold for rice. Rice is considered as the master crop
of coastal India and in some regions of eastern India, where during the summer and monsoon seasons,
both high temperature and heavy rainfall provide ideal conditions for the cultivation of rice. Almost
all parts of India are suitable for raising rice during the summer season provided that water is
available. Thus, rice is also raised even in those parts of western Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, and Haryana
where low-level areas are waterlogged during the summer monsoon rainy season.
Winter rice crop is a long duration crop and summer rice crop is a short duration crop. At
some places in the eastern and southern parts of India, rice crop of short duration is followed by the
rice crop of long duration. Winter rice crop is raised preferably in low-lying areas that remain flooded
mainly during the rainy season. Autumn rice is raised in Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra, Rajasthan,
Madhya Pradesh, Punjab, and Himachal Pradesh. Summer, autumn, and winter rice crops are raised in
West Bengal, Andhra Pradesh, Assam, and Orissa. Summer rice crop is raised on a small scale and a
small area. However, the winter rice crop is actually the leading rice crop accounting for a major
portion of the total Hectare under rice in all seasons in the country. Moreover, in the last few years,
several steps to augment yield per hectare were taken up very seriously at all levels. India ranks fourth
in the production of wheat & second in the production of rice in the world. Favorable Geographical
Condition for Wheat Cultivation: In India, wheat is a winter crop. Wheat requires a moderately cool
climate with moderate rain. In India, it is grown in winter. It needs a temperature of 10 degrees C to
15 degrees C for its cultivation. It thrives well at an average temperature of 16-degree C. Warm and
sunny weather is essential at the time of ripening. Agriculture department deals with the formulation
and implementation of various programmes to augment production of both food crops and cash crops
in the District. It undertakes activities among farmers to promote scientific methods of cultivation
plant protection etc. and also arranges the supply of high yielding varieties of seeds, seedlings,
planting materials and plant protection chemicals to farmers.

Rice cultivation across states

Rice is a kharif crop and is a staple food of India. Over half of the worlds population consume
rice every day. India is the second largest producer of rice in the world. in india rice is grown from 8
to 35N latitude and upto 3000meters above sea level.
Paddy Kharif season
The Kharif cropping season starts with the onset of the Indian subcontinent’s monsoon. Kharif crops
are typically sown at the beginning of the first monsoon rains (depending on region to region).
Harvesting season begins from the 3rd week of September to October (the exact harvesting dates
differ from region to region).
Unlike Rabi crops, Kharif crops require good rainfall. The output of these crops depends upon the
time and amount of rainwater. Paddy, maize, bajra, jowar are a few of the Kharif crops grown in
India.

Union budget 2023 and Agricultural sector

The Ministry has been allocated Rs 1,25,036 crore in 2023-24, 5% greater than the revised estimates
for 2022-23.[2],[3] The Ministry of Agriculture accounts for 2.8% of the total Union Budget. The
increase in expenditure is on account of marginal increase in the allocation for schemes such as
Modified Interest Subvention Scheme (5%) and the Pradhan Mantri Fasal Bima Yojana (10%).

Main Programmes/ Schemes of Rice

Crops Division of Department of Agriculture, Cooperation and Farmers Welfare (DAC & FW) is
implementing various crop development schemes for increasing production and productivity of the
crops in the country viz. National Food Security Mission ( NFSM ) on rice, wheat, pulses ,coarse
cereals and commercial crops cotton, jute & sugarcane) andBringing Green Revolution to eastern
India (BGREI ) to increase the production and productivity of rice.
NFSM
NFSM-Rice is being implemented in 25 states covering 199 potential districts. Those districts have
been selected which have more than 50, 000 ha area under rice and productivity is less than state
average. Under NFSM, crop of production technologies are being promoted at the farmers field
through organization of clusters demonstration and cropping system demonstrations, distribution of
seeds which are less than 10 years old, application and INM and IPM, distribution of efficient farm
machines to farmers to reduce the cost of cultivation, application of efficient use of water by using
micro irrigation systems and pipes for water conveyance, training of farmers with latest crop
production technologies such as timely sowing , seed rate recommended package of practices etc . For
reduction in the cost of cultivation, at least 30% of the cluster demonstration under NFSM is being
conducted by adopting cropping system approach to utilize the rice fallow areas for pluses and oil
seeds cultivation. Assistance is given to farmers on distribution of improved seeds /hybrids ,
farmimplements machine, irrigation devices plant protection chemicals bio pesticides for promoting
integrated pest management and soil ameliorants etc. Through State Governments new initiatives have
been introduced such as free distribution of seed mini-kits of newer varieties of pulses, production of
quality seeds (breeder , foundation and certified seeds ), creation of seed hubs at SAU and KVKs,
strengthening of bio fertilizers and bio agent labs at SAUs / ICAR Institute , technological
demonstration by KVKs and enhancing pulses production and productivity. The commercial crops
(cotton /jute/ sugarcane) primarily focus on cropping system approach for transfer of technology in
the approved states. Also, under NFSM, there is provision of cropping system based training of
farmers which includes four sessions i.e. one before kharif and rabi season one each during kharif and
rabi season. Under this programme training of trainers /farmers is imparted by crop subject matter
specialist of ICAR Institute /SAUs/KVKs and involves various crop management practices
(agronomic and plant protection practices ) including primary processing of produces , storage etc.
andalso to create awareness about the new high yielding varieties /hybrids and new practices . A
group of 30 participants /farmers in each session and participants in all four session remain same
Central assistant of Rs. 14000/ per training (Rs 3500 /-per session) in made available.

BGREI
The programme of Bringing Green Revolution to Eastern India (BGREI) was initiated in 2010-11 as a
sub scheme of RKVY which intended to address the constraints limiting the productivity of “rice
based cropping systems” in Eastern India comprising seven (7) States namely, Assam, Bihar,
Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, Odisha, Eastern Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal. The objective is to increase
the crop productivity by intensive cultivation through promotion of recommended agriculture
technologies and package of practice. The demonstrations, introduction of new seed varieties, farm
machines & implements, nutrients, pesticides and knowledge based interventions developed for
different agro-climatic zonesare promoted. During 2013-14, based on the experience of
implementation the intervention of Marketing Support including post harvest technology was also
included. From the year 2015-16, the programme has been modified including the few interventions
like seed distribution of rice, seed production incentive for newer varieties/hybrids of rice, micro-
nutrients, soil ameliorants and plant protection chemicals, machines like laser , leveler etc.

Rashtriya Krishi Vikas Yojana (RKVY)

Itwas introduced in 2007 to ensure holistic development of agriculture and allied sectors.[4] It is a
centrally sponsored scheme that enables states to choose agriculture development activities as per
their plans.4 It was restructured under the 2022-23 budget to subsume other schemes such as the
Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchai Yojna-Per Drop More Crop, Paramparagat Krishi Vikas Yojna,
National Project on Soil and Health Fertility, Rainfed Area Development and Climate Change, Sub-
Mission on Agriculture Mechanization including Management of Crop Residue.[5] In 2023-24, Rs
7,150
The Pradhan Mantri fasal bima yojana (PMFBY)
It was launched on 18 February 2016 by Prime Minister Narendra Modi is an insurance service for
farmers for their yields.[1] It was formulated in line with One Nation–One Scheme theme by
replacing earlier two schemes National Agricultural Insurance Scheme (NAIS) and Modified National
Agricultural Insurance Scheme (MNAIS) by incorporating their best features and removing their
inherent drawbacks (shortcomings). It aims to reduce the premium burden on farmers and ensure early
settlement of crop assurance claim for the full insured sum.
E- NAM (National market for agricultural commodities).
NAM is a “virtual” market but it has a physical market (mandi) at the back end. The NAM Portal
provides a single window service for all APMC related information and services. This includes
commodity arrivals, quality & prices, buy & sell offers, provision to respond to trade offers and
electronic payment settlement directly into farmers’ account, among other services. While material
flow (agriculture produce) shall continue to happen through mandis, an online market which aims at
reducing transaction costs, bridging information asymmetry and helps in expanding the market access
to farmers is required.

3.2 Paddy cultivation in Kerala

Paddy farmers in Kerala have something to cheer amidst the ongoing row between the Kerala
government and the rice millers over procurement.
The area under rice cultivation (wetland) in the State fell to 1.94 lakh hectares in 2021-22, a decrease
of 3.9% compared to 2020-21, the Economic Review 2022Production and productivity of rice
declined to 5.59 lakh tonnes and 2,884 kg per hectare respectively, registering a decrease of 10.7%
and 7.1% compared to 2020-21, the review said, citing Department of Economics and Statistics
data.Rice constituted roughly 7.69% of the total cultivated area in the State in 2021-22. In the past
years, the highest area under paddy was recorded in 2020-21 (2.02 lakh hectares with a production of
6.27 lakh tonnes).

3.2.1Geographical specialities
A.Climate

The climate of the Sate is of the type-tropical monsoon with seasonally excessive rainfall and hot
summer except over the extremely southern district viz. Thiruvananthapuram where the climate falls
under the type-Tropical savanna with seasonally dry and hot summer weather. The year may be
divided into 3 seasons. The period from March to the end of May is the hot season. This is followed
by south west monsoon season, which continues till the middle of October. From the middle of
October begins the north east monsoon season, which lasts up to the end of February although the
rains associated with the north east monsoon ceases by December. The climate is pleasant from
September to February. Summer months March to May are uncomfortable due to high temperatures
and humidity. The High Ranges have a cool and bracing climate through our the year, while the plains
are hot and humid. Though the mean temperature is only 32.20 C, it is oppressively hot in the plains
in summer. The State is extremely humid due to existence of Arabian sea in the western side.

B. Soil type
Nine different soil types have been identified in Kerala as listed below
1. Alluvial Soil ( Spread over river Banks)
2. Sandy soil ( Coastal areas)
3. Sandy loam soil(Coastal areas)
4. Laterite soil with well defined B horizon( Natural midlands)
5. Laterite soil without B horizon( Natural highlands)
6. Red soil ( Southern- most Kerala)
7. Black Soil (Chittoor Taluk and Palakkad District)
8. Peat (Kari) soil( Kuttanad)
9. Acid saline soil( Pokkali and Kaippad area)

C. Rainfall and its distribution pattern

The average level of annual rainfall is quite high in the State, being in the neighborhood of about 2600
mm. It is significant that the Sate gets rainfall both from the south-west and the north-east monsoons.
The former starts towards the end of May or the beginning of June and fades out by September
whilelatter commences in October, and continues up to middle of November and dry weather sets in
by the
end of December. Among the different districts of Kerala, Palakkad receives the minimum rainfall
and the highest rainfall in the State occurs in the High Ranges of Kottayam district where it is over
3000 mm.

D. Agro-climatic zones
Kerala State has been delineated into thirteen agro climatic zones based on four parameters viz.,
altitude, rainfall pattern, soil type and topography viz.,
1. Onattukara,
2. Coastal Sandy
3.Southern Midlands
4.Central Midlands
5. Northern Midlands
6.Malappuram Type
7.Malayorum
8.Palakkadu plains
9. Red loam
10. Chittoor black soil
11.Kuttanadu
12. Riverbank alluvium
13. High ranges.

3.2.3 Rice Eco Systems of Kerala

Taking into consideration topography, soil and abiotic factors and variation in resource endowments,
and reckoning the seasonal differences in which rice is grown in the state, eight significant agro
ecosystems are identified as detailed below(Nair, 2000).

A. Midland and Malayorum ecosystems

The most predominant system is the viruppu-mundakan sequence practiced on irruppuniloms
covering the midlands and the malayoram agro-ecological zone. Viruppu crop on these lands is
largely a rainfed crop grown during the South West Monsoon. Generally starting as a dry broadcast
crop it ends up in wet conditions. The varieties grown have such plasticity that they are conditioned to
growth under a wide spectrum of moisture regimes from moist seedbedto standing water. Mundakan
(winter) crop is generally a transplanted crop (Broadcasting with sprouted seed is also practised
especially where water is assured) in which rice plant grows throughout under continuous wet
conditions. The fag end of the crop might be subjected to moisture stress in some areas if the northeast
monsoon tapers off suddenly. Most of the growing period is spent during the northeast monsoon
rainfall.

B. Palakkadu plains and Chittoor black soil agro-ecosystem.

Another major chunk of double-cropped land is the irrigated project commands predominantly the
eastern taluks of Palakkadu and Periyar valley command in the Ernakulam district. Prior to the
commissioning of the irrigation projects, these were the traditional iruppu and oruppu lands. The main
difference between the rainfed and the irrigated practice is that in the latter the viruppu season
commences only after the onset of the southwest monsoon (in June) and crop is established through
transplanting instead of dry broadcasting. The crop is of medium duration. Commencement of
mundakan season is delayed to October-November and continues to be a transplanted crop. Longer
duration varieties are preferred under the irrigated system.

C. Kuttanadu agro-ecosystem
A unique system of rice production is practiced in the rice bowl of the state: the Kuttanadu in
Alappuzha and Kottayam districts and kole land in Thrissur district. Being low-lying estuarine lands,
these areas are subjected to floods during the two monsoons and salinity intrusion during post
monsoon periods. Soon after the northeast monsoon ends in November, bunds (dykes) are raised.
Pumping out the water drains these ‘polders,’ sowing is then done wet with sprouted seeds. The
growing period is midway between mundakan and summer. Sown in November- December, the crop
is harvested in March - April. As the fields are generally below sea level, water from the bordering
canal system is drawn by gravity flow and used for irrigation. In some parts an additional crop is
taken during autumn or virippuwhich is sown dry broadcast or wet sown just prior to the onset of
monsoon.

D.Pokkali agro-ecosystem
In areas that are subjected to tidal action and hence the soil is saline, a crop of rice is grown during
viruppu taking advantage of the heavy southwest monsoon by a system of flushing out the salt from
the land. The system is known as pokkali in central Kerala and kaipaatu in north Kerala. After the
harvest of the virippu crop, prawn culture is practiced making use of the tidal flow during the ebb and
floods.

E. Onattukara agro-eco system

Here two crops of paddy is raised followed by pulse crop or oil seeds. Both the paddy crops – Virippu
and Mundakan are purely rainfed crops. The soil is sandy textured. It extends in Alappuzha &Quilon
districts.

F. High range agro-ecosystem

The low temperature regime generally prevailing in the high ranges limits the time available for rice
production in this area. Only one crop extending to both the southwest and the northwest monsoons is
practicable. Paddy production in the high ranges is mainly taking place in the Wayanad plateau where
the valley bottoms are relatively broad and extensive. Predominantly it is transplanted crop
commencing in July and harvested in December.

3.2.4 Rice production and economic analysis of kerala

The area under rice cultivation in the state fell to1.94 lakh hectares in 2021- 2022 a decrease of 3.9
percent compared to 2020- 2021. Given the high costs of cultivation and the modest yield levels ,the
price of paddy become an important determinant of profitability of farmer. In kerala the minimum
support price for paddy as announced by the state government,which was only Rs 700 per quintal in
2006 and was gradually rose to subsequent years , rose to Rs 1400 per quintal in2011. Now a days
farmers have demanded the state government to fix support Rs 35 per kilogram as procurement price
for paddy as against the Rs 28.20 per kg.

Kerala budget 2023 and paddy cultivation

Finane minister K N Balagopal said that the government is giving unique consideration to the
agricultural sector with total outlay earmarked for the sector at Rs 971.71 crore. Out of this ,Rs 156.30
crore is expected as central assistance. The total outlay for rice development is enhanced from the
current years provision of Rs 76 crore to Rs 95.10 crore.
Institutes involved in rice development in the state.
The Kerala Agricultural University (KAU) was established in 1972 and the agricultural research
institutions that were administered by the Departments of Agriculture and Animal Husbandry until
then were transferred the KAU in 1972. Since then, the agricultural research organization has been
restructured for accelerated development of agriculture in the State. In 1981, under the National
Agricultural Research Project ( NARP), the rice research activities were again re oriented to conduct
location specific production oriented research based on agro-climatic regions. Accordingly, five
Regional Agricultural Research Stations for the North, South and Central, High range and Special
zones started functioning. At present, rice research is being conducted at the following research
stations to cater the needs of the different zones
• Regional Agricultural Research Station, Pattambi in Plalakkad district for the development of
laterite midlands. Here research is going on for the Palakkattu plains and black soil zone of Chittoor
taluk in the eastern region of Palakkad District also
• Regional Agricultural Research Station, Kayamkulam in Alappuzha district. The lead function of the
station is to conduct research on rice and rice based farming system for the Onattukara region. Here
research is going on in paddy, pulses and oil seeds.
• Rice Research Station at Moncompu in Alleppey district for Kuttanad zone to conduct research on
all aspects of rice cultivation in the submerged Kayal and semi dry Karappadom lands of Kuttanadu
agro eco system.
• Agricultural Regional Agricultural Research Station, Ambalavayal in Wayanad district to cater to
the needs of high range zone.
• Research Station at Mannuthy in Thrissur district to cater to the needs of the Kole region
• Rice Research Station at Vytilla in Ernakulam district for the development of Pokkali zone.

3.3Rice cultivation in Kottayam district

District is located in central Kerala and divided into four submicroregions. District lies between 9015’
and 100 21’ North Latitude and 76022’ and 77025’ East Longitude. Based on physical features
Kottayam can be divided as highland, midland and lowland,the bulk being constituted by midland
regions. The important rivers of the District are the Meenachil, Muvattupuzha and Manimala. District
has a tropical humid climate with oppressive hot season and plenty of rainfall during monsoon. The
total forest area in the district is 100.84 sq.km showing that the extent of forest is not much. Kottayam
is the first town in India selected by the Ministry of Environment and Forests, Government of India to
be transformed as an Eco City. Geological formation of the districts is classified as belt of crystalline
rocks of the archean group, belt of residual laterite, a narrow belt of warkalli beds of tertiary group
and a western most belt of recent deposits. The soil of the district is generally classified as alluvial,
peaty and laterite. A pretty town in the foot hills of the Western Ghats, Kottayam is a commercial
center noted for its trade in rubber, pepper, tea, etc. District contributes a significant share of the food
crops of the State and rubber as the cash crop. The animal husbandry activities play a crucial role in
the socio-economic transformation of the rural areas, especially in generating employment and
income to the weaker section of the population. The district is deprived of sea-coast and has abundant
lakes and rivers which are the base of inland fishing.
Kottayam is one of 14 districts in the Indian state of Kerala. Kottayam district comprises
sixmunicipal towns: Kottayam, Changanassery, Pala, Erattupetta, Ettumanoor, and Vaikom. It is the
only district in Kerala that neither borders the Arabian Sea nor any other states. There are no distinct
seasons in Kottayam, as it has a tropical climate like that of the rest of Kerala. Humidity is high and
rises to about 90% during the rainy season. Kottayam gets rain from two monsoon seasons, the south-
west monsoon and the north-east monsoon, and accumulates an average rainfall of around 3600 mm
per year. The south-west monsoon starts in June and ends in September, and the north-east monsoon
season is from October to November. Pre-monsoon rains from March to May are accompanied by
thunder and lightning; the highest rainfall during this period in Kerala is received in Kottayam.
December, January, and February are cooler, while March, April, and May are warmer.

*Agriculture
Kottayam has a mountainous terrain as well as low-lying areas very close to sea level. Depending on
the location, different varieties of food and cash crops are cultivated. Rice is the principal crop
extensively cultivated in low-lying regions like Vaikom and Upper Kuttanad. The district occupies
third place in the production of rice in Kerala behind Palakkad and Alappuzha. Though it is the staple
food of the people, the area under cultivation is dwindling due to more lucrative cash crops like
rubber plantations for which Kottayam significantly contributes to the overall rubber production in
India. Kottayam is India's largest rubber producer. Rubber trees provide a stable income for farmers
and the climate is ideal for rubber plantations. Though the highlands are more suitable, cultivation has
spread to almost all regions. Other crops cultivated include tapiocas, coconuts, peppers, and
vegetables. To enhance rubber productivity, the government of India has set up a Rubber Board as
well as a rubber research institute in KottayamAgriculture department deals with the formulation and
implementation of various programmes to augment production of both food crops and cash crops in
the District. It undertakes activities among farmers to promote scientific methods of cultivation plant
protection etc. and also arranges the supply of high yielding varieties of seeds, seedlings, planting
materials and plant protection chemicals to farmers. The department has offices at district and
Panchayat levels. It has presence in all the gramma panchayats through the Krishi Bhavans under the
department.

*Major agriculture supporting institutions in Kottayam district

1.Krishi Bhavans
Implementation of all departmental schemes of State Government and field level transfer of
Agricultural technology to farmers.

2.District Soil Testing Laboratory, Kozha P.O, Kuravilangad, Kottayam

Analysis of Soil Samples and Lime and PH Level of Water

3.State Seed Farm, Kozha, Kozha P.O,Kottayam

Multiplication of breeder paddy seed to FS1 &FS2 and distribution to farmers,production of quality
planting materials like vegetable seedlings,pepper cuttings,tuber crops etc

4.State Agmark Grading Loboratory, Kottayam

Analysis and grading of Agricultural products like Curry Powders, Oil Seeds, Whole spices, Honey
etc of Packers registered with Directorate of Marketing and Inspection, Department of Agriculture,
Government of India as per AGMARK standards.
*Vaikom taluk
Vaikom is situated on the western side of the Kottayam district. It shares its border with
vembanattu lake. Abundant backwaters and greenery has a high potential for tourism. The economy is
based on agriculture with coconut and rice being the major crops cultivated here. Fishing is also
having greater importance here. Spices like nutmeg, black peper and latex have cought the attention of
vaikom farmers.
Vaikom economy is in a state of flux. The economy was predominantly based on agriculture until the
90s. But the more recent software revolution in India has had its impact on Vaikom too. Numerous
computer training instititues have sprung up. Vaikom is famous for its Paddy fields and Coconut
groves. Coconut and rice are the major crops and these used to be backbone of Vaikom economy
along with Fishing. More recently spices like Nutmeg, Black Pepper have also caught the attention of
Vaikom farmers. Another recent addition is Latex. It is expected that Tourism will be the next major
thing to hit Vaikom.
*Economy
The traditional economy has been based on coconut and rice crops, and fishing; more recently, crops
like nutmeg, black pepper, and latex have been introduced. Tourism and software are also pursued as
a means to livelihood. Hindustan Newsprint Limited is situated in Velloor near Vaikom.
*Demographics
As per the 2011 census, The Vaikom municipality has a population of 23,234 of which 11,304 are
males while 11,930 are females. The population of children under age 6 is 1807, which is 7.78% of
the total population of Vaikom (M). In Vaikom municipality, the female sex ratio is of 1055 against
the state average of 1084. The male child sex ratio in Vaikom is around 960, compared to the Kerala
state average of 964. The literacy rate of Vaikom city is 96.84%, higher than the state average of
94.00%. In Vaikom, male literacy is around 98.30% while female literacy rate is 95.47%.
Hindus are the largest religious community in Vaikom, accounting for 85% of the population.
Christians represent 12%, and Muslims 3%
*Land use
Total area of vaikom is 1703 hectares as per the data available for the study of 2010 census. Total
sown / agricultural area is 661 hectares About 142 hectares is irrigated area, about 969 hectar is in non
agricultural use, about 35 hectar is lying as current fallow area, about 38 hectar is culturable waste
land.
The rice development scheme of Kottayam district
The scheme on rice development thrusts upon promotion of paddy cultivation in the state through
group farming and area expansion programs like fallow land cultivation, single crop to double crop
and upland rice cultivation concentrating on the rice growing agro ecological units with natural
endowments for augmenting rice productivity.

Major Challenges of paddy cultivation

1. Climate change

Rice cultivation is sensitive to changes in temperature and precipitation, and farmers may struggle to
adapt to a changing climate. The average world temperature is significantly increasing because of the
heat that greenhouse gas emissions trap in the atmosphere. Worldwide rainfall is delayed due to these
changes, and the frequency and distribution of precipitation patterns have also changed.
2.Water Management:
Rice cultivation requires large amounts of water, and farmers in drought-prone areas can struggle to
secure enough water for their crops. Crop yields are strongly affected by weather and water
availability. Greater irrigation is needed during sunny and dry seasons, while cold and wet seasons
can lead to reduced photosynthesis, disease, and grain sterility.
3. Soil Health:
The natural microbiome, or microbial ecosystem, of our land has been destroyed by intensive farming
methods, the indiscriminate use of chemical fertilisers, and poor agricultural practices. The salinity of
the soil has increased because of excessive fertiliser application. Consequently, the fertility of the soil
will be reduced, and eventually crop health and productivity will drop.
4. Poor Nutrient Management:
A high yield in rice crop production requires sufficient nutrients in the soil. Beneficial microbes in the
soil help the plants bioassimilate essential nutrients. But this microbiome gets disturbed due to the
overuse of fertilisers. As a result, the rice crop becomes deficient in essential nutrients, leading to poor
quality of the crop.

5. Pest and Disease Management:

Rice crops are susceptible to pests and diseases, which can cause significant yield loss if not properly
managed. Some of the common pests are brown plant hopper, rice hispa, rice stem borer, army worm,
and rice bug. Rice blast, bacteria leaf blight, blast disease, sheath rot, tungro virus, rice grain dwarf
virus, and false smut are common diseases affecting rice crops.
NEED FOR THE REVIVAL OF PADDY FARM SECTOR IN KERALA
In 1971, the calculable per capita daily handiness of domestic rice within the state was 173.64 grams.
It declined to 144.24 grams in 2002 and by the year 2012 it sharply decreased to 97.15 grams. As
suggested by the State Nutrition Bureau the desired daily diet of associate adult in Kerala ought to
contain 460 grams of cereals. As per this norm the total cereal requirement of the state in that year
amounts to 44.83 lakh tones. It is ample solely to fulfill 17.2 % of our expected needs. Earlier the state
advisory board had projected the cereal needs of the state for the year 2018 as 54.81 tones. Due to the
geographical and climatical constraints, cultivation of different cereals like wheat or barley isn't viable
in Kerala. Again, in recent years the number of rice and wheat distributed through the Public
Distribution System (PDS) of the state had declined drastically.Paddy crop not solely provides food
for the human population. However it is additionally a significant supply of fodder to the ever-
growing bovine population within the state. Only a minor portion of the whole geographic region in
Kerala is unbroken as permanent pastures. In the year 2015- 16 the extent of space unbroken as
permanent pastures and grassland within the state was simply 482 hectares that amounted to solely
0.18 %.The per capita cereal intake in a country includes a tendency to improve with a rise in per
capita financial gain. As increase in their income induces individuals to spend comparatively a lot of
on non-cereal foods like meat, milk and egg. However, it implies that whereas the demand for cereals
as food decreases, its indirect demand will increase. Whereas increasing milk and meat
demand,extends successively a requirement for cereals. The area under rice cultivation in the state fell
to 1.94 lakh hectares in 2021- 22, a decrease of 3.9 percent compared to 2020- 21( The economic
review)