States of Matter

• All matter is made up of tiny particles.

• All matter can exist in three states: solid, liquid or gas.

• The individual particles of the substance are the same in each state; they only
differ in their arrangement.

State Arrangement of particles Motion of particles

Solid Close together in a regular arrangement Vibration about a fixed point

Liquid Still close together in an irregular Move about and slide past each
arrangement other

Gas Far apart and widely separated Move about very fast in random
motion

1
 Phenomena such as evaporation, condensation, melting, and
freezing can be explained by the kinetic theory as follow:

 Evaporation: when particles of liquid gain energy they move apart

and the liquid becomes gas.
 Melting: when a solid is heated, its particles get more energy
and vibrate more breaking away from their position, the solid
becomes a liquid.
 Sublimation: This is the change of state from solid to vapour
and back from vapour to solid without passing through the liquid
state.

Example: dry ice (solid CO2) and iodine undergo sublimation.

Difference between boiling and evaporation:

 Boiling:
When a liquid is heated, its particles get more energyand move faster.
At the boiling point, the particles get enough energy to overcome the
forces holding them together. They break away from the liquid and forma
a gas.

Pure substances have fixed and definite melting points and boiling points.

 Evaporation:
Some particles in a liquid have more energy than others even when a liquid
is well below the boiling point. Some particles have enough energy to
escape and form a gas.

• The rate of evaporation

increases with
increasing the
temperature and
increasing the surface
area.
• Evaporation occurs at
any temperature, but
boiling occurs at certain
temperature which is the
boiling point.

State changes from solid to liquid then to gas and vice versa.

2
Diffusion:

• This is the spreading out and mixing process, seen mainly in gases and
liquids. The particles of one substance mix with the particles of another
and move through them .Diffusion goes until the mixture is uniform.

Diffusion is also the movement of particles from high concentration to

low concentration.

Diffusion in gases:

Diffusion is fastest in gases. The particles in gases are moving faster

than in liquids. Demonstrating diffusion in lab:
1. Cotton wool soaked in ammonia solution is put into one end of
a log tube. It gives off ammonia gas.
2. At the same time, another cotton wool is soaked in
hydrochloric acid is put into the other end of the tube. It gives
off hydrogen chloride gas.
3. The gases diffuse along the tube. White smoke forms where they
meet.
The white smoke forms closer to the right end of the tube, so ammonia
particles have travelled faster than the hydrogen chloride particles in the
same time.

 The rate of diffusion of gases depends on the molecular

mass (Mr)
 The smaller the molecular mass, the faster the rate of
diffusion.

∗ Mr is calculated by getting the sum of relative atomic masses of the

atoms (Ar) that form the molecule.

∗ Ar is the number written above the element symbol in the periodic table

14 1 35.5
N H Cl

3
 Relative molecular mass (Mr) of :

1. Ammonia (NH3) : (1x14)+ (3x1) = 17

2. Hydrogen Chloride (HCl) : (1x1) + (1x35.5) = 36.5

So, ammonia diffuses faster .

Diffusion also takes place in liquids. If a crystal of potassium manganate
(VII) is placed in a beaker of water, the water slowly turns purple. The
particles of the crystal and the water particles move among each other, so
that they become evenly mixed. This is called diffusion.

Brownian motion:

• All matter is made up of tiny particles. The

particles are atoms, ions or molecules. In liquid
or gas states the particles move in a random
Zigzag motion
motion.
• The random motion of particles is called the Brownian motion.
• It can be seen by looking at smoke particles in air through a microscope.
Brownian motion is named after Robert Brown, who first observed it in 1827
while examining pollen grains in water under the microscope; he noticed
random motion of grains.

 State the evidence for the Brownian motion?

1. The random motion of particles as they are bombarded by

invisible water molecules around them.

2. The random motion of particles observed when a beam of light

passes through smoke or dust particles in a darkened room, this
movement arises from uneven bombardments of these particles by
invisible particles of air.

4
 Atomic Structure

• Atoms are the smallest particles that can participate in a chemical

reaction without being changed.

• Each atom consists of a nucleus and a cloud of particles called electrons.

The nucleus itself is made up of 2 types of particles : protons ( +ve charged)
and neutrons ( neutral= net charge is zero )

Particle Charge Mass

Proton Positive +1 1 unit
Neutron Neutral 1 unit
Electron Negative -1 1/1840 unit

∗ An atom is neutral because number of positive protons equal

number of negative electrons.
∗ Mass of the atom is concentrated in its nucleus as mass of
electrons found outside the nucleus is very small and can be
neglected.
∗ Atomic number: is the number of protons.
∗ Nucleon number ( mass number): is the total number of
protons and neutrons inside the nucleus of an atom.

Example: Carbon atom,12 C

 Number of protons: 6
 Number of electrons: 6
 Number of neutrons: 12 - 6 = 6

 How are electrons arranged in atoms?

• The electrons in an atom circle fast around the nucleus, at different levels from it.
• These energy levels are called electron shells.
• The further the shell is from the nucleus, the higher the energy levels.
• Each shell can hold a limited number of electrons: First shell can hold up to
2 electrons second shell can hold up to 8 electrons .The third shell can
hold 18 electrons but it becomes more stable if it contains 8 electrons. The
shells fill in order: from lowest energy level to highest energy level
• Electronic configuration means the arrangement of electrons in an atom

5
Example:

- Oxygen has the electronic configuration : 2,6

- Magnesium has the electronic configuration: 2,8,2

• The outer shell is called the Valency shell and the electrons of the outer
shell are the valency electrons.

• Elements of the same group in the periodic table contain the same
number of electrons in their outer shell. For example, lithium, sodium and
potassium (group I) have one electron in their outer shell. Fluorine,
chlorine and bromine (group VII) have 7 electrons in their outer shell.

The periodic table

The periodic table is a list of all the elements, in order of increasing atomic
number. The horizontal rows are called periods, and the vertical columns are
called groups.

6
Groups:
• The group number tells you how many electrons there are in the outer
shell of the atoms.
• All elements in a group have similar properties.
• Group 0 elements have full outer shell. This makes them unreactive.
• Some of the groups have special names.

Group 1 - The alkali metals

Group 2 - The alkaline earth metals
Group 7 - The halogens
Group 0 - The noble gases

12 C
The period number gives information about the number of electron shells that are
available in that period.

Hydrogen:
Hydrogen sits alone in the table because it's the only element with one electron shell.

Trends in the periodic table:

The elements in each numbered group shows trends in their properties.
For example as you go down group 1, the elements become more reactive or as you
go down group 7 the elements become less reactive and so on.

• The reactivity of metals increases down a group.

Rb > K > Na > Li
• The reactivity of non-metals decreases down a group
F > Cl > Br > I

7
Important notes:
• Hydrogen and the metals form positive ions.
• Non-metals form negative ions.
• Non-metal when form compounds their name end in " - ide" e.g. magnesium
oxide.
• Group 4 do not usually form ions because they would have to lose or gain
several electrons and that takes too much energy.
• Group 0 elements do not form ions; they already have full outer shells.

• Some of the transition metals form more than one ion.

Valency :

is the number of electrons lost, gained or shared by an atom to reach the stability
of nearest inert gas.

Example: Magnesium has 2 electrons in its outer shell, to be 8 electron and have
the electronic configuration of nearest inert gas it is easier to lose 2 electrons so
we can say the valency of magnesium is 2 since it loses 2 electrons.

Group radicals:

are group of atoms that act as 1 ion

Valency Positive ions Negative Ions

H+ Hydrogen OH- Hydroxide ion

+
1 Ag Silver NO3- Nitrate
NH4+ Ammonium NO2- Nitrite

Pb2+ Lead
SO32- Sulphite
Cu2+ Copper
2 SO42- Sulphate
Zn2+ Zinc CO32- Carbonate
Fe2+ Iron

PO43- Phosphate
3 Fe3+ Iron PO33- Phosphite

8
 Isotopes
Definition: atoms of the same element having the same number of protons
but different number of neutrons.

6P 6e 6n 6P 6e 7n 6P 6e 8n

Note:
- Most carbon atoms are Carbon 12. One in every 100 carbon atoms is
Carbon 13. Carbon 14 is very rare.

• Isotopes have different physical properties ( such as density and melting point )
because they have different masses.
• Isotopes have similar chemical properties because they have same number of
electrons in the outer shell.
• Some isotopes are radioactive: which means that its nucleus is unstable,
sooner or later the atoms breaks down or decays giving out radiation in the
form of rays and tiny particles as well as large amount of energy.

Uses of radioactive isotopes:

Medical uses Industrial uses Energy production

1. Treatment of cancer
1. Detecting thickness
2. Treatment of thyroid of paper Uranium (U235) is used in
gland
2. Detection of cracks production of energy.
3. Sterilising medical in water pipes
equipment

Some radioactive isotopes are used as nuclear fuels, such as Uranium-235

• When it is bombarded by neutrons, they split into smaller atoms. The splitting of an

atom is called nuclear fission. Fission of uranium-235 atom produces a huge

amount of heat energy (nuclear energy) which can be used for generation of

electricity (nuclear energy) which can be used for generation of electricity (nuclear

power stations). Nuclear fission is done in nuclear reactors.

9
 Relative atomic mass of isotopes ( Ar): average mass of all isotopes of an
element.

Example:
Chlorine has 2 isotopes and their abundance are 75% and 25% successively. Ar of chlorine =
(35*75/100)+ (37*25/100) =35.

10
 Bonding
Most elements form compounds because they want a full outer shell and to
achieve that they must react with other atoms.

Bonding

Ionic Covalent

- Between metal and non-metal - Between 2 non-metal

 The atoms
- The metal atom loses electrons
- The 2 non-metals share
to become a positive ion and the
equal number of electrons
non- metal gains electron to
become a negative ion.

 Ionic bond:
- Ionic bonding is based on the electrostatic force of attraction
between the ions in the compound.

• Metal lose electrons and becomes a positive ions.

• Non-metal gain electrons and becomes a negative ions.
• Electrostatic attraction force between positive and negative ions.

- Properties of ionic compound

1. Hard solids at room temperature.
2. High melting and boiling points because of strong attraction forces.
3. Conduct electricity when molten or aqueous.
4. Soluble in water and polar solvent.

11
 Examples:

Sodium Chloride

Sodium and chlorine react together; sodium gives its electron to chlorine.

Now both elements have a full outer shell, but with a charge. Now they are

ions.

• Sodium now has 10 electrons but 11 protons so it has positive charge

• Chlorine now has 18 electrons but 17 protons so it has a negative charge.

The two ions have opposite charges, so they attract each other.

The force of attraction between them is strong. It is called an ionic bond

• Because the sodium atom has lost one negative electron. It becomes a

positive ion.

• Because the chlorine atom has gained one electron, it gains a negative

charge and becomes a negative ion.

• Sodium chloride is made of sodium ions and chloride ions held together by an

electrostatic attraction between oppositely charged ions.

12
Magnesium oxide

Calcium chloride

13
  The Covalent bond:
- Covalent bonds take place between non-metal atoms by sharing
electrons.
• When a pair of electrons is shared, it is called a single covalent bond.
• When 2 pairs of electrons are shared, it is called a double covalent bond.
• When 3 pairs of electrons are shared, it is called triple covalent bond.

- Properties of covalent compounds:

1. They have low melting and boiling points.
2. They do not conduct electricity.
3. They are soluble in organic solvents ( only few covalent
compounds are soluble in water).
4. They are often liquids or gases at room temperature.

Examples :

Single covalent bonds in molecules

Hydrogen chloride, HCl

Methane, CH4

14
Example :
Double covalent bonds in molecules

Oxygen, O2

Example
Triple covalent bonds in molecules

Nitrogen, N2

What is the difference between: Cl2, 2Cl, and 2Cl2 ?

Answer:

 Cl2 means one molecule of chlorine.

 2Cl means 2 atoms of chlorine.

 2Cl2 means 2 molecules of chlorine.

15
16
 Chemical Formula
Formula is a short hand for writing the names of ionic and covalent
compounds.

H+
Groups Hydrogen
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Li+ Be2+ N3- O2- F- Noble

Nitrogen Oxide Fluoride Gases
Na+ Mg2+ Al3+ S2- Cl-
Aluminium Sulphide Chloride Stable
K+ Ca2+

♦ Transition Metals :

• The names of ionic compound is formed by putting name of metal and non-
metal together but the non-metal had to end with -ide such as : K+ and F- will
form Potassium Fluoride .

• The compound must have no overall charge so we balance the ions

until the charge add up to zero.

Write the formula:

Example:
(1) Sodium Sulphide
Na+ S2-

Now, 2 ions of Na2+ are needed for every S2- to make the total charge zero. ( Na+,

(Na+ ) ( S2-) : Na2S

17
 (2) Aluminum oxide (3) Magnesium oxide

Al3+ O2- O2- Mg2+

Al2O3 MgO
3 2 2 2

(4) Magnesium chloride (5) Sodium sulphate

Mg2+ Cl- SO42- Na+

MgCl2 Na2SO4

2 1 2 1

Write the formula of:

1) Sodium chloride

2) Aluminum nitrate

3) Zinc chloride

4) Ammonium carbonate

5) Copper (II) sulphate

18
 Metals and Alloys
An element:

It is a substance that consists of only one type of atoms. Or a substance which cannot
be further divided into simpler substances by chemical methods.

Comparison of the physical properties between metals and non-metals:

Elements can be classified into

Metals Non- Metals

Metals Non-metals

1. They are usually solids, (except for
mercury, which is liquid) at room
temp.
2. Have high melting point and high
boiling point.
1. They are solids or gases (except for
bromine, which is liquid) at room
temp.
2. Have low melting and a boiling point.

3. Poor electric conductors

3. All metals are good electric (except graphite, a form of carbon)
conductors. They tend to be insulators.

4. They are good conductor of heat. 4. They are poor thermal conductor.

5. They are malleable (their shape can

be changed by hammering. They are 5. Most non-metals are brittle when
ductile (can be pulled out into wires). solid.

6. They are grey in colour (except for 6. They vary in colour. They have a
gold and copper). dull surface when solid.

19
 Properties of metals:

• All metals are silvery grey EXCEPT Copper (Reddish brown) and Gold (Yellow).

Comparison between group I and transition metals:

Name Group I Transition metals

Soft Hard
Physical properties Low melting point High melting point
Low density High density
Form white compound Form coloured compound
(colourless in solution )
Does not act as a catalyst Acts as a catalyst
one oxidation state more than one oxidation
Chemical properties state
React violent with acid React slow with acid

Group II- the alkaline earth metals:

• Group two consists of the five metals: beryllium, magnesium, calcium,

strontium, barium, and the radioactive element radium.
• They are harder than those of group (I)
• They are silvery grey in color when pure and clean.
• They tarnish quickly when left in air due to the formation of a metal oxide on
their surfaces.
• They are good electric conductor of heat and electricity.
• As we go down the group, the reactivity increases.

20
Uses of some metals:

Uses Property
Resist corrosion
1. Aluminum is used in cooking utensils
Good conductor of heat.
2. Aluminum is used in Can Resist corrosion

3. Aluminum is used in kitchen foil Resist corrosion

4. Aluminum is used in the construction High tensile strength and light (low density)
5. Aluminum is used in making overhead Good electric conductor and has(low
power lines. density).
6. Copper is used in making electric cables. Good electric conductor.
and high strength.

7. Iron is used in construction of bridges. Hard

8. Tin is used in coating tin cans Not poisonous

9. Zinc is used in Galvanizing Iron. Zinc is more reactive than Iron.

Note: overhead power lines are composed of an inner steel core to increase their
strength surrounded by an outer sheath of aluminum.

Alloys

An alloy is a mixture of elements (usually metals) designed to have the properties

useful for a particular purpose.

• Alloys are formed by mixing molten metals

together and allowing them to cool.

• Alloys are considered as solid solution.

• Alloying often results in a metal that is

stronger and more resist corrosion
than the original individual metals.

• An alloy has lower melting point than the pure metal from it.
Look at the figure you will see that in case of pure metal,
layers can slip easily while in case of alloy, the impurity
atoms reduces the slip between the layers.

21
 Some important alloys

Alloy Typical composition Particular properties Uses

Brass Copper 70% + Zinc 30% Ornaments

Harder than pure copper

Bronze Ornaments
Copper 90% + tin 10%
Harder than pure copper

Car
Iron 99.7%
Mild steel Stronger and harder than bodies
carbon 0.3%
pure iron and
Machine
ery
Cutlery,
Iron 70%, surgery
Stainless
Chromium 20% Harder than pure iron, does tools and
Steel Nickel 10% not rust Chemical
Plant

Tin 50% Lower melting point than

Solder Lead 50% In welding
tin or lead

22
 The Reactivity Series
The reactivity series is a list of metals in order of their drive to form positive
ions. The more reactive the metal, the more easily it gives up electrons to form
positive ions.

Potassium (K)
React with cold
Sodium (Na)
Extracted water forming:
by Calcium (Ca)
Electrolysis Hydroxide + hydrogen React
Magnesium (Mg) with
acids
Aluminum (Al)
React with steam
Carbon (C) forming:

Zinc (Zn) Oxide + hydrogen

Iron (Fe)

Lead (Pb)
Their Hydrogen (H)
oxides
are Copper (Cu)
reduced Mercury (Hg) Exist freely
with uncombined in rocks
carbon Silver (Ag)
They are native
Gold (Au)
elements
Platinum (Pt)

• Metals above hydrogen react with dilute acids to form salt and hydrogen, while
metals below it do not react with dilute acids.

• Metals at the top of reactivity series are the most reactive metals, while those at the
bottom are the least reactive metals.

23
 Points to consider about the reactivity series:

• The more reactive the metal, the more stable its compound. A stable compound
is difficult to break down; therefore they are more difficult to be extracted from
their ores (compounds).
• The higher the metal in the series, the more reactive it is.

Its reactions are the fastest, most vigorous and most exothermic (produce
energy).
• The more reactive (upper metals) have greater tendency to form positive ions and
they are the best reducing agents (they reduce other metal ions from their
compounds to neutral atoms).
• The more reactive (upper metals) have more tendency to corrosion with oxygen and
water.
• The more reactive (upper metals) can displace less reactive metals below it in the
series, from their oxides, chlorides or sulphates.
• Hydrogen and carbon are included but they are non-metals because they are good
reference for reactivity of metals.
• Metals below hydrogen will not displace hydrogen from acids and can be extracted by
heating the oxide in hydrogen.
• The more reactive the metal, the more it has tendency to form compounds.

24
Reactions of metals:

1. Reaction with water:

a) The most reactive metals (Potassium, Sodium, Calcium)
They react vigorously with cold water to form the metal hydroxide:
Potassium + water Potassium hydroxide + Hydrogen
2K (s) + 2H2O (l) 2KOH (aq) + H2 (g)
• Calcium reacts readily but not violently with cold water to form hydrogen and
calcium hydroxide solution.

b) Magnesium:
• Reacts with cold water slowly forming the slightly soluble alkali magnesium hydroxide
and hydrogen gas.
Mg (s) + 2H2O (l) Mg(OH)2 (aq) + H2 (g)
• Powdered magnesium reacts with cold water with a faster rate due to the
increase in the surface area.
• Reaction with steam is faster with heated magnesium forming white powder
magnesium and hydrogen.
MgO (s)+ H2O (g) MgO (s)+ H2 (g)

c) Zinc and Iron:

• No reaction with cold water.
• Only react with steam forming the oxide and hydrogen
Zn + H2O (g) ZnO + H2

d) Silver, Gold and Platinum:

• No reaction with cold water or when heated with steam.

2. Reaction with oxygen:

a) The most reactive metals burn vigorously with a colored flame when
heated in air to form the white powder metal oxide.

Example: potassium burns vigorously with a lilac flame when heated in air to form
the white powder potassium oxide.

b) Silver, Gold and Platinum

No reaction when heated in air.

25
3. Reaction with acids:
a) All metals above hydrogen can displace hydrogen from the acid and form
the corresponding salt and hydrogen gas evolves:
Mg (s) + 2HCl (aq) MgCl2 (aq) + H2 (g)
Ca(s) + H2SO4(aq) CaSO4(s) + H2(g)
• It is very dangerous to react very reactive metals potassium and
sodium with steam or acids as that would cause explosion.
• Aluminum seems to be unreactive due to the protective oxide layer.
b) Going down the reactivity series the reaction becomes s lower until as we
get closer to hydrogen
c) Going down below hydrogen, elements Cu, Ag and Au do not react with acids

4. Reaction with salts of other metals:

a) Any metal can displace a less reactive metal from its salts:
Magnesium + iron (II) sulphate magnesium sulphate + iron

Mg(s) + FeSO4 (aq) MgSO4 (aq) + Fe (aq)

*Magnesium is more reactive than iron*

b) Any metal cannot displace a higher metal from its salt:

Copper + zinc (II) sulphate no reaction

Cu (s) + ZnSO4 (aq) no reaction

26
 Solid Structures
 Giant ionic structure
Giant ionic structure is the structure of most ionic compounds in the solid
state.

Sodium chloride
lattice

Sodium ion
Chloride Ion

This is a regular arrangement of alternating +ve and -ve ions in ionic crystals. The
ions are held together by an electrostatic attraction between oppositely charged ions.

o Properties of giant ionic structure:

1- They all have high melting and boiling points.
2- They are hard but brittle.
3- All crystalline solids at room temperature.
4- Conduct electricity when molten or solution but not in solid state.
5- Soluble in water and polar solvents and insoluble in organic solvents
such as alcohol and benzene.

 Why do all giant ionic structures have high melting and boiling points?

Due strong electrostatic attraction forces between positive ions and negative ions.

 Why do all giant ionic structures conduct electricity when

molten or solution but not in solid state?

As in solid state ions of the ionic compound vibrate only in position but in liquid
state (molten or solution) there are free movable ions.

27
 ❖ Giant metallic structure

Metal ions Free Electron

o Giant metallic lattice is consisting of:

- Positive metal ions are well arranged in a metallic crystal lattice
surrounded by a sea of free mobile electrons.
Lattice : regular arrangement of positive and negative ions
- The metallic bond is the strong non directional attraction forces between
positive ions and free electrons.

o Properties of giant metallic structure (metals):

1- Good conductors of heat and electricity.
2- Malleable and ductile.
3- Hard.
4- Can form alloys.

 Why are metals good conductors of heat and electricity?

Metals are good conductors of heat and electricity, due to the presence of free
mobile electrons (not free ions) which can carry electricity.

Malleability:
Is the ability of metals to be stretched as sheets by the effect of heat and eternal
forces like hammering

Ductility:
Is the ability of metals to be stretched as wires by the effect of heat and external
forces.

Metallic bonding is very strong in some metals like iron and copper
(transition metals) and is much weaker as in sodium and potassium (group 1).

28
 Why are metals malleable and ductile?

1. Ions in the metallic crystal lattice can move past each other.
2. Due to the non-directional attraction forces between positive ions and sea
of electrons.

 Hard: the non-directional attraction forces between positive ions and the
sea of electrons are strong enough to make the metals that hard as we see.
 Can form alloys: ions of any metal can accommodate ions of different
metals in their lattice.

Covalent structures

Simple covalent Giant covalent

 Simple covalent structure

This is the structure of most of covalent compounds such as water and carbon
dioxide.
A single covalent bond:
is formed when a pair of electrons is shared between two atoms. (non-metals)

A double covalent bond:

is formed when two pairs of electrons are shared between two
atoms.
A triple covalent bond:
is formed when three pairs of electrons are shared.
Example: Nitrogen gas.

 Giant covalent structures

Both diamond and graphite are giant covalent structures of carbon atoms.

 Diamond's structure:
Each carbon atom is attached to 4 carbon atoms, by strong covalent bonds, in a
tetrahedral 3 dimension structure.

o Properties of diamond: Diamond

1- Hard.
2- High melting and boiling points. c
3- Does not conduct electricity.
4- Insoluble in water. c
c c
c

29
5- Explain: diamond is characterized by hardness and have high boiling
and melting points?
- Diamond and all substances that have macromolecular structures are
characterized by their hardness, this is due to those strong covalent bonds
and the atoms are arranged in a tetrahedral shape.

- Diamond does not conduct electricity due to the absence of free electrons
or free ions.

 Silicon dioxide (silicon (IV) oxide/ sand) S1

Silicon has a giant covalent structure similar to diamond.

o
Each silicon atom is bonded to 4 oxygen atoms and
each oxygen atom is bonded to 2 silicon atoms by S1
strong covalent bonds in a tetrahedral arrangement. o o S1
S1 o
o Properties: S1

1- Hard.
2- High melting and boiling points.
3- Doesn’t conduct electricity.
4- Insoluble in water.
- Germanium (IV) oxide (Ge2O2) has a macromolecular structure similar to
silicon (IV) oxide.

 Graphite

Carbon atoms

Free moving electrons

Weak attraction forces between layers.

30
Graphite's structure:
Carbon atoms are arranged in hexagons in parallel layers. The layers are held
together by weak forces. Each carbon atom is bonded to only 3 carbon atoms by
covalent bonds.

o Properties of graphite:
1- Soft.
2- High melting point and boiling point.
3- Conducts electricity.
4- Insoluble in water.

 Give reason, graphite is soft?

Graphite does not have a tetrahedral structure like diamond but it is formed of layers,
between these layers are weak attraction forces, so the layers can slide above each
other, making graphite able to change its shape, so it is soft.

 Why does graphite conduct electricity?

Each carbon atom has four electrons, but forms only three bonds. The fourth electron is
free to move through the graphite, carrying charge.

Graphite Diamond

• Soft • Hard

This is why graphite is used This is why diamond is used

as a lubricant and in in
pencils. cutting and drilling.

• Conducts electricity as it • Does not conduct

has free moving electrons. electricity.
It can be used as electrodes
in electrolysis.

• Both diamond and graphite have very high melting

points as they consist of giant structures of atoms with
very strong bonds between the atoms.

31
32
 Acids and Bases
Acids:
- An acid is a substance that dissolves in water to give hydrogen ions (H+).
- Acid is a proton donor.

Strong acids:
A strong acid is completely ionized in solution.
The solution will contain a high concentration of hydrogen ions.

Examples:
- Hydrochloric acid (HCl)
HCl → H+ + Cl-

- Sulphuric acid (H2SO4)

H2SO4 → 2H+ + SO4-2

- Nitric acid ( HNO3)

HNO3 → H+ + NO3-

Weak acids:
A weak acid is partially ionized in solution.
Most of the molecules will remain un-ionized in the solution.

Examples:
- Carbonic acid (H2CO3) -
H2CO3 2H+ + CO3

- Ethanoic acid (CH3COOH )

CH3 COOH H+ + CH3 COO

33
Properties of acids:
1- Acids react with reactive metals to give a salt and hydrogen
Acid + metal salt + hydrogen

Zn + 2HCl→ ZnCl2 + H2
(s) (aq) (aq) (g
2- Acids react with metal carbonates to form a salt, carbon dioxide and water.

Acid + carbonate salt + water + carbon dioxide

2HCl + CaCO3 → CaCl2 + CO2 + H2O

(aq) (s) (aq) (g)

3- Acids react with bases (metal oxides or hydroxides) to produce salt

and water (neutralization).

Metal oxides and hydroxides are called bases, but if they are soluble we call them
alkalis

Acid+ base salt + water

H2SO4 + CuO CuSO4+H2O

(aq) (s) (aq) (l)

H2SO4+2NaOH Na2SO4+2H2O
(aq) (aq) (aq) (l)

4- Aqueous solutions of acids turn the colour of litmus red. The change of colour is
caused by the hydrogen ions.

Bases:
• Base is a proton acceptor.

Bases that dissolve in water are called alkalis.

Strong alkalis: They are alkalis that ionize in water completely producing high
concentration of hydroxide ions.

Examples:
NaOH → Na+ + OH-
KOH → K+ + OH-
34
Weak alkalis: They are alkalis that ionize in water partially producing small
amount of hydroxide ions.

Example:
NH4OH → NH4 + + OH-

Bases are either metal oxides or metal hydroxides.

Common metal oxides:

-Na2O
-K2O
-CuO

Common metal hydroxides:

-Ca(OH)2
-NaOH
-KOH

Properties of bases and alkalis:

1. They neutralize acids to from salt and water (neutralization reaction).

Base +Acid Salt + water
NaOH + HCl→ NaCl + H2O
(aq) (aq) (aq) (l)

2. Alkalis (soluble bases) turn litmus blue.

The change of colour is caused by the hydroxide ions.

3. Alkalis react with ammonium salt to produce salt, water and

ammonia gas.

Alkali + Ammonium salt→ salt + water + ammonia gas

NaOH + NH4Cl → NaCl + H2O + NH3

35
 pH scale:

The strength of an acid or an alkali is shown using a scale of numbers called the
pH scale.
 Acids have low pH which is less
than 7.
 Alkalis have high pH which is more
than 7 .
 Neutral solutions have pH of 7.

Acid Alkali
1 7 14
The smaller the number, the The larger the number,
Stronger the acid. the stronger the alkali

 How can you measure the pH of a solution?

1- Using indicators:

Indicators: substances that change colour according to the pH of the

solution they are in.Indicators show only whether the solution is acidic,
neutral or alkaline.

Colour changes of some common indicators:

Colour change in
Indicator
Acidic Neutral Alkaline

Methyl orange Red Orange Yellow

Litmus Red Violet Blue

Phenolphthalein Colorless Colorless Pink

36
 2- Using universal indicator:

Universal indicator is a mixture of dyes that turns a different colour for every pH
unit. Universal indicator shows the strength of the acidic or alkaline solutions.

Colour changes using universal indicator:

1,2,3 4,5 5-6 7 8-9 10-11 12,13,14

Weak Very Very
Strong Weak Strong
acids weak Neutral weak
acids alkali alkalis
acids alkali

Dark
Red Orange Yellow Green Blue Violet
green

3- Using a pH meter:

pH of coloured solutions must not be measured using indicators, pH meter has to

be used.

What is the difference between a strong acid and a concentrated

acid?
 Concentration refers to the amount of water in an acid. A concentrated acid
has very little water in it. In a dilute acid, the acid is mixed with a lot of water.

 Acid strength is a measure of the pH of the acid, although mixing any acid with a
lot of water will not affect the pH but will decrease the concentration.

How to differentiate between a strong acid and a weak acid?

 To differentiate between strong acid and weak acid, add metal carbonates
(e.g. calcium carbonate), the one that gives vigorous effervescence is the
stronger acid. Also stronger acids conduct electricity better than weak acids.

37
 Comparing strengths of acids and alkalis (soluble bases)

Comparing strengths of acids

1. Using universal indicator:
On adding a universal indicator to a strong acid it gives red color, the weaker acid
would give orange or yellow, the universal indicator chart may give a precise pH
value

2. Using magnesium carbonate or any metal carbonate:

If you add magnesium carbonate or any metal carbonate to an acid
effervescence occurs due to the rapid evolution of carbon dioxide gas
according to the following equation.
MgCO3 + H2SO4  MgSO4 + H2O + CO2
MgCO3 + 2HCl MgCl2 + H2O + CO2

3. Titration:
Titration is a practical laboratory technique to find out the end of a
reaction between an acid and an alkali.
If we have two acids, acid (A) and acid (B), which are of the same concentration.
a. 20 ml of one of the acids acid (A) is placed in the conical flask using a pipette.
b. Add a few drops of methyl orange indicator to the acid which turns red.
c. The acid is then titrated against 0.1 mol/dm3 of sodium hydroxide solution
(NaOH) from a burette until the end point from red to yellow.
d. Record the volume of sodium hydroxide solution taken from the burette.
e. Repeat the experiment with acid (B) instead of acid (A) but same concentration.

Analysis: the acid which takes the larger volume of the sodium hydroxide
solution in the burette is the stronger.

38
 Comparing strengths of alkalis (soluble bases)

1. Using universal indicator:

It gives violet color, the weaker alkali would give blue, the universal indicator chart
may give a precise pH value.

2. Titration:
If we have two bases, base (A) and base (B), which are of the same concentration.
a. 20 ml of one of the bases, base (A) is placed in the conical flask using a
pipette.
b. Add a few drops of methyl orange indicator to the base which turns yellow.
c. The base is then titrated against 0.1 mol/dm3 of hydrochloric acid solution
(HCl) from a burette until the end point from yellow to red.
d. Record the volume of hydrochloric acid solution taken from the burette.
e. Repeat the experiment with base (B) instead of base (A) but
same concentration.
Analysis: the base which takes the larger volume of the hydrochloric acid
solution in the burette is the stronger.

39
40
 Oxides
When an element combines with Oxygen, oxides are formed.
Oxides are classified into acidic oxides, basic oxides, neutral oxides and
amphoteric oxides.

1. Basic oxides (metal oxides)

- Most metal oxides are basic oxides such as CaO.
- They are ionic compounds.
- If they dissolve in water they form alkaline solutions.
Na2O (s) + H2O (l) NaOH (aq)
Alkali
- They react with acids to form salt and water.
CuO + H2SO4 CuSO4 + H2O

2. Acidic oxides (non-metal oxides)

Acidic oxides are non-metals oxides
such as: Carbon dioxide CO2
Silicon dioxide SiO2
Sulphur dioxide SO2 and Sulphur trioxide S2O3
Phosphorus (III) oxide P2O3

- They are covalent compounds.

- They react with bases to form salt and water.

CO2 + 2NaOH Na2CO3 + H2O

- They dissolve in water producing acidic solutions.

CO2 + H2O H2CO3 Carbonic acid

SO2 + H2O H2SO3 Sulphrus acid

 Suggest why carbon dioxide turns lime water milky?

Because carbon dioxide is an acidic oxide which dissolves in water to form an
acidic solution.

41
 3. Amphoteric oxides
They are the oxides of some metals such as aluminum and zinc.
- Amphoeric oxides react with both acids and alkalis producing salts and
water. Amphoteric oxides are insoluble in water.

Aluminum oxide + hydrochloride acid aluminum chloride + water

Al2O3 + 2HCl AlCl3 + H2O

Aluminum oxide + sodium hydroxide sodium aluminate + water

Al2O3 + 2NaOH 2NaAlO2 + H2O

4. Neutral Oxides
They are the oxides that do not react with acids or alkalis. Example: Water
(H2O), Carbon monoxide (CO), Nitrogen monoxide (NO).

Study the following table:

Oxides Acid Base Type of oxide

CaO React N.R Basic oxide

ZnO, Al2O3 React React Amphoteric oxide

CO2, SO2, NO2, SO3 N.R React Acidic oxide

CO, NO N.R N.R Neutral oxide

42
 Redox reactions
Simple definitions:

Oxidation Reduction
The process of gaining oxygen. The process of losing oxygen.

The process of losing electrons. The process of gaining electrons.

The process of losing hydrogen. The process of gaining hydrogen.

The increase in The decrease in

valency (oxidation valency (oxidation
number) number)

Oxidizing agent: is the substance that is reduced and gained electrons.

Reducing agent: is the substance that is oxidized and lost electrons.

Examples of redox reactions:

1) Oxygen transfer reaction:

Reduction (losing oxygen)

Reducing Agent
2Mg + O2 2 MgO
Oxidizing Agent

Oxidation (gaining oxygen)

Mg → MgO is the oxidation reaction (gaining oxygen).

O2 → MgO is the reduction reaction (losing oxygen).

Magnesium (Mg) the reducing agent gains oxygen from the oxygen molecule; it is
oxidized by oxygen to magnesium oxide (MgO).

Oxygen (O2) the oxidizing agent loses oxygen; it is reduced.

43
 2) Electron transfer reactions:

Reduction (gaining electrons)

Reducing Agent
2Mg + O2 2 Mg2+ + 2O2-
Oxidizing Agent
Oxidation (losing electrons)
This equation is the ionic representation of the full equation:

2Mg + O2 → 2 MgO

Mg - 2 e- Mg2+ Oxidation

O + 2 e- O2- Reduction

Magnesium which is oxidised loses electrons. Oxygen which is reduced gains electrons.

Simple displacement reactions includes electron transfer.

 Displacement among metals:

K + NaCl → KCl + Na

This chemical reaction is expressed ionically as:

K + Na+ → K+ + Na

- K – e- → K+ is the oxidation reaction (losing electrons).

- Na+ + e- → Na is the reduction reaction (gaining electrons).
- Potassium metal is the reducing agent as it is oxidized by losing
electrons and changed to potassium ions (K+).
- Na+ ion is the oxidizing agent as it is reduced be gaining electrons and
changed to sodium metal (Na).
 Displacement among non-metals:
Fluorine gas can displace chloride ion from its compounds

F2 + 2 NaCl → 2 NaF + Cl2

44
This chemical reaction is expressed ionically as:

F2 - 2 Cl- → 2F- + Cl2

- 2Cl- - 2e- → Cl2 is the oxidation reaction (losing electrons).

-
- F2 + 2 e → 2 is the reduction reaction (gaining electrons).
- Chloride ions is the reducing agent as it is oxidized by losing electrons
and changed to Chlorine (Cl2).
- Fluorine is the oxidizing agent as it is reduced by gaining electrons and
changed to fluoride ions (F-).

3) Hydrogen ions transfer reaction:

When hydrogen bromide gas dissolves in water the following change takes place

HBr + H2O → H3O+ + Br-

- HBr → is the oxidation reaction (losing hydrogen ions).

- H2O → H3O+ is the reduction (gaining hydrogen ions).
- Hydrogen bromide (HBr) is the reducing agent as it is oxidized by
losing hydrogen ion and changed to bromide ions Br-.
- Water (H2O) is the oxidizing agent as it is reduced by gaining hydrogen ions
and changed to H3O+.

4) Change in valence number (oxidation state):

• -
Oxidation involves an increase in the oxidation
state: Fe2+ Fe3+

• Reduction involves a decrease in the oxidation

state: Fe3+ Fe2+

45
 Examples for the half ionic equations:
1. The change of iron (III) ions to iron metal: Answer:

Fe3+ + 3e- → Fe

2. The change of bromide ions to bromine: Answer:

Br2 + 2e- → 2Br

Test for reducing agents

Using potassium manganate (VII) Using potassium dichromate

KMnO4 K2Cr2O7
On adding potassium dichromate
On adding potassium manganate (the strong oxidizing agent) to
(the strong oxidizing agent) to the contents of a tube color
the contents of a tube color changes from orange to green
changes from purple to colorless indicates that we have a reducing
indicates that we have a reducing agent in the tube.
agent in the tube.
Test for oxidizing agents

Adding potassium iodide (the strong reducing agent)

The color changes from colorless to brown which indicates that we
have an oxidizing in the tube.

The brown color is that of iodine according to this reaction

2I- → I2 + 2e-
As potassium iodide is oxidized to iodine
The iodine can be further tested by starch which will turn blue black.

46
 Common oxidizing and reducing agents:
• The most common and of the most powerful oxidizing agents are the
previously mentioned potassium manganate and potassium dichromate.
• Also the most common and of the most powerful reducing agents
is the previously mentioned potassium iodide..
• Also potassium metal and all the alkali metals are of the powerful
reducing agents (sodium, potassium, rubidium and caesium).

Oxidizing agents Reducing agents

Oxygen O2
Hydrogen H2
Hydrogen peroxide H2O2
Hydrogen sulphide H2S
Conc.nitric acid HNO3
Sulphur dioxide SO2
(Fe(III) compounds) FeCl3
Carbon C
Chlorine Cl2
Iron sulphate FeSO4
Potassium manganate KMnO4
(Fe(II) compounds)
Potassium dichromate K2cr2O7
Manganese dioxide MnO2 Acidified potassium iodide Kl
Metal ions Carbon monoxide CO
Non-metal atoms except Metal atoms
hydrogen and carbon Non- metal
ions

47
48
 Electrolysis
It is the breakdown of an ionic compound, molten or in aqueous solution, by
the passage of electricity.

• Electrolysis changes electric energy to chemical energy.

• Electrolysis is an endothermic process as it needs an external support of energy
(electric and sometimes heat energy).
• Electrolysis cannot be made on solid ionic compound as there are ions not free
move.

Mechanism of electrolysis:
 Electrolysis takes place when electric current passes through the solution or
the molten of an ionic compound (the electrolyte) using the following
electrolytic cell.

(-) Negative (+) Positive

electrode electrode
(cathode) (anode)

The electrode that is connected to the -ve pole of the battery is

called cathode.
The electrode that is connected to the +ve pole of the battery is
called anode.

 The flow of electrons are from anode to cathode

 Positive (+ve) ions move towards cathode
 Negative (-ve) ions move towards anode

Anode (+) Cathode (-)

Charge on Positive Negative
Ions attract to Non-metals Metals and hydrogen

49
 Electrolysis

Inert electrodes Active electrodes

1 2

Molten Solutions of ionic

Ionic compounds compounds

Electrodes used are either inert or active

Inert electrodes: such as graphite and platinum. They do not undergo reaction
and the electrolyte is the one that only participates in the reaction.

Active electrodes: when the electrode is a metal such as silver, copper or

nickel, the anode participates in the reaction. It dissolves by losing electrons
converting into positive ions.

Electrolysis of molten compounds

When molten compounds is electrolysed, metal is formed on cathode while non-
metals formed on anode.

Pb2+ Br- Br2

Pb Anode
Cathode
+ve
-ve

Example:
• Molten lead bromide is PbBr2
• Oxidation at anode: 2Br- -2e-  Br2
• Reduction at cathode: Pb2+ + 2e-  Pb
• Observation at anode : bubbles of red brown gas (bromine gas)
• Observation at cathode: increases in size as drops of silvery grey metal (lead) form.
• Observation in electrolyte: electrolyte is used up ( always in case of molten).

50
 Electrolysis of solutions using inert electrodes

Aqueous solution contains additional H+ and OH- ions of water.

At the cathode, all metals that are higher in reactivity than hydrogen it remains in
electrolyte and hydrogen is discharge at cathode.

At the Anode , all halides are less reactive than OH- So they discharge at anode
and hydroxide remains in electrolyte but other anions such as in the table below
they remains in electrolyte and hydroxide discharge at anode.

At the cathode At the anode

Potassium K+ Halide ions
(F- , Cl-, Br-, I-)
Sodium Na+

More reactive
Calcium Ca2+
More reactive

Magnesium Mg2+

Aluminum Al3+ Hydroxide (OH-)

Zinc Zn2+
Iron Fe2+,3+

Lead Pb2+

Hydrogen H+ Other anions

(SO42-, NO3-, CO32-)
Copper Cu 2+
Mercury Hg+
Silver Ag+
Gold Au3+
The least reactive is discharged at The least reactive is discharged
the cathode at the anode

51
 Example 1:

Aqueous copper sulphate (CuSO4)

• Which ions go to anode, and which will go to cathode.

Cu SO42-
Cu2+ Anode
Cathode
-ve +ve
H+ OH-
O2+ H2O

• Oxidation at anode: 4OH - - 4 e- 2H2O + O2

• Reduction at cathode: Cu2+ + 2e-  Cu
• Observation at anode : Bubbles of colorless gas (Oxygen gas).
• Observation at cathode: red brown metal (copper metal) is formed.
• Observation in electrolyte: changes from blue to colourless as copper
sulphate changes to sulphuric acid.

Electrolysis of tin sulphate and zinc sulphate are similar to copper sulphate.

Example 2:

Aqueous hydrochloric acid (HCl)

 Which ions go to anode, and which will go to cathode.

H+ Cl-
H2 at Cathode Cl2 at
-ve Anode
H+ OH- +ve

• Oxidation at anode: 2Cl- -2e-  Cl2

• Reduction at cathode: 2H+ + 2e-  H2
• Observation at anode : Bubbles of green gas (chlorine gas).
• Observation at cathode: bubbles of colorless gas (hydrogen gas).

52
 Example 3:

Aqueous sulphuric acid (H2SO4)

• Which ions go to anode, and which will go to
cathode?
O2+ H2O
H + SO4-2 Anode
Cathode +ve
-ve
H+ OH
-

• Oxidation at anode: 4OH- -4 e- 2H2O + O2

• Reduction at cathode: 2H+ + 2e-  H2
• Observation at anode : Bubbles of colorless gas (Oxygen gas).
• Observation at cathode: Bubbles of colorless gas (Hydrogen gas )
• Observation in electrolyte: changes from sulphuric acid to conc. sulphuric acid .

The volume of hydrogen is twice that of oxygen

Example 4:
Aqueous sodium chloride (NaCl)
Na+ - Anode
Cathode Cl

-ve +ve
H+ OH-

Solve :
Oxidation at anode :
Reduction at cathode
Observation at anode:
Observation at cathode :
Observation in electrolyte :

53
 Example 5:
Electrolysis of dilute sodium chloride:

Cathod
Na+ Cl-
anode
e +Ve
H+ OH-
-Ve

• Oxidation at anode: 4OH- - 4 e-  2H2O + O2

• Reduction at cathode: 2H+ + 2e-  H2
• Observation at anode : Bubbles of colorless gas (Oxygen gas).
• Observation at cathode: bubbles of colorless gas (hydrogen gas).
• Observation in electrolyte: the solution is concentrated sodium chloride solution.

Electrolysis of concentrated aqueous sodium chloride (brine

solution):
It is used in the manufacture of 3 important chemicals in our Chlorine Hydrogen
lives:
1. Chlorine (poisonous yellowish green gas) Brine
2. Hydrogen (colorless, flammable gas )
3. Sodium hydroxide (alkaline )
Solution of
• Which ions go to anode, and which go to cathode?
Sodium
hydroxide

Cl- +ve -ve

Cathode –ve Na+
-
+ OH Anode + Ve
H

• Oxidation at anode: 2Cl- Cl2 + 2 e-

• Reduction at cathode: 2H+ +2e-  H2
• Observation at anode : Bubbles of green gas (Chlorine gas).
• Observation at cathode: bubbles of colorless gas (hydrogen gas).
• Observation in electrolyte: changes from sodium chloride to sodium hydroxide.

54
 Electrolysis using active electrodes

If the electrodes especially the (anode) are made of a metal which is of

the same metal ions in the electrolyte this is an active electrode case.

Examples:
• Electrolysis of tin sulphate using tin electrodes.
• Electrolysis of copper nitrate using copper electrodes.
• Electrolysis of silver nitrate using silver electrodes.

Or

Example:
The case here is simply ions move from anode to the cathode and
the solution is just a pathway for the ions (it does not change).

• The anode (decrease in mass and size) as it goes into the solution as
positive ions.
• The cathode will increase in mass and size as copper metal deposits.

Let us explain that in equations which ions go to anode, and which will go to
cathode.
• Can not apply the cross method here just ions go from anode to cathode.
• Oxidation at anode: Cu Cu2+ + 2 e-
• Reduction at cathode: Cu2+ +2 e-  Cu
• Observation at anode : decrease in size as copper goes as positive ions.
• Observation at cathode: increase in size as copper metal forms.
• Observation in electrolyte: no changes (this always in case of active
electrodes).

55
Applications on electrolysis using active electrodes:
1- Purification of copper
• Electrolysis of copper sulphate using copper electrodes.

• Electrolysis is used to purify metals, atoms of the anode go into the solution
as positive ions and release electrons to the external circuit and they meet
again on the cathode forming pure metal, leaving the impurities which
accumulate down in the bottom of the cell.

Rules when you purify any metal:

1. The cathode - pure metal.
2. The anode = impure metal.
3. The solution = a solution of the metal to be purified.

Impure
Pure
Copper
Copper

CuSO4

Example when you purify copper:

1. The cathode - pure copper.
2. The anode = impure copper.
3. The solution = aqueous copper sulphate or copper nitrate.

Electrolytic chemistry of purification of copper:

• Copper anode dissolve and convert into copper ions
Cu Cu2+ + 2 e-
• Copper ions from electrolyte deposit at cathode
+
Cu2 +2 e- → Cu

• Observation at anode : decrease in size as copper goes as positive ions.

• Observation at cathode: increase in size as copper metal forms.
• Observation in electrolyte: no changes (this always in case of active electrodes).

56
2- Electroplating
It is the process of coating a metal with a thin layer of another metal by electrolysis
to improve the metal's corrosion resistance.

Rules when you plate any abject with any metal:

1. The cathode = object to be plated.
2. The anode = pure metal.
3. The solution = a solution of the metal used in electroplating.

In this case clearly our object will be the cathode and connected to the (-ve)
pole of the battery, and a rod of pure silver will be the anode connected to the
positive pole of the battery. Also if you want to plate an object with other metal
you can follow the previous rules.

Cathode Silver
Anode

AgNO3
Example:
when you electroplate an object with metal:
1. The cathode = object to be plated.
2. The anode = pure silver
3. The solution = aqueous silver

Electrolytic chemistry of electroplating with silver:

• Oxidation at anode: Ag  Ag+ + e-
• Reduction at cathode: Ag+ + e-  Ag
• Observation at anode: decrease in size as silver goes as positive ions.
• Observation at cathode: increases in size as silver metal forms.
• Observation in electrolyte: no change (this always in case of active electrodes)

57
 Purposes of electroplating:
 Giving a protective coat of the metal to prevent rusting of this metal.
 Giving attractive appearance of the plated metallic object.

Electroplating must be carried out under careful control:

1. The object must be very clean and free of grease to make sure that
the metal layer sticks firmly.

2. The object must be rotated so that the layer forms evenly on all
sides.

3. The current, the temperature and the concentration of the

electrolyte must be controlled so that the layer does not from too
fast otherwise it will flake off.

58
 Metal Extraction
Aluminum Extraction
Electrolysis is the only method of extraction available for the most reactive
metals

Metals of Group I and II and aluminum are too reactive to be extracted by chemical
reduction using carbon.

• Its ore is bauxite.

Pure aluminum oxide is dissolved in molten cryolite (Sodium aluminum fluoride)

Na3 Al F6

The purposes of cryolite:

1. To reduce its melting point
2. Reduce cost

− Electrolysis takes place in a cell of iron lined with graphite that is connected as a
cathode and finger like anode that is connected as anode. The produced molten
aluminum is collected at the bottom of the cell.

− The liberated oxygen burns the anode as the temperature is about 950-1000°C
giving carbon dioxide. So they have to be replaced regularly.

Reactions take place during extraction of

Aluminum:

Al2O3 → 2Al3+ + 3O2-

1. At the cathode:

Al3+ + 3e- → Al

2. At the anode:

2O2- - 4e- → O2
Gases formed at anode :
Oxygen (from electrolyte )
Carbon dioxide (reaction between oxygen and carbon anode )
Carbon monoxide (reaction between oxygen and carbon anode incomplete )
Fluorine (from cryolite )

59
Uses of Aluminum :
1. Food containers
2. Making cables
3. Cans
4. Aircraft

Iron Extraction
Iron is extracted from its ore hematite Fe2O3 by reduction
in a blast furnace .

The materials used are:

1. Coke (carbon)
2. Iron ore (Hematite)
3. Limestone (calcium carbonate).

Hot air is blown through holes near the bottom of the furnace.

A series of chemical reactions take place to produce

molten iron.

Reaction 1:
Coke burns giving off heat (exothermic reaction)

Carbon + Oxygen → carbon dioxide

C + O2 → CO2
(s) (g) (g)

Function of coke :

• Release energy
• Reduce hematite to iron

Reaction 2:
Carbon dioxide is reduced to carbon monoxide.

CO2 + C → 2CO

60
Reaction 3:
The iron ore is reduced by carbon and carbon monoxide

1. Iron III oxide + carbon → iron + carbon dioxide

2 Fe2O3 + 3 C → 4 Fe +3CO2

2. Iron III oxide + carbon monoxide → iron +carbon dioxide

Fe2O3 + 3CO → 2 Fe + 3CO2

Reaction 4:

One of the major impurities in iron is sand (silica SiO2). Limestone is added to the
furnace helps to remove this impurity.

heat
Limestone lime + carbon dioxide

CaCO3 heat CaO(s) + CO2 (g)

Then lime + Silica calcium silicate (slag)
CaO + SiO2 → CaSiO3
(s) (s) (l)

Generally :
CaCO3 + SiO2 → CaSiO3 + CO2
Limestone silica slag carbon dioxide

Finally, there are two layers formed at the bottom of blast furnace:

1. Slag (less dense )

2. Molten iron (more dense)

61
 Steel making
The iron produced by the blast furnace is known as
'cast iron’ and it is not pure.

It contains about 3 - 5% Carbon that makes iron

brittle and other impurities such as sulphur,
silicon and phosphorous.

Cast iron is converted into steel in the tilting furnace.

A high-speed jet of oxygen is blown over the iron.

1. Carbon oxidizes into carbon dioxide.

C + O2 → CO2 (g)

2. Sulphur oxidizes into sulphur dioxide.

S + O2 → SO2 (g)

3. Silicon and phosphorous produce solid oxides (not gaseous oxides), so

lime (CaO) is added to the furnace to form slag with these solid impurities
that float on top of the molten iron.

Si + O2 → SiO2 (s)

CaO + SiO2 → CaSiO3

62
Zinc Extraction
Ore of zinc: Zinc blende (ZnS), Calamine (ZnCO3)

1. Zinc blende is roasted in air to give impure zinc oxide.

2ZnS (s) + 3O2 (g) → 2ZnO (s) + 2SO2 (g)

2. How to change calamine into zinc oxide?

Strong heating in a kiln will cause thermal decomposition and carbon
dioxide gas evolves.

ZnCO3 → ZnO + CO2

After we obtain zinc oxide we can go either one of two ways:

Zinc extraction

Reduction with carbon Electrolysis route

in blast furnace

1- Electrolysis way:

a) Zinc oxide is dissolved and neutralized with dilute sulphuric acid to

form impure zinc sulphate solution.

ZnO (s) + H2SO4 (aq) → ZnSO4 (aq) + H2O (l)

b) Pure zinc is deposited on pure zinc (cathode). The other electrode

is carbon (graphite) and oxygen is formed.

Zn2+ (aq) + 2e- → Zn (s) (reduction process, electron gain)

• You can’t use the zinc oxide directly because it's insoluble.

63
 2- Blast furnace way:
Zinc oxide is heated with carbon just like iron (further details are not requested)

2ZnO + C → 2Zn + CO2

This flow chart gives a complete description of how we extract zinc:

Calamine (ZnCO3) Zinc blende (ZnS)

Thermal decomposition Roasting

in air

Zinc oxide
Reduction with Dissolve in
carbon sulphuric acid

Zinc (Zn) Zinc sulphate (ZnSO 4)

Electrolysis using graphite

anode and zinc cathode
Uses of zinc:
• Galvanizing
• Making alloys
Recycling metals

Advantages of recycling metals:

• Save mineral resources
• Use less energy to recycle than extraction (save energy)
• Avoid the need to landfill sites
• Avoid pollution

 Why Aluminum metal is an ideal candidate for recycling?

1) Cost so much to extract from its ore

2) Using recycled aluminum saves 95% energy needed to make new aluminum

 Why steel is easy to recycle?

A lot of steel is recycled because:
1) It is magnetic
2) Easily to separate from rubbish
3) Cheaper to recycle

64
 Electrochemical cell
Electrochemical cell is an important example for exothermic reactions.

• A cell is a device that converts chemical energy into electric energy in an

exothermic reaction.
• A cell is a portable source of electricity.

A piece of zinc is more likely to form ions than a piece of copper when placed in
an electrolyte solution as zinc is more reactive than copper.

Simple cells (galvanic cell)

Copper Electrode
Zinc Electrode

- It consists of two different metals in an electrolyte.

- The more reactive metal dissolves, it becomes the negative pole and electrons
flow from it to the less reactive.
-The more reactive metal loses mass.

Note:
o In electrolytic cells (electrolysis) there is a battery and electrons flow from the
anode (+ve pole) to the cathode (-ve pole).

o While in cells, flow of electrons is from the -ve pole (the more reactive) to
the +ve pole (the less reactive).

 Suggest how could you increase the amount of electricity produced?

- Increase the gap between the metals in the reactivity series.
- Increase the concentration of the electrolyte.

65
 Oxidation and reduction in power cells:
Examples:

In electrical power cells, the electrodes made from the more reactive metal
which releases electrons.

Zinc atoms become zinc ions.

Zn - 2 e-  Zn+2 (Oxidation)
(s) (aq)

While at the other terminal, copper ions

(from the electrolyte) become copper atoms.

Cu+2 + 2 e-  Cu (Reduction)
(aq) (s)

The overall reaction is shown in the ionic equation:

Zn + Cu+2  Zn+2 + Cu
(s) (aq) (aq) (s)

Zn  Zn+2 + 2 e- (Oxidation)

While at the other terminal, hydrogen ions

become hydrogen gas.

2 H+ + 2 e-  H2 (Reduction)
(aq) (g)

The overall reaction is shown in the ionic

equation:

Zn + 2 H+  Zn+2 + H2
(s) (aq) (aq) (g)

66
Fuel cells:

Hydrogen is a used as a source of energy.

It is used as a fuel in a fuel cell where hydrogen reacts with oxygen to generate
electricity.

• It causes no pollution as the only product of the reaction is water.

Reaction at the anode:

2 H2 (g) – 4 e-  4 H+ (oxidation)

Reaction at the cathode:

4 H+ (aq) + O2 (g) + 4 e-  2 H2O (g) (reduction)

If you add both reactions, the overall reaction would be:

2 H2 (g) + O2 (g)  2 H2O (g)

67
68
 Rusting
- Rusting is the corrosion of iron and steel.
- Rusting is the slow oxidation of iron to form hydrated iron (III) oxide.
- Both air and water are needed for rust to occur.
Water
Iron + air iron rust

Water
Fe + O2 Fe2O3

- Rust is the red-brown solid layer which forms on iron and steel.
- Salt (NaCl) increases the rate of rusting.

The diagram shows the conditions needed for rusting:

Iron can be prevented from rusting by stopping oxygen (from the air) and
water coming into contact with it.

69
 Methods of rust prevention:

(1) Painting: ships, Lorries, cars, bridges, and many other iron and steel
structures are painted to prevent rusting however, if the paint is scratched,
the iron beneath it will start to rust.

(2) Oiling (greasing): The iron and steel in the moving parts of
machinery are coated with oil to prevent them from rusting, but the
protective film must be renewed.

(3) Plating: food cans can be made from steel coated with tin, by dipping the
steel into molten tin. Some car bumpers and bicycle handle bars are
electroplated by chromium to prevent rusting and to give a decorative
finish look.

(4) Galvanization: Some steel girders used in the construction of bridges and
buildings are galvanized. Galvanization is done by coating iron or steel by
zinc. Zinc is more reactive than iron, so zinc corrode by losing electrons to
the iron.

(5) Sacrificial protection: Bars of more reactive metals than iron like zinc or
magnesium are attached to the hulls of ships and to oil rigs. Zinc or
magnesium rust in preference to iron by losing electrons to iron. The
magnesium or zinc is oxidised in preference to the iron. Hence, zinc or
magnesium corrodes but not iron because iron cannot lose electrons. When
the zinc or magnesium runs out, it must be renewed.

The hilt was not corroded. The iron blade was badly rusted especially near the hilt.

 Name a metallic element that does not corrode?

Answer: Gold, platinum you can also say aluminum.

 Suggest a reason why the rusting was greatest near the hilt?
Answer: The hilt is made of a metal which is less reactive than iron e.g. copper,
so iron rusts and made sacrificing protection for the hilt.

70
 Chemical reactions and Physical changes
Chemical reaction
Definition
A change in which a new
substance is formed.
The process is not easily
reversed.
Physical change
A change in which the
substances do not change
identity, but changes from one
state to another.
Can be easily returned o the
original form by some physical
processes.

Examples of physical changes are:

• Change in state of matter. Melting, freezing, evaporation and condensation

are physical change.
• Dissolving a substance in water.
• Grinding the substance such as salts or sugar.

Types of chemical reactions

Chemical Reactions

Synthesis reactions Displacement Thermal

Decomposition

Single displacement Double

Precipitation Neutralization reaction

71
  Synthesis reactions:
This type occurs where two or more substances react together to from one
product.

Examples:

Iron sulphide + Sulphur → iron II sulphide

Fe + S → FeS
Magnesium + Oxygen → Magnesium oxide
2Mg + O2 → 2MgO
Hydrogen + Oxygen→ water
2H2 + O2 → 2 H2O

Note:-
• Photosynthesis is a very essential process for life.
• Photosynthesis a process by which plant make their food (glucose) by
absorbing carbon dioxide from air, water from soil and sunlight trapped by
chlorophyll.
• Chlorophyll acts as catalyst.
• It is a synthesis reaction and an endothermic reaction.

Carbon dioxide + water Sunlight glucose + oxygen

Sunlight
6 CO2 + 6 H2O C6H12O6 + 6O2

72
  Displacement reactions:

o Single Displacement:
1- Metals displacement:

Zinc + copper II sulphate → zinc sulphate + copper

Zn + CuSO4 → ZnSO4 + Cu

Magnesium + iron II sulphate → magnesium sulphate +iron

Mg + FeSO4 → MgSO4 + Fe

2- Non-metals displacement:

Chlorine + potassium bromide → potassium chloride + bromine.

Cl2 + 2KBr → 2KCl + Br2

• Bromine + potassium iodide → potassium bromide + iodine

Br2 + 2Kl → 2KBr + I2

o Double Displacement:
1- Neutralization reactions:
Is a reaction take place between an acid and a base to produce a salt and water.

❖ Acid + alkali → salt + water

Hydrogen chloride + potassium hydroxide → potassium chloride + water

HCl + KOH → KCl + H2O

Sulphuric acid + potassium chloride → potassium sulphate + water

H2SO4 + 2KCl → K2SO4 + 4 H2O

❖ Metal carbonate + acid → salt + carbon dioxide + water

Calcium carbonate + sulphuric acid → calcium sulphate + water + carbon dioxide
CaCO3 + H2SO4 → CaSO4 + H2O + CO2

Copper carbonate + hydrochloric acid → copper chloride + water + carbon dioxide

CuCO3 + 2HCl → CuCl2 + H2O + CO2

❖ Ammonium salts + base → salt + ammonia + water

Ammonium chloride + sodium hydroxide → sodium chloride + ammonia + H2O
NH4Cl + NaOH → NaCl + NH3 + H2O

73
2- Precipitation reactions:

Potassium sulphate + calcium chloride → calcium sulphate +potassium chloride

K2SO4 + CaCl2 → CaSO4 + KCl

 Thermal decomposition:

Break down of substances (molecules) into simpler ones by heating.

Effect of heat on carbonate salts:
Metal carbonate → metal oxide + carbon dioxide
• CaCO3 → CaO + CO2
• CuCO3 → CuO + CO2
• ZnCO3 → ZnO + CO2

Effect of heat on sulphate salts:

• CaSO4 → CaO + SO3
• CuSO4 → CuO + SO3
• ZnSO4 → ZnO + SO3

Effect of heat on hydroxides:

• Ca(OH)2 → CaO + H2O
• Mg(OH)2 → MgO + H2O

Special effect of heat on alkali metal hydroxides

• NaOH → no effect
• KOH → no effect

Effect of heat on nitrate salts :

• 2Cu(NO3)2 → 2CuO + 4NO2 + O2
• 2Mg(NO3)2 → 2MgO + 4NO2 + O2

Special effect of heat on alkali metal nitrates

• 2KNO3 → 2KNO2 + O2
• 2NaNO3 → 2NaNO2 + O2

Effect of heat on ammonium salts:

• NH4Cl → NH3 + HCl
• (NH4)2CO3 → 2NH3 + H2O + CO2

All chlorides are stable except ammonium chloride.

All Na, K compounds are stable except NITRATES.

 Ionic equations:
Ionic equations are equations expressing the ions only involved in the
reaction. Ionic equations are derived from the general symbol equations.

74
  How could you write the ionic equation for the following reaction?

FeCl2 (aq) + 2 Ag NO3 (aq)→ 2 AgCl (s) + FeNO3 (aq)

Step 1:

Write a balanced symbol equation:

FeCl2 (aq) + 2AgNO3 (aq) → 2AgCl (s) + FeNO3 (aq)

Fe2+ + 2Cl- +2Ag+ + 2NO3 - → 2AgCl(s) +Fe2+ + 2NO3 -

Step 2:

✓ Write all aqueous chemicals in the form of ions, solids liquids and gaseous
chemicals are written as they are because they contain no ions.

Step 3:
✓ Cancel the ions in the reactants and products which are similar:

Fe2+ + 2Cl- + 2Ag++2NO3-→2AgCl(s) + Fe2+ + 2NO3 -

2Cl- + 2Ag+ → 2AgCl(s)

Step 4:
Write down what you did not cancel in the equation.

2Ag+ + 2Cl- → 2AgCl (s)

 How could you write the ionic equation for the following reaction?

HCl (aq) + NaOH (aq) → NaCl (aq) + H2O (I)

Answer:

HCl (aq) + NaOH (aq) → NaCl (aq) + H2O (l)

H+ + Cl- + Na+ + OH- → Na+ + Cl- + H2O (l)

Ionic equation:

H+ (aq) + OH- (aq) → H2O (l)

75
76
 Rate of Chemical Reactions
Introduction:
1. Some reactions are fast (high rate and takes short time) and some reactions
are slow (low rate and takes long time).

2. For any reaction to occur, molecules must collide, and for any collision to make a
reaction it must exceed a certain amount of energy called the activation energy.

As number of collisions increases the rate of reaction increases and number of collisions
can be increased by some factors:

Factors affecting the rate of reactions

Temperature Pressure Concentration Surface Area Stirring Catalyst Light

1. The surface area of solid reactants:

If one or more reactants are solids, the more finely divided the solid
(hence greater surface area), the greater is the rate of reaction.

• This is because when one of the reactants are solid, the

reaction takes place on the surface of solids. A solid has
much larger surface area per unit volume when it is
powdered than when it is in larger pieces (lumps).

If a solid is being reacted with a liquid (or solution), the greater the
surface area, the more solid is exposed to the liquid.

2. The concentration of reactants :

If one of the reactants is liquid/ solution, its concentration will

affect the rate of reaction the greater the
concentration of a reactant (more molecules/particles of this
reactant are present to react), the faster the rate of the reaction.

77
3. The pressure of gases:

We often use the term concentration in chemistry when

talking about Solutions. However in case of gases, we
use the term pressure. A gas at high pressure is more
concentrated than at low pressure because at high
pressure, the gas is compressed into smaller volume.

The increase in the reaction rate due to increase in concentration of a solution

or gas pressure can be explained by the collision theory which states that:

A solution of higher concentration means that it contains more reactant particles in a

given volume, and as the concentration of a solution (or gas pressure increases),
Collisions between the particles increase. The more frequent collisions, the more
chance the particles react, and finally, the faster the rate of the reaction.

4. Temperature:
− A reaction can be made fast or slow by changing the temperature of the
reactants. Therefore, as temperature increases, the rate of reaction
increases as well.

 Why does the rate increase with increasing temperature?

As temperature increases, the particles gain more energy and move faster, so
they collide more frequency with each other , as more particles have enough
energy to react . Thus, the rate of the reaction increases eventually.

78
5. Catalysts:

- Definition: catalyst is a substance that increases the rate of chemical reaction

without being used up or changed at the end of the reaction.
-
- Therefore, presence of a catalyst in a reaction will increase the rate of the
chemical reaction.
-
- Catalyst lowers the activation , the energy by providing alternative route.

Note:
• Increasing the mass of the used catalyst increases the rate of chemical
reaction.

• If the catalyst is more finely divided (powdered greater surface area ) the
rate of chemical reaction increases.

• Activation energy : minimum energy needed to start the reaction

6. Light:
Some chemical reactions are affected by light energy including important
reactions such as:

Photosynthesis
• Photosynthesis process is carried out by the help of chlorophyll ( green
pigment) that traps light energy when sun light falls on leaves (containing
the green chlorophyll).
• The reaction converts water and carbon dioxide into glucose and oxygen.
• Reaction equation of photosynthesis:

carbon dioxide + water Sunlight glucose + oxygen

Chlorophyll

79
 Sunlight
6CO2 + 6H2O C6H12O6 + 6O2
Chlorophyll

Photography
• Silver halides such as:
• Silver Chloride (AgCl) White
• Silver Bromide (AgBr) Cream
• Silver Iodide (AgI) Yellow

• These compounds darken if left to in sunlight for few hours.

2AgCl Sunlight 2Ag + Cl2

2AgBr Sunlight 2Ag + Br2

This photochemical reaction, are the basis of photography.

7. Effect of stirring:
Stirring increases the rate of chemical reaction because:

Increasing the speed of stirring increases kinetic energy of particles

increases speed of particles increases chances of collisions increases the
rate of reaction.

 How to measure rate of chemical reaction?

There are two methods to measure rate of chemical reaction:

(1) Monitoring the rate of decrease in reactants as they are
being consumed OR
(2) Monitoring the rate of increase in products as they are being
formed

Examples of :
• Measuring the rate by monitoring/ following rate of decrease in
reactants:
1) Reaction between limestone or marble chips (two forms of calcium
carbonate) and dilute hydrochloric acid.

Calcium + hydrochloric acid  Calcium + Carbon + Water

carbonate chloride dioxide
CaCO3 (s) + 2HCI (aq)  CaCl2 (aq) + CO2 (g) +H2O (l)

80
 • We compare two samples of marble chips, one sample (B) being more powered than
the other (A).
• The experiment is carried out twice, once with sample A and once with sample B.
• For fair comparison the following should be followed :
1. Same mass of samples A and B.
2. Same volume and concentration of hydrochloric acid.
3. The flask sits on the balance during the reaction.
4. A loose cotton wool plug prevents liquid spraying out of the flask but allows
the carbon dioxide gas to escape into the air.
• The flask will lose mass (as reactants being used in the reaction) during the
reaction.
• Balance readings are taken at regular time intervals.
• The loss in mass ( decrease in reactants) is plotted against time.
• Curves are obtained as in the figure.

Figure 2

Important points about the graph:

1. The reaction is fastest at the start this is shown by the steepness of the curves
over the first few minutes.
2. Curve B is steeper than curve A. This means that the gas (CO2) produced faster with
sample B. The finely powdered sample, with a greater surface area reacts faster.
3. Both reactions slow down as the concentration of reactants decreases by time.
4. Both curves flatten out at the same final mass loss.
5. Sample B reaches the horizontal part of the curve (the plateau) first.

81
 • Measuring rate of reaction by monitoring the rate of increase in products:

The reaction between magnesium and excess hydrochloric acid.

Magnesium + Hydrochloric  Magnesium + Hydrogen

Acid chloride
Mg(s) + 2HCl (aq)  MgCl2 (aq) + H2 (g)

Figure 3

• The used apparatus is shown figure 3.

• The experiment is carried out twice in two different cases:
Case C in which the concentration of the acid is twice that in case D.
• For fair comparison between the effects of concentration on the reaction rate,
everything else must stay the same in both experiments:
the volume of acid, the temperature and the mass of magnesium used
• The produced gas (hydrogen) in this reaction is collected in a gas syringe.
• The volume of gas produced is measured at regular time intervals.
• We can then plot a graph of volume of gas collected against time as shown in figure
4.

82
 Figure 4
Important comments on the graph:

1. The curve for C is steeper than for D. This shows that the reaction C uses
more concentrated acid than reaction D, and hence, reaction C is faster than
reaction D

2. The curve for experiment C starts off twice as steeply as for D. This
means that the reaction C is twice as fast as reaction D doubling the
concentration doubles the rate of reaction.

3. The total volume of hydrogen produced is the same in both experiments. (Both
reactions produce the same volume of hydrogen) because same mass of
magnesium is used.

Note:
 The reaction in this case is carried out using a divided flask with two rooms. The
acid is put in one, and the metal is put in the other. Therefore, to start the reaction,
the flask is turned upside down to mix the reactants to begin a reaction.
 The rate of this reaction can also be studied by allowing the gas to escape. The
total mass will decrease by time ( follow decrease in reactants). Record the
mass reduction at frequent time intervals and plot the graph against them.

83
 2) Another example of following increase in products:

The reaction between Sodium thiosulphate and hydrochloric acid is used to

measure the rate of formation of a sulphur precipitate (product) at different
temperatures.

Sodium + Hydrochloric Sodium + Sulphur + Sulphur + Water

thiosulphate acid chloride dioxide

Na2S2O3 (aq) + 2HCl (aq) 2NaCl (aq) + S (s) + SO2 (g) + H2O (l)

Figure 5

The experiment is shown in figure 5 in the previous page

• A cross is marked on a piece of paper. A flask containing sodium thiosulphate

solution is placed on top of the paper. Hydrochloric acid is added quickly.
• The yellow colour of the produced sulphur is very fine and stays suspended in liquid.
With time as more sulphur is formed, the liquid becomes more cloudy and difficult to
see through. The time taken for the cross to disappear is measured. The faster
the reaction, the shorter the length of time during which the cross is visible.
• The experiment is carried out several times with solutions pre-warmed to different
temperature (at higher the temperature ,the particles gain energy so move faster and
collide more resulting in faster rate of reaction).
• Remember that for fair comparison, all conditions of all the experiments must
remain the same except for the temperature.
• A graph can then be plotted of the time taken for the cross to disappear against
temperature. As in figure 6.

84
 Figure 6

The graph shows two important points:

1. The cross disappears quicker at higher temperature. The shorter the time
needed for the cross to disappear, the faster the reaction.

2. The curve is not a straight line.

Note:

The rate of the reaction double with every 10°C rises in temperature. (This is true
of many reactions but is only an approximation)

3) The decomposition of hydrogen peroxide:

Hydrogen peroxide H2O2 decomposes to form water and oxygen.
Hydrogen peroxide  water + Oxygen
2H2O2 (l)  2H2O (l) + O2 (g)

We can follow the rate of this reaction by collecting

the oxygen in a gas syringe.
The formation of oxygen is very slow at room
temperature. However, the addition of 0.5 gram of
powdered manganese (IV) oxide, MnO2 (catalyst)
makes the reaction go much faster. The black powder
(MnO2) does not disappear during the reaction.

85
Reasons for differences in rates.

• Between B and C
Curve C has
1. Higher temperature
Or
2. More surface area
Or
3. Catalyst
Or
4. Higher concentration of reaction in excise

• Between B and A
Curve A has
Higher concentration / Mass of reaction in limited factor

86
 Chemistry and Energy
Energy is neither created not destroyed but can convert from one form to
another. Energy change ( H) is involved in all chemical reactions; this energy
change is in the form of heat.

 Suggest whether this energy change is given out or taken in

during a chemical reaction?

Well every reaction differs from the other and both cases occur in reality that’s
why chemical reactions are classified into:

1. Exothermic reaction: is the reaction which releases energy to the

surroundings. Which means that heat is given out.

2. Endothermic reaction: is the reaction which absorbs energy

from the surroundings. Which means that heat is taken in.

 From where does the energy change ( H) come?

During a chemical reaction, bonds of reactants break and new bonds of

products are formed, which leads to an energy change.

Bond breaking requires energy, it is endothermic.

Bond formation releases energy, it is exothermic.

• If energy given out in bond formation is more than energy absorbed

during the bond breaking , the reaction is exothermic.
• If energy given out is less than that absorbed, the reaction is endothermic

87
 Energy diagrams:

Exothermic reactions:

Endothermic reactions:

o Catalysts are used to decrease the activation energy of the reactions.

Activation energy is required because initially some bonds must be broken

before any reaction can take place.

Bond energy is the amount of energy in kJ that must be supplied to break one
mole of a bond. It is a measure of the strength of the bond.

88
 Examples for

Exothermic reactions: Endothermic reactions:

1. Neutralisation reactions 1. Thermal decomposition

HCl + KOH KCl + H2O

2. Displacement reactions 2. Melting of ice and
Mg + H2SO4 MgSO4 + H2 evaporation of water

To calculate the energy change H of a chemical reaction:

H = (Energy in) - (Energy out)

of bond breaking of bond formation

Example:
Reaction between hydrogen and chlorine to produce hydrogen chloride,
H2 + Cl2  2HCl
(g) (g) (g)
H-H Cl – Cl H-Cl
If the bond energies of: 436 kJ 242 kJ 431 kJ

 Calculate the heat change and deduce if the reaction exothermic or

endothermic?
H-H + Cl-Cl 2 H-Cl
Solution:
Energy taken in to break bonds:
For a mole of H2 molecule: 436 kJ
For a mole of Cl2 molecule: 242 kJ
Total energy in: 678 kJ

Energy given out from bond formation:

For 2 moles of HCl= 2 x 431 = 862
Energy in - energy out = 678 – 862 = -184 kJ
So the reaction gives 184 kJ more energy than it takes in. Since it gives out energy,
the reaction is exothermic.

89
 Example:

Bond Bond energy/ kJ/mol Comment

H-H 436 in hydrogen
average of four bonds
C-H 435
in methane
O-H 464 in water
average of
C-C 347
many
O=O 498 in oxygen
C=O 803 in carbon dioxide
N≡ N 945 in nitrogen

CH4 (g) + 2O2 (g) CO2 (g) + 2H2O (g)

 How could you use the values from the table to find the heat of reaction
for the burning methane?
The left hand side involves bond breaking and needs energy:
four C-H bonds 4x435 = 1740 kJ/mol
two O=O bonds 2x498 = 996 kJ/mol
total energy needed = 2736 kJ/mol

The right hand side involves bond making and gives out energy:
two C=O bonds 2x803 = 1606 kJ/mol
four O-H bonds 4x464 = 1856 kJ/mol
total energy given out = 3462 kJ/mol

The heat reaction, H, is the energy change on going from reaction to products.
So for the burning of methane:
heat of reaction = energy difference
H = (energy needed to break bonds) – (energy given out when bonds form)

90
 Reversible Reactions
Reversible reactions are the reactions that can be reversed to backward
direction (the direction of formation of reactants from the reaction of products
together).

Chemical equilibrium:
When the rate of forward reaction = the rate of backward reaction, then the
reaction is said to be at equilibrium.

Forward
A+B C+D
Backward
At equilibrium, although the concentration of the reactants and products does
not change, both the forward and backward reactions are still taking place.

Condition: the products must all be in the reaction system i.e. no product has
escaped like a gas
Example:
CuSO4.5H2O Cu5O4 + 5H2O
Blue white
Heating blue hydrated copper (II) sulphate produces white anhydrous
copper (II) sulphate and water vapour on adding drops of water white
anhydrous copper (II) sulphate turns back again to blue hydrated copper
sulphate.
Factors affecting chemical equilibrium:
1. Concentration.
2. Pressure.
3. Temperature.
Note that catalysts only increase the rate of the reaction; it does not affect the
position of the equilibrium.

∗ Concentration:
When concentration of reactants increase the reaction shifts forward in the
direction of forming products.

a) Increasing concentrations of reactants A, B or decreasing concentrations of

products C, D:
The reaction shifts to forward direction to decrease concentration of reactants
and increase the concentration of products to reach the concentrations of
equilibrium again.

91
 b) Decreasing concentrations of reactants A, B or increasing
concentrations of products C, D:
The reaction shifts to backward direction to increase concentration of reactants
and decrease the concentration of products to reach the concentrations of
equilibrium again.

 Predict the effect upon the concentration of ozone of

increasing emissions of nitrogen monoxide (NO)?
Answer: ozone will decrease as the reaction moves backwards.

The thermal decomposition of calcium carbonate is a reversible

reaction.
CaCO3 (s ) CaO (s) + CO2 (g) H= +178 kJ

 Describe a way of moving the position of the above equilibrium

towards the right-hand side?

Answer: adding more calcium carbonate also removing carbon dioxide.

∗ Pressure:

In gaseous reactions increasing pressure shifts the reaction to the direction of

the smaller number of moles because increasing pressure decreases volume
and smaller number of moles occupies smaller volume.

Both of the following reactions are reversible.

Reaction 1 N2 (g) + O2 (g) 2NO (g)

Reaction 2 2NO (S) + O2 (g) 2NO2 (g)

 Suggest a reason why an increase in pressure does not

affect the position of equilibrium for reaction 1?

Answer: both sides have the same number of moles 2 moles

reactants and 2 moles products

92
 ∗ Temperature:
In any chemical reversible reaction if the forward reaction is exothermic so the
backward is endothermic and vice versa.
In general raising temperature favors the endothermic direction and
lowering the temperature favors the exothermic direction.
Exothermic
A+B C+D
Endothermic
An alternative method of transporting hydrogen is to change it into methanol.
This liquid is easily transported and can be decomposed to re-form hydrogen.
Methanol can be made by the following reaction.

CO (g) + 2H2 (g) CH3OH(g)

The forward reaction is exothermic.

 What would be the effect of decreasing the temperature on the

concentration of methanol at equilibrium? Give a reason for your
answer.

Answer: methanol will increase as the reaction will move forward with the
exothermic direction as it is favored by lowering temperature (cooling).

Nitrogen containing Fertilizers used to be made by the following reaction.

N2 + O2 2NO forward reaction is endothermic

3000 °C and no catalyst

They are now made using the reaction below.

N2 + 3H2 2NH3 forward reaction is exothermic

450 °C and iron as a catalyst

 Suggest why a high temperature is needed for the first reaction

but a lower temperature for the other?

Answer: first reaction is endothermic so it is favored by high temperature and

moves forward with high rate but second reaction is exothermic not favored by
high temperature so it will move backwards and the yield decreases.

93
 Other reversible reactions:
1- The formation of calcium oxide (lime) and carbon dioxide from calcium
carbonate (limestone)
CaCO3 (g) CaO (g) + CO2 (g)

2- The formation of hydrogen chloride from hydrogen and chlorine

H2 (g) + Cl2 (g) 2HCl (g)

3- The synthesis of ammonia - The Haber process

N2 (g) + 3H2 (g) 2NH3 (g)

4- The formation of sulphur trioxide – The Contact process

2 SO2 (g) + O2 2 SO3 (g)

94
 Preparation of salts

Salts

Rules of Preparation of
solubility Salts

How to
What is the What are the
describe your method
method? chemicals used?
of preparation

Any
alternative

A salt is a compound made from an

acid when a metal takes the place

A salt

The salt made depends on the acid, some common salts:

Parent acid H2SO4 HNO3 HCl

CuSO4 Cu(NO3)2 CuCl2
Salts
Copper sulphate Copper nitrate Copper chloride
(NH4)2SO4 NH4NO3 NH4Cl
Ammonium Ammonium Ammonium
sulphate nitrate chloride
Na2SO4 NaNO3 NaCl
Sodium sulphate Sodium nitrate Sodium chloride

95
 Rules of solubility:

Lead and Barium, calcium and lead

silver

Chloride Sulphate

Nitrate
Soluble
Region
Group 1 and
Carbonate ammonium Insoluble
Region

Soluble salts dissolve in water easily, while insoluble salts do not dissolve
at all.

Soluble Insoluble
All group 1 and ammonium salts.

All Nitrates
Chlorides Except silver and lead chlorides

Sulphates Except calcium, barium and

lead sulphates

Sodium, potassium and All other carbonates are

ammonium carbonates insoluble
Sodium and potassium oxide All other oxides are insoluble

96
 Preparing salts:
1. What is the method of preparation?
2. What are the 2 chemicals used for preparation?
3. How to describe the method of preparation?

Preparation techniques

Precipitation Titration Neutralization

To decide which method you will use, follow this chart:

Start

Use precipitation
Is the salt Yes technique
insoluble?

No
Use titration technique
Yes
Is it group 1 metal ?

Use neutralization
No technique

97
  How can you decide the two chemicals used to obtain the salt in
each method?
1. Precipitation of a salt: corresponding nitrate + corresponding sodium salt
2. Titration: corresponding soluble hydroxide + corresponding acid.
3. Neutralization: corresponding insoluble base (oxide) + corresponding acid.

Making soluble salts:

Neutralization

 Add excess chosen insoluble base to a certain volume of chosen acid.

 Warm and stir.
 Filter to remove unreacted chosen insoluble base.
 Half evaporate till crystallization point, cool, filter and dry

 Describe the preparation of magnesium chloride?

• The first stage is the addition of magnesium oxide to hydrochloric acid.

Mild heating is required for a full reaction to occur; however, care must be
taken to ensure that the acid does not boil as this would be a great safety
hazard.

• The magnesium (II) oxide is added until no more visible reaction can be
seen, the base no longer dissolves and the reaction stops fizzing.

• The mixture is then filtered (stage 2) to remove the excess base and
leave a clear solution in the evaporating bowl. If the solution is heated
gently, to remove some of the water and allowed to cool down slowly,
crystals will appear. The slower this crystallization is allowed to occur,
the larger the crystals that will be produced.

• Separate crystals by filtration and dry them between two filter papers or in
warm oven.

98
 State the chemicals that could be used to obtain the salt copper
sulphate?
Copper oxide and sulphuric acid.
• Not only metal oxides could be used as the base reagent in making a salt by
neutralization, but solid metal hydroxides and metal carbonates could be used,
as well.

Titration

Making soluble salts from acids and alkalis.

 Use the pipette to add 25 cm3 of alkali to a clean conical flask.

 Add a few drops of a suitable indicator such as methyl orange into the alkali.
 Fill the burette with acid and note the starting volume.

 Slowly add the acid from the burette to the alkali in the conical flask.

Stop adding the acid when the end-point is reached (the appropriate
colour change in the indicator happens). Note the final volume reading.

 Repeat the experiment, using the same volume of alkali and the same
volume of acid, but without the indicator.

 Evaporate the salt solution to the crystallizing point, allow it cool, when
crystals are formed separate them by filtration then dry them.

 Why is it necessary to repeat the experiment without the indicator?

Because the salt obtained is not pure as it is mixed with the indicator.

 The same method works for adding an alkali to an acid – just swap around the
liquids that go into the conical flask and burette.

99
  Why is an indicator used in this experiment?

An indicator is used so we can know exactly when to stop - the end-point.

 How could you use titration to obtain the salt sodium nitrate NaNO3?

1. Use the pipette to add 25 cm3 of sodium hydroxide to a clean conical flask.
2. Add a few drops of phenolphthalein (ph.ph) into the sodium hydroxide.
3. Fill the burette with dilute nitric acid and note the starting volume.

4. Slowly add the nitric acid from the burette to the sodium
hydroxide in the conical flask.

Stop adding the nitric acid when the end-point is reached (the appropriate
colour change in the indicator happens). Note the final volume reading.

5. Repeat the experiment, using the same volume of alkali and the same
volume of acid, but without the indicator.
6. Evaporate the sodium nitrate solution to the crystallizing point,
allow it cool, when crystals are formed separate them by filtration
then dry them.

100
Making insoluble salts:

Precipitation

Precipitation is the formation of a solid when two solutions are mixed together.

General reaction:

soluble salt + soluble salt insoluble salt + soluble salt

In order to obtain a salt using this method you should follow these steps:

• Add a certain volume of chemical 1 solution to a certain volume of chemical

2 solution,
• Mix the two solutions, a precipitate of the required salt is formed.
• Filter to remove the precipitate, them wash and dry it in a warm oven.
 Describe the preparation of silver chloride?

Silver chloride is an insoluble salt. You can make it by mixing solutions of

silver nitrate and sodium chloride.
1. Make up solutions of sodium chloride and silver nitrate.
2. Mix them. a white precipitate of silver chloride forms at once.
3. Filter the mixture. The precipitate is trapped in the filter paper.
4. Rinse the precipitate by running distilled water through it.
5. Then place it in a warm oven to dry.
To precipitate an insoluble salt, you must mix a solution that contains its
positive ions with one that contains its negative ions.

 If the salt is insoluble in water, then both your starting materials

should soluble in water. It does not matter whether the reagent used is
in excess because the product can be recovered by filtration, while the
soluble reactants will be removed.

101
102
 Air and Water
Composition of air:

Gas Boiling point °C Proportion in air mixture%

Nitrogen 78
-196
Oxygen 21
-183
Carbon dioxide 0.04
-32
Argon 0.93
-186
Other gases Very small percentage.

How could you separate oxygen and nitrogen from liquid air?

• Fractional distillation is used to separate the two gases from each other.

1. Air is liquefied by compression.

Air is passed through NaOH (base) to remove any acidic gases such as CO2, SO2
and NO2. Then through concentrated sulphuric acid to remove water vapor. Air is
cooled (by high pressure) at – 200 °C Then it is allowed to warm up.

2. Then the gases are separated according to their different boiling points
by fractional distillation.

Oxygen
Oxygen occurs in the atmosphere all around us as diatomic molecules (O2).
Properties:
- Oxygen is a colourless and odourless gas.
- It is slightly soluble in water.
- It is not flammable but helps burning.
Preparation (in lab):
Oxygen is prepared in lab by decomposing of hydrogen
peroxide H2O2 into water and oxygen in the presence of
catalyst manganese IV oxide.
MnO2
2 H2O2 2 H2O + O2

103
 Collection:
Over hot water as it is slightly soluble in water or by using a gas syringe.

Test for oxygen: by using a glowing splint, it relights.

Uses of Oxygen:
1. In oxyacetylene flame that is used in welding metals.
2. In steel industry to burn carbon thus converting iron into steel.
3. for breathing in diving, hospitals and at high altitudes.

Nitrogen
Physical properties:
- Colourless, odourless and tasteless.
- It is a very unreactive gas.
- It is a diatomic gas (N2).

∗ Two nitrogen atoms are covalently

bonded by a triple bond. The triple bond is very strong to break,
so nitrogen is very stable.
∗ Only high temperature or an electric spark will cause it to react with
oxygen like in the internal combustion engine of a car producing
oxides of nitrogen (NOX)

Collection: by displacement of water (insoluble in water)

Uses of Nitrogen:

1. Making ammonia by the Haber process.

2. Making nitric acid.
• Nitric acid is used in making explosives such as TNT (trinitrotoluene)
3. Used as a refrigerant for freezing food.
4. Making fertilizers.

104
 Air pollution
The common pollutants in the air are carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide,
oxides of nitrogen and lead compounds.

Pollutant Its source Harmful effect

Incomplete combustion of
carbon-containing fuels, such as
the incomplete combustion of
petrol in car.
Carbon The main source of CO is from car
monoxide CO exhausts.
Poisonous gas, It can cause
death. It prevents hemoglobin in
the blood from carrying oxygen.
It is colorless and odorless
therefore you cannot expect
its presence.

Burning of fossil fuels which 1- Main cause of acid rain.

contain sulphur like coal and
Sulphur dioxide petroleum. 2- Damage to lungs,
SO2 causing breathing
difficulties.

At high temperature and electric

spark in the car engines or in
factories oxygen reacts with
nitrogen. 1- Causes acid rain.
Oxides 2- Brown fumes prevent sun
of nitrogen Main sources are car exhausts,
light (leads to smog).
NO, NO2 factories and fires.
3- Respiratory diseases.

Burning petrol which containing

lead additives (tetraethyl lead)
Lead which is added to improve the
1- Damage to brain causing
compounds function of petrol.
mental retardation.

Inefficient combustion of
Unburnt petrol inside the car 1- Increases the risk of cancer.
Hydrocarbon engines. 2- Leads to smog

 Can you figure out a way to remove these air pollutants or at least
some of them?

Well, catalytic converters are being used to remove the oxides of nitrogen
and carbon monoxide from car exhausts.

105
 A converter containing a platinum catalyst fitted to the exhaust system
would convert the harmful gases into carbon dioxide, nitrogen, oxygen
and water vapour. These gases are all normally present in air and
therefore do not cause pollution.
2NO  N2+ O2

Nitrogen oxide is reduced to Nitrogen.

2CO + O2  2CO2

Carbon monoxide is oxidised to carbon dioxide.

C5H12 + 8O2  5CO2 + H2O

• Unleaded petrol is used in the catalytic convertors as the lead

compounds are harmful to their catalysts.
• Catalytic convertors work in high temperatures

Carbon cycle

There are 3 processes that keep the concentration of carbon dioxide

constant due to a balance between them, these processes are: respiration
and combustion on one side and photosynthesis on the other.

106
 CO2

Respiration
CO2 Photosynthesis
Combustion

Unfortunately this balance has been disturbed due to:

1- Increase in burning of fossil fuels producing carbon dioxide.
2- The destruction of forests and cutting trees which remove carbon
dioxide.

o The increasing concentration of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse

gases such as methane has resulted in a rise in the average temperature
of the Earth's atmosphere called global warming.

What do you think are the sources of these gases?

Sources of carbon dioxide:

1- Burning of fossil fuels.
2- A product of respiration.
3- A product of the reaction between an acid and a carbonate.
4- From the thermal decomposition of a carbonate.

Sources of methane:
1- It is the main constituent of natural gas.
2- Produced by the decomposition of vegetation and waste gases from
digestion in animals.

Acid rain

Rain water has a pH of 5 oxides of nitrogen and sulphur dioxide dissolve in water
to form acids and decrease the pH.

107
 Acid rain harmful effects:
1. Acid rain damages trees and limestone buildings.
2. Acid rain makes lakes too acidic for fish to live in.
3. Acid rain removes minerals from soil and increases the acidity of the soil.
4. Acid rain can speed up corrosion of metals, causing damage to metal
work.

Controlling the acidity in soil is important as plants do not grow properly in acidic
soils. Lime (CaO) or slaked lime (Ca(OH)2) are used for neutralising acidic soils.

 What do you think is better using lime or slaked lime?

Slaked lime is the better choice as its pH cannot rise above 7 and it will
not be washed by rain since it is insoluble.

Water
No need to prepare water. It comes from rivers, lakes and oceans, but it is
first stored in reservoirs where the process of purification starts.

Water is treated in two stages:

1- Filtration:
It is filtered through beds of fine sands to remove
insoluble solids.
2- Chlorination:
It is treated with chlorine to kill bacteria.

Also many reactions produce water such as:

1. Burning hydrogen in air or oxygen.
2H2 + O2 2H2O

2. reducing a metal oxide by hydrogen

CuO + H2 Cu + H2O

3. Burning of hydrocarbons (compounds that consist of C and H only.

CH4 + 2O2 CO2 + 2H2O

Test for water:

1. Water turns anhydrous cupper (II) sulphate from white to blue
CuSO4 + 5H2O CuSO4.5H2
(s) White (l) (s) blue
2. Water turns anhydrous cobalt II chloride from blue to pink.
CoCl2(s) + 6H2O CoCl2.
Blue pink

108
Test for water purity: To find out if liquid water is pure; its boiling point must be
measured. Pure water boils at exactly 100°C and freeze, exactly at 0°C.

Uses of water:

-Water is used at home in:

1. Washing 2. Drinking 3.Cooking

-Water is used in industry:

1) Manufacture of ethanol.
2) Making sulphuric acid in the contact process.
3) Solvent Water is an excellent solvent to most ionic compounds.
4) Coolant in electric power stations
5) Manufacture of hydrogen and oxygen by electrolysis of water. Hydrogen
gas is formed at the cathode and oxygen is collected at the anode.

Why is some dilute sulphuric acid added during the electrolysis of water?
• Pure water is a very poor conductor of electricity therefore to enable
water to conduct electricity better, some dilute acid is added.

109
110
 Non-metals
Halogens are elements of group VII (7). They are non-metals.
Group VII elements
Reactivity Melting Colour
Fluorine F and becomes
increases
Chloride Cl boiling darker
Bromine Br points
Iodine I increases
Astatine At

− Fluorine is the most reactive non-metal.

Halogen State at room temperature Colour

Fluorine Gas Yellow
Chlorine Gas Pale green
Bromine Liquid Red-brown
Iodine Solid Grey
Astatine Solid Black solid

− Halogens have similar properties because their atoms all have 7 electrons
in the outer shell.

− Elements of group VII are all poisonous.

− All halogens exist as diatomic molecules. The two atoms in the molecule
are joined by a covalent bond.

They undergo displacement reactions a more reactive halogen will displace

a less reactive halogen from its compounds.

chlorine + potassium iodide iodine + potassium chloride

Cl2 (g) + 2KI (aq) I2 (aq) + 2KCl (aq)

colourless brown

❖ Why are the halogens very reactive?

Because their atoms are only one electron short of a full shell
❖ Why do they have similar properties?
Because atoms with the same number of valence electrons react in a similar
way.

111
 Noble gases (group zero):

- The elements of this group are Helium, Neon, Argon, Krypton, Xenon, and
the radioactive element Radon.
- They are colorless gases they exist as individual atoms (monoatomic).
- They are very uncreative as they have completely outer-most shell.
Uses of Noble gases:
1- Helium: used in filling balloons and airships.
 Although hydrogen is also very light, helium is used instead of hydrogen
as helium is very unreactive.
2- Neon: used in advertising signs and in lasers.
 It glows red, but its color can be changed by mixing it with other gases
3-. Argon: used to fill light bulb to prevent the tungsten filament reacting with air.
 Argon is very unreactive and helps protect the filament therefore it lasts
longer.
4- Krypton: used in lasers. For example for eye surgery and in car headlamps
.
5- Xenon: used in lighthouse lamps.

Chlorine
Properties:
It is a pale green gas, denser than air and soluble in water.

Preparation (in lab):

By heating manganese IV oxide with concentrated hydrochloric acid.
MnO2 + 4 HCI → MnCl2 + Cl2 + 2H2O
Collection:
Chlorine is collected by downward delivery since it is denser than air.

Test:
Chlorine bleaches damp litmus paper.

Production:
By electrolysis of brine solution (concentrated aqueous
sodium chloride) chlorine evolves at the anode.

Uses of chlorine:
2. As a bleaching agent.
3. Water treatment to kill microbes.
4. In making hydrochloric acid

112
 Hydrogen

- Hydrogen is the simplest element.

- It is a diatomic molecule (H2).
- It has a very low density.
It was used to fill airships but due to its flammability, helium is used instead,
which is non-flammable

Preparation (in lab):

1. By displacement of hydrogen in water by very reactive metals such as
potassium, sodium and calcium.
2Na + 2H2O → 2NaOH + H2
(s) (L) (aq) (g)

2. Less reactive metals for example magnesium, zinc and iron react with steam
releasing hydrogen.
Mg(s) + H2O(g) → MgO + H2
(s) (g) (s) (g)

3. The most usual lab preparation is the reaction between zinc and dilute
hydrochloric acid.

Zinc + Hydrochloric acid → Zinc chloride + Hydrogen

Zn + 2HCl ZnCl2 + H2
(S) + (aq) (aq) (g)

4. Water electrolysis: produces hydrogen that evolves at the cathode.

Electric supply

Test for hydrogen: using a bright splint, hydrogen burns with a pop sound.

113
 Production of hydrogen:
1. By electrolysis of brine solution (concentrated sodium chloride) to produce
sodium hydroxide, hydrogen is produced at the cathode.
2. From crude oil by cracking.

Uses of hydrogen:
1. Used as a non- pollutant source of energy with more energy than other fuels.
2. In making ammonia in Haber process.
3. In making margarine from oil.

114
 Ammonia

Properties:
- Ammonia is a colourless gas with distinctive smell.
- Less dense than air.
- Very soluble in water to give an alkaline solution.

Preparation in lab:

Alkali + ammonium salt ammonia gas

Calcium hydroxide + ammonium cholride calcium chloride + water + ammonia
Ca (OH)2 + NH4Cl CaC!2 + 2H2O + 2NH3
(s) (s) (s) (g)
Ammonia

Damp red
litmus paper
Calcium oxide to dry ammonia

Heat
Collection of ammonia:
- By upward displacement of air (lighter than air)
- Ammonia is dried by calcium oxide CaO. Sulphuric acid is not used
because ammonia is a base, so it reacts with acids.

Test for ammonia:

1. Ammonia turns damp red litmus paper into blue (as ammonia is a base)
2. Ammonia forms white fumes with hydrogen chloride gas.

115
 Production of ammonia by the Haber process:

N2 + 3H2 200 atm.pressure 2NH3

450°C/iron (catalyst)
(g) (g) (g)

-The reaction is exothermic and reversible.

Reaction conditions: Temperature: 450 °C

Pressure: 200 atmospheres
Catalyst: Iron

- The temperature (450 °C) is high enough for fast (economic) rate of reaction.
- If the temperature is decreased, the reaction would be slow.
- Using iron as a catalyst and temperature 450 °C gives high yield with
economic rate.
- Pressure 200 atmospheres is used to obtain high yield of ammonia
as the pressure favors the side with less number of moles which is
the ammonia.

Source of nitrogen and hydrogen:

1) Nitrogen is obtained from air by fractional distillation of liquid air.
2) Hydrogen is now obtained from methane (natural gas).

Methane is heated with steam over a nickel catalyst.

CH4 (g + H2O (g) CO (g) + 3H2 (g)

Uses of ammonia:

• In making fertilizers

Fertilizers are substances which added to soil to promote plant growth.

2NH3 + H2SO4 (NH4)2SO4
Note: A complete fertilizer contains nitrogen, phosphorous, and potassium
(NPK fertilizers).

• In making nitric acid that is used in making fertilizers and explosives.

116
 Sulphur
Properties of sulphur:

- Non-metallic yellow solid at room temperature.

- Brittle
- Insoluble in water but soluble in organic solvents for example methyl benzene.
- Does not conduct electricity.
- Relatively low melting point and boiling point.
- Sulphur burns in air giving sulphur dioxide

S + O2 SO2

Sources of sulphur:

1. Native sulphur is found in certain volcanic region of the world.

2. In sulfide ores such as in zinc blende ZnS
3. From sulphur compounds from natural gas and petroleum.

Uses of sulphur:
Sulphur is used in making sulphur dioxide that is used in making sulphuric acid.

Sulphur dioxide

Properties:
- Sulphur dioxide is an acidic oxide with a choking smell.
- It is poisonous to all organisms
particularly bacteria.

Collection of the gas:

By downward delivery (as SO2 is denser than air).

Production:
By burning sulphur in air.
Sulphur + Oxygen Sulphur dioxde
S + O2 SO2
(s) (g) (g)

117
 Uses of sulphur dioxide:

1. Bleaching wood pulp in paper industry.

2. As a food preservative to kill bacteria.
3. In making sulphuric acid (H2SO4).

Sulphuric acid is made by the contact process:

1) Sulphur reacts with oxygen to produce sulphur dioxide.

450°C/l-2atmophere The
2) Sulphur dioxide + oxygen sulpur trioxide
Vanadium V oxide (catalyst) contact
2SO2 + O2 450°C/l-2atmophere 2SO3 process
V2O5
(g) (g) (g)

Reaction conditions:

Temperature: 450 °C
Catalyst: Vanadium(v) oxide
Pressure: 2 atmospheres (for circulation of gases)

- In reaction no. 3, SO3 is dissolved in 98% concentration sulphuric acid and

not in water, in order to prevent explosions as this reaction is explosive.
- No need for high pressure because yield of SO3 is high enough at 2 atm.

3) Sulphur trioxide + sulphuric acid oleum

SO3 + H2SO4 H2 S2O7
4) Oleum + water sulphuric acid
H2S2O7 + H2O 2H2SO4

Uses of sulphuric acid:

Concentrated sulphuric acid:

1) In making detergents.

2) Drying agent (removes water from another substances)

3) In making dyes
.

118
Dilute sulphuric acid:

1) In making fertilizers
2) In car batteries.

 How could you test for sulphur dioxide?

Since sulphur dioxide is a reducing agent , therefore it:

1. Turns acidified potassium manganate (VII) solution. Purple in color into
colorless.
2. Turns the orange color of potassium dichromate (VI) into green.

119
 Carbonates
Carbon
- Carbon is a non-metal lies in group IV (4) of the periodic table.
- It is tetravalent that form four bonds.
- Carbon atoms bind together in different ways forming allotropes of
carbon.

Allotropy: The existence of an element in two or more different forms (allotropes) in

the same physical state.

Diamond and graphite are both solid forms of carbon.

Burning is a chemical properties of carbon.

a. In sufficient supply of air (oxygen) complete combustion takes place producing

carbon dioxide.

C + O2 CO2
(s) (g) (g)
b. When oxygen supply is limited, carbon monoxide can be produced
where incomplete combustion takes place.
2C + O2 2CO

Carbon dioxide

Properties:

1. Carbon dioxide is a colourless, odourless gas.

2. Denser than air.
3. Slightly soluble in water.
4. Does not burn and does not help burning.

Preparation (in lab):

CO2 can be prepared in
laboratory by the reaction
between an acid and a
carbonate salt such as
calcium carbonate.

calcium carbonate + hydrochloric acid calcium chloride + water + carbon dioxide

CaCO3 + 2HCl CaCl2 + H2O + CO2

(s) (aq) (aq) (l) (g)

120
Collection of carbon dioxide:
1) Downward delivery since it is denser than air.
2) Over warm water because it is slightly soluble in water.

Test for carbon dioxide:

By passing the gas through lime water Ca(OH)2 that turns milky (cloudy)
due to formation of CaCO3 (white ppt.)

CO2 + Ca(OH)2 CaCO3 + H2O

(g) (aq) (s)

Production:
By heating lime stone or marble chips (both are calcium carbonate)

Calcium carbonate Calcium oxide + Carbon dioxide

(Marble chips or limestone) (Lime)

CaCO3 CaO + CO2

121
 Uses of carbon dioxide:

1. In making fire extinguishers:

- The fact that CO2 is denser than air means that a layer of CO2 covers the
fire and isolates it from oxygen.
2. In making dry ice:
- Solid carbon dioxide (dry ice) sublimes (converts from solid to liquid
without passing by the liquid state). Dry ice is used in refrigerating.
3. In fizzy drinks.

- Note:

Calcium carbonate is used in:

1. Making cement
2. Making glass
3. In blast furnace to react with the impurities giving slag.
4. Making lime and slaked lime.

Chalk, marble and limestone are naturally occurring examples of calcium carbonate.

Lime is used in:

1. To neutralize soil acidity
2. To neutralize acidic gases and industrial acidic wastes.

122
 Organic chemistry
o Fuel: is a substance that burns and give out energy.
o Fossil fuel: They are substances that are formed in the earth crust due to the
decomposition of fossils of dead animals and plant.

Formation of fossil fuel:

When forests and animals die, they are buried and covered by layers of soil
under the effect of high temperature and pressure, fossil fuel is formed.

Fossil Fuel

Coal Natural Gas Petroleum

Fractional Distillation of crude oil hydrocarbon

Coal
• A black solid fossil fuel mainly composed of the element carbon, and
traces of other non metals like sulphur.
• It is the cheapest fossil fuel, the most abundant and the longer life on earth
than petroleum and natural gases.

Natural gas
• Natural gas exists as gaseous layers over petroleum. This gas contains
mainly 94% methane gas

123
 Petroleum
The third fossil fuel and the second most important liquid on earth after water
nowadays is petroleum (also is called "black gold" or "crude oil ")

• Petroleum is a mixture of liquids named "hydrocarbons". This mixture

can be separated into its components according to their different
boiling points in a process known as " Fractional distillation"
• In fractional distillation, Petroleum is heated slowly up to 500 °C.
• Components of smaller size ( and hence lower boiling point) will
vaporize first and will be separated first up in the fractionating tower.
While components with larger size ( and hence higher boiling point) will
vaporize and be separated later down in the fractionating tower.

fuel Oil

Lubricating
Oils

124
 Name of fraction Uses of the fraction - depends on its properties

Refinery Gases • Gas cylinders at homes for cooking

• Easily vaporized, highly flammable, easily, ignited,
Gasoline, Petrol
car fuel
Naphtha • Producing chemicals
• Jet fuel (air crafts).
Paraffin, Kerosene
• Home stoves.
Diesel oil (Gas oil) • large vehicle fuel
Fuel oil • ships and factories
• lubricating oils
lubricating Oils and Waxes
• Clear waxes
• polishes
• Water proofing material.
Bitumen
• Sticks rock chips on roofs.
(Asphalt)
• Road surfaces.

125
 Hydrocarbons: are compounds that are made up of hydrogen and carbon only.

Hydrocarbons

Saturated Unsaturated
Hydrocarbons Hydrocarbons

Alkanes Alkenes Alkynes

Their molecules Their molecules Their molecules

contain only single contain at least one contain at least
covalent bonds double covalent one triple covalent
between carbon bond between bond between
atoms. carbon atoms carbon atoms.

C-C C=C C=C

The hydrocarbons that will be studied at this level will be alkanes and alkenes only.

Homologous series
It is a family of organic-compounds of same general chemical properties due to
the presence of same functional group.

What is a functional group?

A functional group is a certain arrangement of atoms that exist in organic
molecules that makes it behave different from other organic compounds in
chemical reactions.

Examples of functional groups:

1) All alkenes contain C=C double bond

(this is the functional group for alkenes)
2) All alcohols contain -OH this is the functional group for alcohols.

126
3) All carboxylic acid contain this is the functional group for
carboxylic acids . o
C-O-H
O
4) All esters contain this is the functional group for esters. C-O

Examples on homologous series:

1) Alkanes:

Alkanes are the same in having all carbon

- carbon single covalent bonds they have
no functional group to talk about but they
have similar chemical properties. Alkanes
form homologous series

2) Alkenes:

Alkenes are the same in having

it is their functional group, Alkenes are a homologous series as they
all have the same functional group.

127
3) Alcohols:
Alcohols are the same in having –OH it is their functional group,
Alcohols form a homologous series as
they all have the same functional group.

4) Carboxylic acids:

Carboxylic acids are the same in having

it is their functional group.

Carboxylic acids form a homologous

series as they all have the same
functional group

O
C
5) Esters: O

Esters are the same in having the same functional group

Esters form a homologous series as they all have the same functional group

128
Properties of homologous series:

1. Same functional group.

2. Same general chemical properties.
3. Same way of preparation.
4. Same general molecular formula
5. Usually a member differs from the next one by –CH2
6. Different physical properties; they have trend in their physical
properties for example: melting point increases as the size of the
compound increase

Numbers in organic chemistry

129
Examples: (1)

1. Number of carbon atoms : 4 But-

2. Functional group: C= C - ene
3. Position of functional group : 2 But-2-ene OR 2-Butene

Examples: (2)

1. Number of carbon atoms: 5 Pent-

2. Functional group: -OH - ol
3. Position of functional group: 3 Pentan-3-ol OR 3-Pentanol

130
 Isomerism
Isomers are organic compounds which have same molecular formula
but different structural formula.

Examples of isomers:

1) Isomers of alkanes:

- The first three alkanes CH4, C2H6 and C3H8 have no

isomers.
- Isomers of Butane (C4H10)

Butane
2-methyl propane

2) Isomers of alkenes

The alkenes with four or more carbon atoms show isomerism. In this case
changing the position of the C= C double bond give a new isomer.

Example: Isomers of the molecular formula C4H8.

Cyclobutane

Notice that: Isomers of the same molecular formula could belong to

different families (different homologous series)

131
 Isomers of C5H11Cl:

H H H Cl H
H H H H H | | | | |
| | | | | H- C - C - C - C – C - H
H- C - C - C - C – C- Cl | | | | |
| | | | | H H H H H
H H H H H
1- Chloropentane 2- Chloropentane

H H Cl H H
| | | | |
H- C - C - C - C – C - H
| | | | |
H H H H H

3- Chloropentane

3) Isomers of alcohols:

Example: isomers of C3H7OH

OR OR

Propan-1-ol Propan-2-ol

132
1 Alkanes (saturated hydrocarbons):
1. Alkanes are saturated hydrocarbons that contain only carbon-
carbon single bonds.
2. The general formula of alkanes is CnH2n+2 (where n is the number of
present carbon atoms). They end with - ane.
3. Alkanes from: C1 to C4 are gases , C5 to C19 are liquids, and C20
till (the remaining) are solids.
4. The following table shows the names and the formulas of the first six
members of the series of alkanes:

Molecular No.of Physical

Boiling
Alkane formula carbon Structural state at room
point
CnH2n+2 atoms formula temp

Methane CH4 1 -164 Gas

Ethane C2H6 2 -87 Gas

Propane C3H8 3 -42 Gas

Butane C4H10 4 0 Gas

Pentane C5H12 5 +36 Liquid

133
 Reactions of alkanes

1. Burning (Combustion)
All alkanes burn exothermally ( give out heat) {that's why they are used as
fuels }

a) Complete combustion ( in presence of excess oxygen): alkanes

burn producing carbon dioxide, water vapour and energy.

Example:

Methane + Oxygen → Carbon dioxide + water vapour

CH4 2O2 → CO2 + 2H2O
(g) (g) (g) (g)

Ethane + Oxygen → Carbon dioxide + Water vapour

2C2H6 + 7O2 → 4CO2 + 6H2O
(g) (g) (g) (g)

b) Incomplete combustion ( no enough oxygen): alkanes burn producing

carbon monoxide, water vapour and energy
Example:
Methane + oxygen → carbon monoxide + water vapour

2CH4 + 2O2 → 2CO + 2H2O

(g) (g) (g) (g)

2. Substitution reaction: ( reaction with halogens)

- Light is required to make the reaction happen. Any of the hydrogen can
be replaced .The reaction can continue until all the hydrogen have been
replaced by the halogen atoms and so a mixture of products is often
obtained.
Examples:

Methane + chlorine chloromethane + Hydrogen chloride

Sunlight + HCl
+ Cl2 +

+ HCl 1-chloro propane

Sunlight
+ Cl2
+ HCl 2-chloro propane

Propane

134
Note: Substitution of propane produces a mixture of
products (2 isomers)

3.Cracking reactions:

Cracking is the breakdown of large molecules into smaller, more valuable molecules.

All cracking reactions of long chain alkanes give

Alkane (shorter chain than the Alkene

original)
+
+
Hydrogen
Short chain alkene

Note: Shorter chain alkane produced from cracking reaction can undergo further
cracking producing alkene + hydrogen. Therefore, overall reaction will produce :
alkene + alkene + hydrogen.

➢ Examples:

heat
(1) Decane octane + ethene
catalyst ( Al2O3)

C10H22 C8H18 + C2H4

heat
(2) Decane octene + ethene + hydrogen
catalyst ( Al2O3)

C10H22 C8H16 + C2H4 + H2

heat
(3) Decane decene + hydrogen
catalyst ( Al2O3)

C10H22 C10H20 + H2

135
2 Alkenes (unsaturated hydrocarbons):
1. Alkenes are unsaturated hydrocarbons that
2. At least one C = C double bond.
3. Alkenes are unsaturated due to the ability to break this double bond (C=C)
and add extra atoms to the molecule ( that's why alkenes are generally
more reactive than alkanes)
4. The general formula of alkenes is CnH2n (where n is the number of present
carbon atoms). They end with - ene.
5. Alkenes from: C2 to C4 are gases, C5 to C19 are liquids, and C20 till (
the remaining) are solids

The following table shows the first alkenes and some more details:

Physical
Molecular No. of
Structural formula Boiling state at
Alkene formula carbon
point room
CnH2n atoms
temp.

Ethene C2H4 2 -104 gas

Propene C3H6 3 -47 gas

Butene C4H8 4 -6 gas

Pentene C5H10 5 +30 Liquid

136
 Reactions of alkenes:
1. Burning (Combustion):

a) Complete combustion ( in presence of excess oxygen): alkenes burn

producing carbon dioxide and water vapour

Example:
Ethene + Oxygen → Carbon dioxide + water vapour
C2H4 + 2O2  2CO2 + 2H2O
(g) (g) (g) (g)

b) Incomplete combustion ( no enough oxygen): alkenes burn producing

carbon monoxide, and water vapour

Example:
Ethene + Oxygen → Carbon monoxide + water vapour
C2H4 + 2O2  2CO + 2H2O
(g) (g) (g) (g)

2. Addition reactions:

Addition reaction is characteristic for unsaturated hydrocarbons.

Hydrogen, water (steam) or bromine can be added across the C = C double bond

(a) Addition of hydrogen (Hydrogenation)

Alkene + Hydrogen Alkane

Examples:
(1) Ethene + hydrogen 150 -300ْC Ethane
nickel
150 -300ْC
+ H2
nickel

(g ) (g) (g)
150 -300ْC
(2) Propene + hydrogen Propane
nickel

+ H2 150 -300ْC
nickel

137
 (b)Addition of water/steam (Hydration):

Alkene + Water Alcohol

Examples:
300OC/60 atmosphere
(1) Ethene + steam Ethanol( Ethyl alcohol)
Phosphoric acid(catalyst)

+ H2O

(2) Propene + steam 300OC /60 atmosphere Propanol

Phosphoric acid(catalyst)

+ H2O

(3) But-2-ene + steam 300OC /60 atmosphere 2-Butanol

Phosphoric acid(catalyst)

+ H2O

o Alcohol produced by this way is of high purity.

138
 (c) Addition of bromine (Bromination):

1) Addition of Br2:

Example:

H H H H
\ / No catalyst needed | |
C=C + Br2 H-C- C-H
/ \ | |
H H
Br Br

Bromination is a characteristic test for unsaturated hydrocarbons. When bromine

water is added to any alkene color changes from red brown to colourless.

2) Addition of HBr:

Example:
Ethene + Hydrogen bromide Bromo-ethane

+ HBr

 How to prepare chloro-ethane?

Answer: chloroethane can be prepared by 2 methods :

(1) substitution of ethane using sunlight and chlorine

(2) addition of HCl to ethene

 Which method is better?

Addition of HCl to ethene is a better method for preparation of chloro-

ethane because:
1. No catalyst is needed
2. alkenes are generally more reactive
3. No waste product such as HCl ( which is produced in
substitution of alkanes)

139
 3. Polymerizations reactions: Addition polymerization

• Alkenes such as ethene can undergo addition polymerization

reaction where large number of monomers (small molecule)
combines to form a long chain molecule called polymer.
• Monomer: a small molecule which can be polymerized to make a polymer
• Polymer: a macro-molecule made by polymerizing monomers
• High pressure, temperature ( room temperature or higher )
and a catalyst are needed.
Examples:
(1) Catalyst

High pressure
High temperature

Monomer (Ethene) Polymer (poly ethene)

(2)

Monomer (propene) Monomer (propene)

Catalyst
High pressure
Polymerization High temperature

Polymer (polypropene)

140
The following table shows some example, for monomers, their
polymers and uses of these polymers:

Monomer Polymer Uses

1. Plastic bags
2. Bowls, bottles, packaging
Ethene

Poly(ethene)

1. Crates and boxes

2. plastic rope
Propene
Poly(propene)

Insulation, pipes and

Chloroethene Poly(chloroethene)
gutters.
(also called Polyvinyl
chloride, PVC)

Non- stick frying pans.

Poly(tetra-fluoroethene)
(Teflon)
Tetra fluoroethene

Poly (styrene)
Insulation, packaging
Styrene (foam)

141
 Advantages and disadvantages of plastics:
Advantages Disadvantages
- Cheap - Non-biodegradable
- Lighter than metal - Produces toxic gases such as carbon
- Does not corrode and is not affected monoxide, hydrogen chloride, and
by acids or bases hydrogen cyanide when burnt.
- Used as Insulators - Visual pollution
- Shortage of landfill sites

Organic
compounds
containing carbon,
oxygen and
hydrogen

1-Alcohols 2- Carboxylic acids 3-Esters

Alcohols
• Alcohols form a homologous series of compounds that contain -OH (
hydroxyl) as a functional group.
• Their names end with -ol
• General formula: CnH2n+1OH
• Properties of alcohols:

➢ Neutral (PH = 7).

➢ Colourless liquids.
➢ Bad electric conductor.
➢ Volatile (evaporates easily or have low boiling point).
➢ Flammable.

142
 • The following table shows examples of some alcohols, their molecular
formula and their boiling points:

Alcohol Molecular formula Boiling point ْC

Methanol CH3OH 65
Ethanol C2H5OH 78
Boiling point
Propan-1-ol C3H7OH 97 Increases
Butan-1-ol C4H9OH 117
Pentan-2-ol C5H11OH 137

The structural formula of some alcohols

Methanol Ethanol

The following are two isomers for butanol:

Butan-1-ol Butan-2-ol

143
 Reactions of Alcohols:
(1) Oxidation to carboxylic acids:

Example:
Oxidation

Ethanol Ethanoic acid

(2) Alcohols react with metals such as sodium (Na) and

potassium (K) producing salt and hydrogen:

Alcohol + Metal Salt +Hydrogen

Example: H H
I I
2 H – C – C – ONa + H2
2 + 2 Na I I
H H

(3) Alcohols undergo dehydration ( loss of water) to form

alkenes:

Dehydration
Alcohol Alkene
- H 2O
Example:

Dehydration

- H2O

Ethanol Ethene

144
 Note: Dehydration of alcohol to alkene can be done by 2 methods, either:
1) heating alcohol with excess H2SO4

2) Passing alcohol vapor over hot Al2O3

Making ethanol:

Ethanol can be made by two ways:

1. Hydration of ethene: (addition of steam)

Ethene + Steam 300OC, 60 atmosphere Ethanol

Phosphoric acid

300OC, 60 atmosphere
+ H2O
Phosphoric acid

2. Fermentation

• Ethanol can be made by fermentation of sugar by yeast. In this reaction

sugar converts into ethanol and carbon dioxide.

Yeast - 37ْC
Glucose ethanol + carbon dioxide
Zymase, enzyme

Yeast - 37ْC
C6H12O6 2C2H5OH + 2CO2
Zymase, enzyme

145
  What is yeast?
Yeast is a type of living organism called fungus. Yeast gains energy by
anaerobic respiration (respiration in absence of oxygen) by fermentation of sugar.

• Fermentation stops if :
1) The sugar runs out.

2) When the ethanol concentration has reached about 15% because yeast

denature ( or die) at high concentration of ethanol.

3) When temperature increases above 37°C because the yeast denature .

The best temperature is 37°C and the reaction is catalyzed by the enzyme

zymase present in yeast.

Fermentation c an be carried out in the laboratory using the

apparatus in the figure. The air-lock allow gas

( CO2) to escape from the vessel but prevent entry

of bacteria and oxygen ( to prevent oxidation of

ethanol to ethanoic acid )

Uses of ethanol:

1. As a Fuel ethanol burns with a clear flame, giving out quite a lot of heat

C2H5OH + 3 O2 → 2CO2 + 3H2O

(g) (g)
2. Ethanol is a good solvent in paints, glues, perfumes, etc.

3. It is a raw material for other organic chemicals.

4. It is used in making wine and beer (alcoholic drinks).

146
  Which method for making ethanol is better? Hydration of ethene
or Fermentation?

Fermentation Hydration of
ethene
Advantages 1) Produces pure ethanol
Uses renewable source 2) Fast method
3) Continuous process

1) Slow method
Disadvantages 2) Require large reaction vessels
3) Produces ethanol in mixture 1) Uses non-renewable
with other substances, so source
fractional distillation is required to 2) Require high energy
obtain pure ethanol (fractional
distillation is expensive process)

Carboxylic acids (organic acids)

• Carboxylic acids are another homologous series of organic

compounds.
• They have the functional group - COOH attached to the hydrocarbon
chain.
• pH > 7 ( weak acids)

Examples of carboxylic acids:

O H O

H- C – C- O - H
H -C – O - H
H

Methanoic acid Ethanoic acid (vinegar)

H HHO
H HO
H - C – C- C –C - O – H
H - C – C- C - O – H
H HH
H H
Propanoic acid Butanoic acid

147
 • Preparation of carboxylic acids
o Oxidation of alcohols gives the corresponding carboxylic acids.

Oxidizing agent
Alcohol Carboxylic acid

o Examples of oxidizing agents:

1. Copper (II) oxide
2. Potassium (VII) Manganate
3. Potassium Dichromate

Example: Preparation of ethanoic acid by oxidation of ethanol

Copper (II) oxide
❖ Ethanol Ethanoic acid
C2H5OH CH3COOH

Acidified
❖ Ethanol Potassium (VII) manganate Ethanoic acid
(purple) (colour changes from purple to colorless)

❖ Ethanol Acidified Ethanoic acid

Potassium Dichromate (orange)) (colour changes from orange to green)

• Reactions of carboxylic acids: (like any acid)

(1) Reacts with base to form salt + water:

+ NaOH + H2O

Ethanoic acid Sodium ethanoate

(2) Reacts with metals to form salt + hydrogen:

+ 2 Na 2 + H2
2

Ethanoic acid Sodium ethanoate

148
 (3) Reacts with metal carbonates to form salt + carbon dioxide + water:

2 + Na2CO3 2 2 + CO2 + H2O

Sodium propanoate
Propanoic acid

Esters

• Esters form a family of organic compounds formed by esterification reaction

which is the reaction of an alcohol with a carboxylic acid.
• Esters are characterized by strong and pleasant tastes and pleasant smells.
• In this reaction, a water molecule is eliminated when a molecule of the acid
react with a molecule of an alcohol, and since this reaction is reversible, So
conc. H2SO4 is added to remove the formed water so that the reaction
goes to the forward direction producing the ester.
• Conc. H2SO4 is used as a catalyst.

149
 Example:

Methanoic acid will react with ethanol in the presence of few drops of
concentrated sulphuric acid producing ethyl methanoate (an ester)

Ethanol + Methanoic acid Conc. Ethyl methanoate + water

H2SO4
+ H2O
conc H2SO4
+ + H 2O
- H2O

Ethyl methanoate

Show the formation of the ester and name it when:

a) Methanol reacts with ethanoic acid.

b) Propanol reacts with methanoic acid.
c) Name the reactants that produces:

• Uses of esters: Did you know that esters are

• As food flavorings
• In making perfumes
• As a solvent
responsible for the pleasant characteristic
smell (odour) of the fruits?
For example: Propyl methanoate is
responsible for the smell of the apples while
pentyl ethanoate is responsible for the smell

❖ Ester hydrolysis:
Ester linkage is hydrolyzed (broken down) by addition of water

Example:

Ester +
+ H2O

Methyl propanoate Propanoic acid Methanol

150
 Polymerisation
Polymerisation is the chemical reaction in which molecules (monomers) join
together to form a long chain polymer.

Polymerisation is of two types

Addition polymerization (check page 140) Condensation polymerisation

A polymer is formed by an addition reaction. The monomer A polymer formed by
molecule must contain C = C double bond. The double bond condensation reaction
open up and the monomers join to themselves to make a takes place by the
molecule with a very long chain. Addition polymers are non- elimination of water.
biodegradable (do not decompose by bacteria and
cause accumulation in nature)

151
 Condensation polymerisation

Natural Artificial (Synthetic)

Protein Carbohydrate
Nylon Terylene
O
Fats
Amide
Amide Ester
Ester

Polyamide

Protein Nylon
(Natural) (Synthetic)

➢ Note:
 Natural polymers such as proteins, carbohydrates and fats are
biodegradable compounds so they save resources WHILE synthetic
polymers such as nylon and terylene are non-biodegradable so they may
cause:
• Visiual pollution
• Shortage of landfill sites
• Toxic gases when burnt
 In condensation polymerization , conc H2SO4 is used as a catalyst ( dehydrating agent )

152
Polymers
I. Poly amides:

1. Proteins:
- Proteins are natural macromolecules (polymers)
- Proteins are made up of monomers called amino acids. An amino acid contains two
functional groups, amine group NH2 - and Carboxylic group –COOH.

- When large number of amino acids reacts together, the formed product is known as
protein or poly peptide, it has the following structure:

+ nH2O

• Protein hydrolysis:
Protein can be hydrolyzed (broken down) to amino acids by heating in
concentrated hydrochloric acid ( acid hydrolysis). This is the reverse of the
condensation process that form protein

+ HCl

153
 The mixture of amino acids can be separated by chromatography. Amino
acids are colourless substances. A locating agent is used to see them.

2. Nylon :
• Is a synthetic polymer / polyamide (man - made fibers).

• It has the same linkage as protein, the amide / peptide linkage

But the difference is the monomers used in nylon are di-amine and di-carboxylic acid

The formed polymer. Nylon has the following structure:

+ n H2 O

• Nylon can be turned into fibers ( threads) that can be woven into fabric to
make shirts, ties, sheets, parachutes, racket strings and ropes.
• Nylon is hydrolyzed by conc hydrochloric acid { acid hydrolysis} (as proteins)

II. Carbohydrates
- Carbohydrates are group of naturally occurring organic compounds
containing carbon, hydrogen and oxygen; the ratio of hydrogen to oxygen
atoms in the molecule is always 2:1
- Examples of carbohydrates are monosaccharide (such as glucose),
disaccharides (such as sucrose) and polysaccharide (such as starch).

154
 + nH2O

- Starch is a polysaccharide (a macromolecule). It builds up from large numbers

of monosaccharide/ monomer ( glucose)

Hydrolysis of carbohydrates:
Polysaccharides can be hydrolyzed (broken down) into sugar molecules by
warming with hydrochloric acid (acid hydrolysis).

The sugars present in the mixture can be analyzed by chromatography and

a locating agent must be used to detect the spots because sugars are
colourless.

155
 III. Polyesters:

Polyester

Terylene
Fats
(Synthetic)
( Natural
)

Terylene (a man-made fiber)

• Terylene is polyester with the same linkage as fats, it has ester linkage

• Formation of terylene and its structure:

Terylene is formed of two different monomers: dicarboxylic acid and diol

+ nH2O
• Terylene can also be turned into fibers which can be woven to be used in
making clothes.

156
 Moles and chemical equations
We need to be able to predict the amounts of substances involved in chemical
reactions.

∗ Relative atomic mass Ar:

− Is the average mass of an atom compared with the mass of a standard atom
of carbon - 12.
You can get the Ar from the periodic table which is the mass no.

∗ The relative molecular mass Mr (formula mass)

− It is the sum of the relative atomic mass of all atoms in a molecule.

The relative molecular mass of a compound is found by adding up the
relative atomic masses of the of the elements in the compound according to
the number of each element's atoms.

Examples:

Calculate the relative molecular mass of each of the following if the following if the:
(Ar of O = 16, Ca = 40 , C = 12, Na = 23 , S = 32)
1. Oxygen molecule O2 = 2x16 = 32
2. Calcium carbonate molecule CaCO3 = 40 + 12 + (16x3) = 100
3. Sodium sulphate Na2SO4 = (2x23) + 32 + (16x4) = 142

∗ Mole: The relative atomic or molecular mass expressed in gram.

For example :
The relative molecular mass of sulphuric acid = 98
a mole of sulphuric acid = 98 gram.

Scientists have found that one mole of a substance contains 6x1023 particles this no. is
called Avogadro's number.

∗ Calculations using solid :

The mass of a substance present in any number of moles can be calculated

according the following relation

Mass = number X mass of 1 mol

(in gram) of moles (Ar or Mr)

Mass = no. of moles x Ar or Mr

157
 Example 1:
Calculate the mass of:

a) 1 mole of Al (Ar of Al = 27)

Answer: 1 mole of Al = 27 grams

b) 0.2 mole of NaCl. (Ar of O = 16 , H = 1 , Na = 23)

Answer: 1 mole of NaOH = 23 + 10 + 1 = 40 gram, 0.2 mole of NaoH = 40 x 0.2 = 8 gram.

Calculate the no. of moles exist in 80 gram sodium hydroxide.

Mass 80
Answer: no. of moles = = 2 moles
Mr 40

Mole Ratio
♦ It is the ratio between the moles of two different substances in a balanced
equation .
♦ To determine the mole ratio between two substances all you need to do is
look at the balanced equation for the number on the left of the compound
/substance .

1) CaCO3 CaO+ CO2

Ratio : 1 1 1

If number of moles of CaCO3 = 0.2

so number of moles of CaO and CO2 =0.2 (According to their Ratio)

2) MgO+2 HCl MgCl2 +H2O

Ratio : 1 2 1 1

If number of moles MgO =0.4

So number of moles of HCl =0.4x2 =0.8 (According to their mole Ratio)

Example 2:
Thermal decomposition of Calcium carbonate form 11.2g of calcium oxide and V of
carbon dioxide?

CaCO3 CaO + CO2

1. Find mass of calcium carbonate used ?

2. Find volume of carbon dioxide formed ?

158
 Answer:

Step 1:
find mole ratio
CaCO3 : CaO : CO2
1 : 1 : 1
Step 2 :
Find number of mole of the compound that have givens number of mole of
CaO=11.2/56 =0.2

Step 3 :

From mole ratio you can predict number of mole of CaCO3 and CO2

CaCO3 : CaO : CO2

Ratio 1 : 1 : 1

So Number of moles =0.2 for the 3 compounds

Step 4 :

Now you can solve questions easily:

Mass of CaCO3 =nxMr =0.2 x100=20
Volume of CO2=nx24=0.2x24=4.

159
∗ Calculations involving gases
Many reactions involve gases. Weighing a gas is quite difficult.
It is much easier to measure their volume.
- The volume of one mole of any gas is 24 dm3 (liters) at room temperature
and pressure (r.t.p.). This is known as the molar gas volume.
- This rule is applied to all gases.
Volume a gas = no. of moles 24
Volume
No. of moles =
24

- Remember that : dm3 = 1 litre = 1000 cm3

Reactions involving gases

Sulphur + Oxygen  Sulphur

dioxide S + O2  SO2
(s) (g) (g)
1 mol 1 mol 1 mol

If 8 grams of sulphur are burnt. What volume of SO2 is produced? No. of moles of
sulphur

Mass 8g
= = = 0.25 mol.
Ar 32

Observe the equation, you will find that the ratio between the no. of moles of sulphur
and the no. of moles of sulphur dioxide is 1 : 1 Therefore no. of moles of SO2 is
0.25 So volume of SO2 = 24 0.25 x 24 = 6 dm3

♦ When dealing with gases , you only need to use the mole ratio
and the volume
CH4+2O2 CO2+ 2 H2O
1 2 1
If the volume of methane is 40 so what is the Volume of oxygen ? O2= 2x40 =80
And volume of carbon dioxide =40

160
∗ Calculations using solution concentrations
When a solute is dissolved in a solvent, we can measure the quantity of solute in two
ways:

1- The mass of solute (in grams)

2- The no. of moles.

It is more useful to measure the amount of dissolved solute in moles.

A molar solution: it is the solution in which one mole of a substance is dissolved in

a litre solvent.

The following equation is useful when working out the number of moles of a substance
present in a particular solution:

No. of moles = concentration x volume of solution

(in mol. / dm3) (in dm3)

No. of moles = concentration x volume

No of mole
Volume =
Conc.

No of mole
Concentration =
Vol.

Calculate the concentration of sodium hydroxide, NaOH, that contains 10 g of NaOH in a

final volume of 250 cm3?

Follow the following steps

161
How to find excess reagent :
0.7 mole of silicon react with 25 g of bromine .
Si+2Br2 SiBr2

Which one is the excess reagent ?

Step 1:
Get number of mole of bromine
Number of moles =mass /Ar 25/28=0.158

Step 2:
Get number of 1 mole of bromine
0.158/2=0.079

Finally:
1 mole : 1 mole
of Si : of Br2
0.07 : 0.079

Bromine the excess reagent because it have a bigger number of mole

162
∗ Percentage yield and percentage purity

A reaction may not always yield the total amount of product predicted by the
equation. The loss may be due to several factors.
1- The reaction may not be totally complete.
2- Errors may be made in weighing the reactants or the products.
3- Material may be lost in carrying out the reaction, or in transferring and
separating the product.

Percentage yield = Actual Yield (given ) x 100

Theoretical yield (calculated )

Mass of pure substance

Percentage purity = Mass of impure substance x100

Example :
12.4 gram of cupper (II) carbonate in a crucible produced only 7.0 of copper
oxide. What was the percentage yield of copper II oxide?
CuCO3  CuO + CO2

1mole 1 mole 1 mole

Solution:

Mr. of CuCO = (64 x1) + (12x1) + (16x3) = 124

No of moles of CuCO3 =12.4/124 = 0.1 mol

No. of moles of CuO = 0.1 mole

Mass of one mole of CuO =64 +16 =80

Mass of CuO produced = 0.1 x 80=8 g

1.86
Percentage yield = 1.68 x100 = 87.5%

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∗ Empirical formula and molecular formula
The Molecular formula (the actual formula): is a formula which shows the actual
element present in a molecule of the compound.

The empirical formula: is the formula for a compound which shows the simplest
ratio of atoms present.

Example:
The molecular formula of butane is C4H8 and its empirical formula is CH2.

Examples to show how to get the empirical formula

 Find the empirical formula of silicon (IV) oxide from the percentage
mass? (data given below)

Silicon is 47%, Oxygen is 53%

To answer follow the following steps :

Si O
1- Percentage by mass 47% 53%
2- Mass in 100g. 47 g 53 g

3- Molar mass (get it from

28 g/mol 16 /mol
the periodic table.)

4- Number of moles 47 53
28 = 1.68 mol. 16
= 3.31

5- Simplest ratio (by dividing 3.31

by the smallest number) 1.86 1.68
1.68

1 2

6- Empirical formula SiO2

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 The Mr of oxalic acid is 90 and its composition by mass is: Carbon = 26.7%,
hydrogen = 2.2%, oxygen = 71.1% ?

I. Calculate the empirical formula of oxalic acid.

II. What is the molecular formula of the acid?

Solution:

C H O
1 Percentage by mass 26.7% 2.2% 71.1
2 Mass in 100g 26.7 g 2.2 g 71.1

Molar mass(calculated from

3 the periodic table) 12 g/mol. 1g / mol 16/mol

4 Number of moles 26.7

2.2 71.1
= 2.2 = 4.4
= 2.2 1 16
12

5 Simplest ratio 4.4

2.2 =2
2.2 2.2
=1 =1
2.2 2.2

6 Empirical formula CHO2

To get the molecular formula follow the following steps:

1. The relative mass of the empirical formula

CHO2 = 12 + 1 + 2 x 16 = 45
2. Divide the Mr of oxalic acid by he relative molecular mass of the empirical
formula. 90/45 = 2 (two units of empirical formula)
;. The molecular formula is C2H2O4

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∗ Water of crystallization
Crystals of salts carry water molecules known as water of crystallization .These water
molecules are bonded into the crystal lattice .

Examples:

1. Hydrated cupper sulphate CuSO4.5H2O

2. Iron sulphate FeSO4.7H2O

3. Sodium carbonate Na2CO3.10H2O

 How to calculate water of crystallization?

Hydrated salts contain water of crystallization. If we heat hydrated salts till a

constant mass, water of crystallization is released and we get an hydrous salt.

Hydrated salt anhydrous salt + water vapour

A 5 gram sample of hydrated cupper sulphate was heated to constant mass

leaving anhydrous cupper sulphate with 3.2 gram calculate the no. of
molecules of water of crystallization?

Anhydrous salt CuSO4

H20
Mass 3.2 g 1.8 g

Molar mass (RMM) 160 g/mol. 18 g/mol

No. of moles 3.2

= 0.02 1.8
160 = 0.1
18

0.02 0.1
Simplest ratio =1 =5
0.02 0.02
1 5

Formula: CuSO4 5H2O Water of crystallization = 5

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