DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

ACE ENGINEERING COLLEGE

(NBA ACCREDITED B.TECH COURSES,ECE,EE,CSE,MECH,CIVIL)

(NAAC “A” GRADE)

AN AUTONOMOUS INSTITUTION

ANKUSHAPUR(V),GHATKESAR(M),MEDCHAL(DIST)-501301

2023-2024
BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY IN ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

BY
V.CHAITHANYA 21AG1A0460

UNDER THE ESTEEMED GUIDANCE OF

Mr.P.KIRAN KUMAR

ASSISTANT PROFESSOR

DEPARTMENT OF ECE
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 ACE ENGINEERING COLLEGE
(NBA ACCREDITED B.TECH COURSES,ECE,EE,CSE,MECH,CIVIL)
(NAAC “ A” GRADE)

AN AUTONOMOUS INSTITUTION

ANKUSHAPUR(V),GHATKESAR(M),MEDCHAL(DIST)-501301

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
CERTIFICATE

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION

ENGINEERING IS A RECORD OF BONAFIDE WORK CARRIED OUT

BY
V.CHAITHANYA 21AG1A0460

DURING THE ACADEMIC YEAR 2023-2024

MR.P.KIRAN KUMAR Dr. P. SATISH KUMAR

ASSISTANT PROFESSOR PROFFESER AND HOD (PROJECT GUIDE)

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 I
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to make our deepest appreciation and gratitude to Mr. P. KIRAN KUMAR,Assistant
professor for his invaluable guidance, constructive criticism and encouragement during the
course of this project.

Thanks to prof. B. GIRI RAJU, professor, for being uniformly excellent advisor. He was always open,
helpful and provided strong broad idea.

I am deeply indebted to Dr. P. SATISH KUMAR , Head of the Department for providing the necessary
opportunities for the completion of the project.

I am thankful to Dr. B.L. RAJU , principal of the college for providing excellent atmosphere,through
flexible timings to work.

I am thankful to Prof.Y.V. GOPALA KRISHNA MURTHY, for his moral support and for provided
facilities.

I am thankful to teaching and non-teaching staff members of the electronics and communication
engineering department who helped directly and indirectly for successful completion of the project.

I am very grateful to my family and friends for their constant support and encouragement during the
project period.

WITH REGARDS
V.CHAITHANYA 21AG1A0460

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 II

INDEX

SL.NO TOPICS PAGE.NO

1. Fire Alarm 6

2. Touch Sensor 15

3. Security Alarm 30

4. Blinking LED using 555 IC 45

5. Traffic signal Using 555 IC

56

ABSTRACT

In 1912, Lester Wire, a young police officer in Salt Lake City, came up with an idea.
Fire Alarm Circuit is a simple circuit that detects the fire and activates the Siren Sound or
Buzzer. Fire Alarm Circuits are very important devices to detect fire in the right time and
prevent any damage to people or property.

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Fire Alarm Circuits and Smoke Sensors are a part of the security systems which help in
detecting or preventing damage. Installing Fire Alarm Systems and Smoke Sensors in
commercial buildings like offices, movie theatres, shopping malls and other public places is
compulsory.

There are many expensive and sophisticated Fire Alarm Circuit in the form of stand-alone
devices, but we have designed five very simple Fire Alarm Circuits using common components
like Thermistor, LM358, Germanium Diode, LM341 and NE555.

This is a very simple alarm circuit using Thermistor, LM358 Operational – Amplifier and a
Buzzer. The primary purpose of fire alarm system is to provide an early warning of fire so that
people can be. evacuated & immediate action can be taken to stop or eliminate of the fire
effect as soon as possible. Alarm can be. triggered by using detectors or by manual call point
(Remotely).

INTRODUCTION

A fire alarm system has a number of devices working together to detect and warn
people through visual and audio appliances when smoke, fire, carbon monoxide or
other emergencies are present. These alarms may be activated automatically from smoke
detectors, and heat detectors or may also be activated via manual fire alarm activation devices
such as manual call points or pull stations.
Alarms can be either motorized bells or wall mountable sounders or horns. They can also be
speaker strobes which sound an alarm, followed by a voice evacuation message which warns
people inside the building not to use the elevators. Fire alarm sounders can be set to certain
frequencies and different tones including low, medium and high, depending on the country and
manufacturer of the device. Most fire alarm systems in Europe sound like a siren with
alternating frequencies.
Fire alarm electronic devices are known as horns in the United States and Canada, and can be
either continuous or set to different codes. Fire alarm warning devices can also be set to
different volume levels. Manually actuated devices; also known as fire alarm boxes, manual
pull stations, or simply pull stations, break glass stations, and (in Europe) call points. Devices
for manual fire alarm activation are installed to be readily located (near the exits), identified,
and operated.
They are usually actuated by means of physical interaction, such as pulling a lever or breaking
glass. Automatically actuated devices can take many forms intended to respond to any
number of detectable physical changes associated with fire: convicted thermal energy; heat
detector, products of combustion; smoke detector, radiant energy; flame detector, combustion
gases; fire gas detector, and release of extinguishing agents; water-flow detector. The newest

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innovations can use cameras and computer algorithms to analyse the visible effects of fire and
movement in applications inappropriate for or hostile to other detection methods.

PRINCIPLE OR METHODOLOGY

The fire alarm working principle is based on thermistor used in the fire alarm circuit. This fire
alarm circuit is used to identify and indicate an increase in temperature beyond certain value
(temperature of an enclosed area). All Fire Alarm Systems essentially operate on the same
principle. If a detector detects smoke or heat, or someone operates a break glass unit, then
alarm sounders operate to warn others in the building that there may be a fire and to evacuate.
A thermistor is an inexpensive and easily obtainable temperature sensitive resistor, thermistor
working principle is it's resistance depends upon the temperature. When temperature changes,
the resistance of the thermistor changes in a predictable way. The benefits of using a
thermistor is accuracy and stability.

COMPONENTS REQUIRED

 10k Thermistor 1
 LM358 Operational Amplifier (Op-Amp) 1
 4.7k ohm resistor (1/4 watt) 1
 10k ohm potentiometer 1
 Small Buzzer (5v buzzer) 1
 Connecting wires
 Mini bread board
 5v power supply
COMPONENT DISCRIPTION

10K THERMISTOR
An NTC thermistor is a thermally sensitive resistor whose resistance exhibits a large, precise
and predictable decrease as the core temperature of the resistor increases over the operating
temperature range.
The enclosed negative temperature coefficient (NTC) thermistor, p/n 1600-10K, works by
translating temperature into resistance, with resistance decreasing as temperature increases

DEPARTMENT OF ECE
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(hence the 'negative coefficient'). As can be seen be the graph, the resistance of the thermistor
drops very quickly.
Testing a PTC thermistor follows all the same steps as a NTC thermistor. First check, with an
ohmmeter, the thermistor without any heat applied. With a PTC thermistor at room
temperature or below, the thermistor should measure a very low resistance.
Usually, thermistor failure is caused by an open circuit due to mechanical separation between
the resistor element and lead material. This can happen as a result of improper handling,
thermal mismatch, or heat damage. Another common reason thermistors fail is simply ageing.
A thermistor is an inexpensive and easily obtainable temperature sensitive resistor, thermistor
working principle is, it's resistance depends upon the temperature. When temperature changes,
the resistance of the thermistor changes in a predictable way. The benefits of using a
thermistor is accuracy and stability.
A thermistor is a resistance thermometer, or a resistor whose resistance is dependent on
temperature. ... This type of thermistor is used the most. A PTC thermistor works a little
differently. When temperature increases, the resistance increases, and when temperature
decreases, resistance decreases. Thermistors do not have continuity, they show resistance.
You should read around 10k Ohms at room temperature. If the igniter is getting 120 volts, but
not glowing, then you have a bad igniter WP33002789.

LM358 OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER

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LM358 is a dual op-amp IC integrated with two op-amps powered by a common power supply.
The differential input voltage range can be equal to that of power supply voltage. The LM358 IC
is a great, low power and easy to use dual channel op-amp IC.
It is designed and introduced by national semiconductor. It consists of two internally frequency
compensated, high gain, independent op-amps. This IC is designed for specially to operate
from a single power supply over a wide range of voltages. LM358 consists of two independent,
high gain operational amplifiers in one package. Important feature of this IC is that we do not
require independent power supply for working of each comparator for wide range of
power supply.
LM358 can be used as transducer amplifier, DC gain block etc.. Ideal Operational Amplifier or
Ideal Op Amp. So, an ideal op amp is defined as, a differential amplifier with infinite open loop
gain, infinite input resistance and zero output resistance. The ideal op amp has zero input
current. An operational amplifier, or op amp, generally comprises a differential-input stage with
high input impedance, an intermediate-gain stage, and a push-pull output stage with a low
output impedance (no greater than 100 Ω).
That is, the output gets fed back to the inverting input through some impedance. An
Operational Amplifier or op-amp is a voltage amplifying device designed to be used with
external feedback components such as resistors and capacitors between its output and input
terminals. It is a high-gain electronic voltage amplifier with a differential input and usually a
single-ended output.

Gain of an inverted op amp = -Rf/Ri

Gain of a non-inverted op amp = 1+(Rf/Ri)

k ohm RESISTOR (1/4 watt)

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Every 1,000,000 Ohms is known as a Megohm (Mega = one million), abbreviated to the capital
letter "M". As a couple of examples; a 4,700 Ohm resistor would be written as either 4.7K or
4K7, and 5,600,000 Ohms would be written as 5.6M or 5M6.

Formula for colour coding R= (AB x 10^C) + D

From the figure A = 4
B=7
C=2
D=5
R = (47 x 10^2) +5%tolerance R = 4.7x10^3
R = 4.7k = 4k7 ohm with 5% tolerance added to it

10k ohm POTENTIOMETER

A potentiometer is a manually adjustable variable resistor with 3 terminals. Two terminals are
connected to both ends of a resistive element, and the third terminal connects to a sliding
contact, called a wiper, moving over the resistive element. A potentiometer is a manually
adjustable variable resistor with 3 terminals.
Two terminals are connected to both ends of a resistive element, and the third terminal
connects to a sliding contact, called a wiper, moving over the resistive element. The only
difference is the load of the +5V supply, which will be a bit lower with a 10K pot vice a 5K... but
it's tiny in either case. A 3 terminal pot used with 3 terminals, is basically just a voltage divider.
As you move the wiper, you increase one resistor in the voltage divider, while decreasing the
resistance in the other So long as the wiper is connected to one leg of the potentiometer, it
will behave a variable resistor.
The difference between high and low ends of a range—called the span of the circuit—has not
changed, though: a range of 10 kΩ to 20 kΩ has the same 10,000 Ω span as a range of 0 Ω to
10 kohm. If we wish to shift the span of this rheostat circuit as well, we must change the range
of the potentiometer itself. Potentiometers, trimmers, and rheostats are all variable resistors.

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Potentiometers and trimmers are used to create a variable voltage by varying the voltage
between their wiper terminal and two ends. Rheostats are used to vary the amount of current.
Without ground, there is no complete circuit. Without a complete circuit, three Arduino can't
read from the pot. But can't the A0 pin be the (-ve) part of the circuit? Voltage inputs are what's
called high-impedance, meaning they don't sink or source (much) current so as not to affect
the circuit you're measuring.

SMALL BUZZER (5V)

The buzzer consists of an outside case with two pins to attach it to power and ground. When
current is applied to the buzzer it causes the ceramic disk to contract or expand. Changing the
This then causes the surrounding disc to

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vibrate. That's the sound that you hear. PUI has the AI-3035, a piezoelectric buzzer rated for 2-5
Volt operation, nominal 3 Volts, and with a maximum current requirement of 9 mA.
The dimensions are 30 mm diameter, 20.5 mm height excluding leads. To reduce the sound of
the buzzer, measure the resistance of the buzzer, then place a resistor the same value as the
buzzer in series with it, see how much this drops the volume. The more resistance to quieter
the buzzer should be. If the buzzer does not work with half the value try a value lower in
resistance. The purpose of the buzzer test is to test functions of the buzzers installed in a
computer.
Typically, the buzzer test is done by controlling the buzzer to sound a continuous buzzing
sound while a test engineer listens to the buzzer with ears to determine if the buzzer is in
working condition. Sensor-Buzzer is a passive buzzer. Like a magnetic speaker, it needs
voltage with different frequency so that it can make sound accordingly. The pitch becomes
louder when the frequency gets higher. All buzzers with internal oscillators have polarity
because they have small circuit built into them while the buzzers with only Piezo disks can be
operated both ways.
CONNECTING WIRES

These are used to connect the components in the circuit. These are used to allow current
through them.
These are made up of copper, since copper is a good conductor of electricity.

MINI BREAD BOARD

Breadboards are designed to work with through-hole electronic components. These

components have long metal leads that are designed to be inserted through holes in a printed
circuit board (PCB) that are plated with a thin copper coating, which allows the components'
leads to be soldered to the board.
This board is divided into 4 parts, the 1st and 4th part slots are connected horizontally whereas
2nd and 3rd part slots are connected vertically.
The mini breadboard has 400 slots.

DEPARTMENT OF ECE
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 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

The circuit diagram of this simple Fire Alarm Project is shown in the following image.

CIRCUIT DESIGN

The design of the Fire Alarm Circuit with Siren Sound is very simple. First, connect the 10 KΩ
Potentiometer to the inverting terminal of the LM358 Op - Amp. One end of the POT is
connected to +5V, another end is connected to GND and the wiper terminal is connected to Pin
2 of Op - Amp.

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We will now make a potential divider using 10 K Thermistor and 10 KΩ Resistor. The output of
this potential divider i.e. the junction point is connected to the non – inverting input of the
LM358 Operational Amplifier.

We have chosen a small, 5V buzzer in this project to make the alarm or siren sound. So,
connect the output of the LM358 Op - amp to the 5V Buzzer directly.

Pins 8 and 4 of the LM358 IC i.e. V+ and GND are connected to +5V and GND respectively.

WORKING

We will now see the working of the simple Fire Alarm Circuit. First thing to know is that the
main component in detecting the fire is the 10 K Thermistor. As we mentioned in the
component description, the 10 K Thermistor used here is a NTC type Thermistor. If the
temperature increases, the resistance of the Thermistor decreases.

In case of fire, the temperature increases. This increase in temperature will reduce the
resistance of the 10 K Thermistor. As the resistance decreases, the output of the voltage
divider will increase. Since the output of the voltage divider is given to the non – inverting input
of the LM358 Op – Amp, its value will become more than that of the inverting input. As a result,
the output of the Op – Amp becomes high and it activates the buzzer.

ADVANTAGES

 Low cost
 Reliable
 Fast response
 Circuit can be easily constructed
 High level security
 Easy to design
 Easy to modify
 Low power consumption
 Early warning benefits
 Can easily be installed anywhere in commercial buildings
 Early warning is essential to effective fire safety because fires can occur at any time any
place
 Detection distance

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  Speed of response
 Sensitivity
 Range of applications
 Portable

DISADVANTAGES

 False alarm
 Blinded by thick smoke
 Senses near range heat(fire) only
 Uses continuous power supply

APPLICATIONS

Fire alarm in office

Remote LCD Annunciator
Fire alarm in hotel rooms
Fire alarm in schools

CONCLUSION

Thus, we conclude from this fire alarm is used for safety and emergency purpose. This is not
only use in houses but also in any type of buildings.

REFERENCES

1. https://www.electronicshub.org/simple-fire-alarm-
circuit/#Circuit_Design
2. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cgsB6VmNGXo

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BREAD BOARD :
• Appearance: A breadboard is typically a rectangular piece of plastic with a
grid of holes. Inside, there are metal clips that connect these holes in
specific patterns.
• Functionality: The main purpose of a breadboard is to allow easy insertion
and removal of electronic components and wires for prototyping and
testing circuits.
• Usage: To use a breadboard, you insert component leads or jumper wires
into the holes. The internal connections allow you to create a circuit
without the need for soldering.
• Advantages: Breadboards are reusable, allow for easy modification of
circuits, and are great for learning and experimentation.
 ABSTRACT

We can touch things, and our senses tell us when our hands are touching something. But most computer input
devices cannot detect when the user touches or releases the device or some portion of the device. Thus, adding
touch sensors to input devices offers many posibilities for novel interaction techniques. We demonstrate the
TouchTrackball and the Scrolling TouchMous, which use unobtrusive capacitance sensors to detect contact from
the user's hand without requiring pressure or mechanical actuation of a switch. We further demonstrate how the
capabilities of these devices can be matched to an implicit interaction technique. the On-Demand Interface, which
uses the passive information captured by touch sensors to fade in or fade out portions of a display depending on
what the user is dong: second technique uses explicit, intentional interaction with touch senses for enhanced
scrolling. We present our new devices in the context of a simple tas onomy of tactile ingot technologies.
 INTRODUCTION
• The sense of touch is an important human sensory channel In the present context,
we use the term wch quite narrowly to refer to the cutaneous sense, ut tactile
perception During interaction with physical objects. pens or other human beings,
touch (physical contact constitutes on extremely significant event. Yet computer
input devices, for the most part, are indifferent to human contact in the sense that
making physical contact, maintaining contact, or breaking contact provokes no
reaction whatsoever from most software. As such, touch-sensing input devices
offer many novel interaction possibilities
Touch panel in increasingly active to researchers and display manufacturers
in recent years. Cuently, resistive ch panel is the most widely used it is because the
seve technology has been well developed, allowing manufacturers to enjoy perfect
balance between cost and performance. However, resive touch panel does have
some drawback; it can only track necen a time and suffers in optical quality due t
wete cu 11. Also, it is prone to be damaged by sharp objects or excessive touching
force
 EXISTING TECHNOLOGY
1. Capacitive Touch Sensors: Capacitive touch sensors are widely used in smartphones, tablets,
touchscreens, and other devices. They work by measuring changes in capacitance (the ability to
store an electrical charge) caused by the presence of conductive objects like a human finger. These
sensors are durable, can support multi-touch gestures, and are known for their high sensitivity.
2. Resistive Touch Sensors: Resistive touch sensors consist of multiple layers,usually two flexible layers
with a small gap in between. When pressure is applied to the top layer, it comes in contact with the
bottom layer, creating a connection.The point of contact is then detected and used to determine the
touch input’s position. Resistive touch sensors are used in some older devices and industrial.
3. Projected Capacitive Touch (PCT) Sensors: PCT sensors are a variation of capacitive touch
technology that can be used in thicker and non-flat surfaces.They are often used in curved or
complex-shaped displays, such as some car systems.
4. Infrared (IR) Touch Sensors: Infrared touch sensors use an array of infrared LED and photodetector
pairs around the edges of a display. When the surface is touched, it interrupts the infrared beams,
and the interrupted beams are used to calculate the touch point. IR touch sensors are commonly
used in large interactive displays and kiosks.
Circuit Diagram:
 Description:
TRANSISTOR :
The BC547 is a popular NPN bipolar junction transistor (BJT) used in general-purpose electronic projects. It's known for its
versatility, affordability, and availability.
• Type: NPN
Max Collector-Emitter Voltage (V_CE): 45 V and Max Collector-Base Voltage (V_CB): 50 V Max Emitter-Base Voltage
(V_EB): 6 V Max Collector Current (I_C): 100 mA
Power Dissipation (P_D): 500 mW (or 0.5 W)
Gain (h_FE): This can vary based on the specific model (like BC547A, BC547B, or BC547C) but it usually ranges between 110
to 800.The h_FE value is essentially the ratio of the current output (collector current) to the current input (base current). In
other words, it provides a Measure ofthetransistor’s current amplification capability. Package: TO-92. This is a small plastic
package with three leads (Collector, Base, and Emitter).
BREAD BOARD :
• Appearance: A breadboard is typically a rectangular piece of plastic with a grid of
holes. Inside, there are metal clips that connect these holes in specific patterns.
• Functionality: The main purpose of a breadboard is to allow easy insertion and
removal of electronic components and wires for prototyping and testing circuits.
• Usage: To use a breadboard, you insert component leads or jumper wires into the
holes. The internal connections allow you to create a circuit without the need for
soldering.
• Advantages: Breadboards are reusable, allow for easy modification of circuits, and
are great for learning and experimentation.
LED:
A light-emitting diode (LED) is a
semiconductor device that emits light
when current flows through it. Electrons
in the semiconductor recombine with
electron holes, releasing energy in the
form of photons. The color of the light
(corresponding to the energy of the
photons) is determined by the energy
required for electrons to cross the band
gap of the semiconductor. White light is
obtained by using multiple
semiconductors or a layer of light-emitting
phosphor on the semiconductor device.
Operation of the circuit:
• Start by connecting the transistor a little bit down on the board.
• If you’re using a BC546/BC547/BC548 transistor, you can connect it as shown in the figure. The collector goes into row 10, th e base in row 11, and the emitter in row
12.
• Next, connect the resistor. Connect it from row 1 to row 9.Notice that it is not connected to the transistor since the transi stor is connected in row 10.
• Now, you’re going to connect the LED and the touch-sensing part. For the touch-sensing part, you’ll need two exposed wires. You can get this from the LED. The LED
has much longer legs than needed.
• Cut off the legs of the LED so that only around 1 cm / 0.4 in is left on the LED. Bend the
• two legs that you just cut off, as shown below, so that they fit in between four columns on a row.
• Place one on row 4 between column A and D. And one on row 6 between column A and D. This leaves room for a jumper wire to be connected later.
• Insert the LED with its positive side on row 9 column F, and the other side on row 10 column F. Now the LED is connected betw een the resistor and the collector of the
transistor, just like in the schematics of this circuit.
• Now you need to connect the two touch wires to the correct points in the circuit, using jumper wires.
• Connect one jumper wire from row 1 column F to row 4 column E. And one jumper wire from row 6 column E to row 11 column I.
• Next, connect a jumper wire from row 1 column J to the positive supply column on the right. Then connect a jumper wire from r ow 12 column I to the negative supply
column on the right.
• Connect your battery connector and plug in the battery.
• Try to touch the touch wires so that your finger touches both wires at the same time, and the light will turn on.
• If you can’t see the light, try making the tip of your finger wet before touching again.
• When the skin of your finger is wet, the resistance decreases so that more current can flow through your finger and to the ba se of the transistor.
Result:

The output of the touch sensor

Advantages:

• Cost-effective and durable to be used in harsh environments

• Able to be used with stylus and gloves
• Less complex
• Low power consumption

Disadvantages:

• Vulnerable to abrasion
• Reliability concerns when used in harsh environments
• Doesn’t work with gloves or stylus
Future Scope:
• The growing popularity of smartphones and tablets is used to increase the
demand for touch sensors in these devices. This, combined with the rise of
hybrid laptops, e-readers, and smartwatches, among other things, had
resulted in a surge in the use of capacitive touch sensors, which are more
versatile than resistive or optical ones. The Global Touch Sensor Market
report provides a holistic evaluation of the market. The report offers a
comprehensive analysis of key segments, trends, drivers, restraints,
competitive landscape, and factors that are playing a substantial role in
the market.
References:
• 1.https://knowledgecycle.in/touch-sensor-physics-investigatory-
project-pdf/
• 2.https://www.build-electronic-circuits.com/touch-sensor-circuit/
SECURITY ALARM BY USING
555 IC AND PIR SENSOR
ABSTRACT:
• The project presents the design and implementation of a security alarm
system using a 555 timer IC and a Passive Infrared (PIR) sensor. The 555
timer IC is configured as an astable multivibrator to generate an oscillating
output signal. The PIR sensor detects changes in infrared radiation within
its field of view, primarily caused by human movement. When movement is
detected, the PIR sensor sends a signal to the 555 timer IC, triggering it to
generate an alarm tone. The generated tone can be adjusted by tuning the
components in the 555 timer circuit. The system is cost-effective, easy to
implement, andprovidesabasicyeteffectivesecuritysolutionfordetecting
unauthorizedintrusions inagivenarea.Thisexperiment demonstrates
theapplicationof simple electroniccomponentto create a functional
security alarm system.
INTRODUCTION:
• Security systems play a crucial role in safeguarding our homes, offices, and
various other environments from unauthorized access and potential
threats. In this experiment, we will explore the creation of a basic security
alarm using a 555 timer IC (integrated circuit) and a PIR (Passive Infrared)
sensor. The 555timer IC is a versatile component commonly used in
timing and oscillator applications, while the PIR sensor is capable of
detecting motion by sensing changes in infrared radiation emitted by living
beings.By combining these components, we can design a simple yet
effective security alarm that triggers when motion is detected within the
sensor's range. This experiment will provide us with a practical
understanding of how these electronic components can be utilized to
create a functional security system
Circuit Diagram:
 Transistor:
• The BC547 is a popular NPN bipolar junction transistor (BJT)
used in general-purpose electronic projects. It's known for
its versatility, affordability, and availability.Type: NPNMax
Collector-Emitter Voltage (V_CE): 45 VMax Collector-Base
Voltage (V_CB): 50 V Max Emitter-Base Voltage(V_EB): 6 V
Max Collector Current (I_C): 100 mAPower Dissipation
(P_D): 500 mW (or 0.5 W)Gain (h_FE): This can vary based
on the specific model (like BC547A, BC547B, or BC547C) but
it usually ranges between 110 to 800. The h_FE value is
essentially the ratio of the current output (collector current)
to the current input (base current). Inother words,
it provides a measure of the
transistor'scurrent amplification capability.Package:
TO-92. This is a small plastic package with three leads
(Collector, Base, and Emitter).
• BREAD BOARD :

Appearance: A breadboard is typically a rectangular piece of plastic with a

grid of holes. Inside, there are metal clips that connect these holes in specific
patterns.Functionality: The main purpose of a breadboard is to allow easy
insertion and removal of electronic components and wires for prototyping
and testing circuits.Usage: To use a breadboard, you insert component leads
or jumper wires into the holes. The internal connections allow you to create
a circuit without the need for soldering.Advantages: Breadboards are
reusable, allow for easy modification of circuits, and are great for learning
and experimentation.
• PIR SENSOR:

A PIR (Passive Infrared) sensor is an electronic device that measures infrared (IR) light radiating from
objects in its field of view. They are commonly used in motion detection systems. Here's a brief
overview:Working Principle:PIR sensors detect general movement, but do not provide information on
who or what moved. They work by detecting changes in infrared radiation levels. When a warm body (like
a human) passes across, it first intercepts one half of the PIR sensor, which causes a positive differential
change between the two halves. When the warm body leaves the sensing area, the reverse happens, and
the sensor generates a negative differential change.Advantages:Passive Device: It doesn't emit radiation
to detect motion; it only passively reads infrared levels, so it's unobtrusive and does not interfere with
other devices.Low Power: Generally consumes little power, which makes them suitable for battery-
operated devices.Affordable: PIR sensors are relatively cheap.
• RESISTOR :
A resistor is a passive electrical component designed to introduce
electrical resistance into an electronic circuit. The main purpose of a
resistor is to limit or regulate the flow of electrical current to certain
levels.Units: The unit of resistance is the ohm (Ω). Other units like kilo
ohms (kΩ) and megaohms (MΩ) are also commonly used.
• Capacitor:
• A capacitor is a passive electronic component that stores electrical
energy in an electric field. It's one of the fundamental components
used in electronic circuits
• Unit of Capacitance:The unit of capacitance is the farad (F). However,
a farad is a very large unit for most practical applications, so
capacitors are typically measured in microfarads , nano farads , or
picofarads (pF).
• 555 IC Timer:
The 555 timer IC (integrated circuit) is one of the most popular and versatile ICs ever created. Introduced by Hans R.
Pin Configuration:
Ground (Pin 1): Connected to the negative terminal (0V) of the power supply.
Trigger (Pin 2): Starts a timing cycle when it drops below 1/3 of the supply voltage.
Output (Pin 3): Provides output, which can be high or low depending on the mode and timing.
Reset (Pin 4): Resets the timer. If unused in a design, it's usually tied to VCC to prevent unwanted resets.
Control Voltage (Pin 5): Allows for modification of the internal reference voltage. If unused, it's often connected to ground via a
0.01μF capacitor to filter noise.
Threshold (Pin 6): Sets the level at which the timing capacitor is
considered "charged". In many applications, it directly relates to the charge/discharge paths of the timing capacitor.
Discharge (Pin 7): Connected to the timing capacitor and discharges it when required.
VCC (Pin 8): Connected to the positive terminal of the power supply.
• Buzzer:

A buzzer is an electronic device used to produce an audible sound or

noise. It is typically used for alarms, timers, user interfaces, games, and
more
• Working:

A security alarm using the 555 timer IC and a PIR (Passive Infrared)sensor can be built as a
simple motion detection alarm. The basic principle behind the working of this circuit is that
when a person or object moves within the range of the PIR sensor, it senses the motion and
generates an output signal. This signal is then utilized by the 555 timer IC to produce an alarm
sound.
Connect the VCC and Ground of the PIR sensor to the positive supply and ground, respectively.
Connect the output of the PIR sensor to the trigger pin (usually pin2) of the 555 timer IC.
Pin 4 (Reset) of the 555 timer is connected to the positive supply to disable the reset
functionality.
Connect an appropriate resistor (R) and capacitor (C) between pins 7 and 6 of the 555 timer,
and ground, to set the time duration for which the alarm should sound. The time is
approximately given by T≈1.1×R×C.
Connect the output pin (usually pin 3) of the 555 timer to the positive terminal of the buzzer.
The negative terminal of the buzzer should be connected to the ground.
Power the entire circuit, and when motion is detected, the buzzer will sound for the duration
set by the resistor and capacitor values.
PIR sensor and 555 timer IC you are using to understand the exact pin configurations and
other technical details.
Result:
Using a 555 timer IC
and a PIR (Passive
Infrared) sensor to
make a security alarm
is a fairly popular DIY
project. The PIR
sensor is used to
detect motion, and
the 555 timer IC can
generate an audible
alarm tone when
motion is detected.
Advantages:
• Cost-Effective
• Versatility
• Low Power Consumption

Limitations:
• Dependence on human response
• Environmental factors
• Cost

APPLICATIONS:

1. Can be installed inside cars or other vehicles to detect unauthorized entry. Once To protect valuable exhibits, any moveme nt close to a
protected display could sound an alarm.
2.Movement is detected inside a vehicle ,the alarm is triggered.
• Conclusion:
Using a 555 timer IC combined with a PIR sensor provides a simple yet effective
method for motion-triggered alarms or devices. It offers a blend of reliability,
customizability, and affordability, making it suitable for a range of applications,
from basic DIY projects to more advanced security setups.

• Future Scope:
1. DIY Home Security Systems: As more people take interest in DIY
(Do-It-Yourself) projects, this simple combination can serve as a starting point for
hobbyists and those who want to understand the basics of electronic security
systems.
2.Educational Kits: This combination is great for teaching electronics in schools and
workshops. The concepts are simple, and the components are easily available.

References:
https://chat.openai.com/c/a5dd966d-bdca-42d2-a10b-e78ea5d54ffd
Blinking LED Using
555 IC
Abstract:
The manipulation of blinking speed in electronic circuits plays a crucial role in various
applications, including timing mechanisms, LED displays, and signal generation. This abstract presents a concise
overview of how resistors and capacitors can be strategically utilized to control the blinking speed of electronic
devices.
By adjusting the values of these passive components in simple configurations, precise control over the timing of
on-off cycles can be achieved.Resistors and capacitors are fundamental passive components in electronic circuits
that influence the charging and discharging rates of capacitors. The relationship between resistance (R) and
capacitance (C) in a circuit determines the time constant (τ = R × C), which, in turn, governs the blinking speed.
Increasing the resistance or capacitance value prolongs the time constant, resulting in a slower blinking speed, while
decreasing these values speeds up the blinking.
This abstract explores various circuit configurations, such as astable multivibrators and 555 timer circuits,
which utilize resistors and capacitors to produce blinking or oscillating signals with adjustable frequencies. By
selecting appropriate resistor and capacitor values, designers can tailor the blinking speed to meet specific
application requirements.
Introduction:
• The circuit design for blinking LED using a 555 timer IC. This is a
simple circuit designed to explain the working and use of a 555 timer
IC. This circuit is designed using a low power consumption output
device, a red LED. There are many applications of 555 timers,
generally used in Lamp Dimmer, Wiper Speed control, Timer Switch,
Variable duty cycle fixed frequency oscillator, PWM Modulation etc. A
tutorial on how to make an Adjustable Flashing/Blinking LED circuit
using 555 timer IC and a few other electronic components. This circuit
toggles an LED or any output device ON and OFF at regular intervals
of time. The duration between successive toggling of LED can be
adjusted by using a potentiometer.
Existing Technology:
• Blinking lights are a common feature in various technologies and applications. They serve
several purposes, including indicating status, conveying information, and enhancing
visibility. Here are some examples of existing technologies that use blinking lights:
• LED Indicators: Light Emitting Diode (LED) indicators are commonly used in electronic
devices to signal different states or functions. For example, on a computer, a blinking power
LED might indicate the device is in sleep mode, while a blinking hard drive LED could show
data access or transfer activity.
• Traffic Signals: Traffic lights at intersections use blinking lights to convey important
information to drivers and pedestrians. Blinking yellow lights indicate caution, while red
and green lights alternate to control the flow of traffic.
• Emergency Vehicles: Police cars, fire trucks, and ambulances have flashing lights to alert
other drivers and pedestrians to their presence and the urgency of their mission.
• Aviation Lights: Aircraft use blinking lights to enhance visibility and convey information.
Strobe lights on the wings and tail help identify the aircraft's location and direction, while
navigation lights follow specific patterns to indicate the aircraft's status and position.
Circuit Diagram:
Components Required:

1. 555 timer IC
2. LED
3. 9V battery
4. 1KΩ Resistor – 2
5. 470KΩ Resistor
6. 1µF Capacitor
7. Bread Board
8. Connecting wires
Operation of the circuit:
• 1. Collect all the required components and place the 555 timer IC on the breadboard.
• 2. Connect pin 1 of a 555 timer IC to the ground. You can find the pin structure of a 555 timer IC in the
• circuit diagram shown above.
• 3. The longer lead of a polarized capacitor is the positive and the shorter lead is negative. Connect pin
• 2 to the positive end of a capacitor. Connect the negative lead of the capacitor to the ground of the
• battery.
• 4. Now short the pin 2 to pin 6 of the 555 timer IC.
• 5. Connect the output pin 3 with the positive lead of the LED using a 1kΩ resistor. The negative lead of
• LED needs to be connected with the ground.
• 6. Connect pin 4 to the positive end of the battery.
• 7. Pin 5 does not connect to anything.
• 8. Connect pin 6 to pin 7 using a 470kΩ resistor.
• 9. Connect pin 7 to the positive end of the battery using a 1kΩ resistor.
• 10. Connect pin 8 to the positive end of the battery.
• 11. Finally, connect the battery leads with the breadboard to start the power supply in the circuit.
Result:
• Advantages:

1. Ease of Use: The 555 timer IC is widely available and relatively easy to use, making it
accessible
for both beginners and experienced electronics enthusiasts.
2. Versatility: The 555 timer IC can be configured in different modes to generate various
blinking patterns, frequencies, and duty cycles, making it suitable for a wide range of
applications.
3. Stability: 555 timers are known for their stable and accurate timing capabilities, making
them
reliable for applications that require precise timing, such as flashers and clocks.
4. Low Component Count: Building a blinking light circuit with a 555 timer often requires
only a few
additional components, keeping the circuit simple and cost-effective.
• Disadvantages:
1.Limited Blinking Patterns: While versatile, the 555 timer IC may not be suitable for complex
blinking patterns or animations. For more intricate effects, microcontrollers or specialized ICs may be
more appropriate.
2.Power Consumption: Depending on the configuration and the components used, 555 timer circuits can
consume more power than modern microcontroller-based solutions, which may not be ideal for battery-
powered projects.

3.Accuracy vs. Temperature: The timing accuracy of a 555 timer circuit can be affected by temperature
variations, which may require additional circuitry or compensation if precise timing is crucial.
4.Limited Memory: Unlike microcontrollers, 555 timers do not have memory or programmability, so they
cannot store or execute complex sequences of blinking patterns without external control.
5.Lack of Digital Control: 555 timers are analog devices, so they do not provide the digital control
capabilities that microcontrollers offer, such as PWM control or communication with other devices.
• References:
• 1. https://www.elprocus.com/blinking-led-using-555-timer-ic/
• 2. https://elonics.org/adjustable-led-flasher-using-555-
• timer/#:~:text=The%20resistors%20R1%20and%20R2,only%20for%20
the%20On%20time
Traffic Signal Using
555 IC Timer
Abstract:
In 1912, Lester Wire, a young police officer in Salt Lake City, came up with
an idea. What if there was a tool to regulate cars at intersections instead of patrol officers,
who needed to spend hours rooted to a platform through rain, heat, and hail?
Wire came up with a wooden box on a pole. It had two light bulbs inside, colored red
and green. The box was connected to electricity so the light bulbs could be switched from
one to the other with the press of a button. That’s something patrol officers could do from
a booth at the side of the road.
. Since then, traffic light signals have evolved a bit. We now have yellow and don’t need
a patrol officer to press a button. But the original concept has remained largely the same
— traffic lights change on a pre-programmed schedule.
However, the state of our roads in the twenty-first century is much different than it was
100 years ago. We have more cars, bigger road networks, higher population densities,
and constant traffic disruptions.
Introduction:

Traffic Lights are used to control vehicular traffic on the road and public streets. In the
modern era, where everyone owns different types of vehicles resulting in a rise in the
numbers of vehicles which leads to traffic jams and rush on the busy routes. That’s
why traffic lights are mandatory for smooth traffic to avoid the traffic jams and
accident
Basically, there are three lights in the traffic signal, each having a different
message for the drivers. Red light (upper one) asks the driver to yield at the
intersection, greenLight (last one) gives the driver free license to drive through the
intersection whereas the yellow light (middle one) alerts the driver to wait if the next
light is red one or get ready to go / turn the engine ON if the green light is next.
. Traffic lights have proved to be an amazing way to stop vehicular collisions and
control the traffic jams and divert the traffic in smooth lanes. Let’s see how to make a
simple traffic light contol system using basic electonic components as follows.
 Existing Technology:
Smart Traffic Sensors:
IoT sensors provide the backbone of data that intelligent transportation management
systems analyze to increase actionable insights. Smart traffic management systems use integrated sensors like:
• Radio frequency identification (RFID) tags
• Automatic identification and data collection (AIDC) tags
• Temperature sensors
• Air quality sensors
With amount of data that ITS generate, it’s crucial that the system integrates cloud computing and edge
processing.

Connected Video Monitoring:

One of the main technological aspects of smart traffic management systems is video detection systems with
integrated edge processing. Connected video monitoring solutions within the realm of traffic safety are referred
to as traffic incident management systems (TIMs). A TIM allows city planners to gain real-time insights on
regarding traffic conditions and respond to incidents through HD footage, image detection, and image
recognition.
• Connected Traffic Light Systems:

As opposed to conventional traffic lights, smart traffic light systems

integrate the aforementioned sensor and connected video monitoring
technologies to account for intersection wait times, vehicle speed,
and/or pedestrian traffic. Intelligent traffic light systems incorporate
artificial intelligence (AI) and Machine Learning (ML) processes to
enable computer vision, optical character recognition (OCR), and
reinforcement
Circuit Diagram:
• Components Required:

1. 555 ic timer - 2 No.s

2. 100u F - 2 no.s
3. 100K ohm - 1no.
4. 47k ohm - 1 no.
5. 390 ohm - 2 no.s
6. 330 ohm – 1 no.
7. Bread board
8. Connecting wires
Operation of the circuit:
• Connect pin 1 of the ic with the negative ra il of the breadboard.
• Joi n pins 4 a nd 8 wi th each other a nd then join pin 8 wi th the positive ra il of the breadboard.
• Ta ke a 100 uF capacitor and connect i ts positive leg with pin 2 of the ic a nd the
nega tive leg with the negative rail.
• Joi n pins 2 a nd 6 wi th each other.
• Pl a ce a 10K resistor between pin 7 a nd the positive rail.
• Now connect one l eg of the 100K potentiometer with pin 7 a nd the other l eg with pin 2.
• Connect pin 3 of the 555 i c wi th pin 14 (cl ock) of the 4017 i c.
• To the output pin of the 555 timer i c connect an LED as s hown i n the diagram.
• Joi n pins 15, 8, a nd 13 to the negative ra il of the breadboard.
• Attach the positive leg of the 100 uF capacitor to pin 16 a nd the negative leg to the negative rail.
• Then make the connections for the LEDs.
• Fi rs t, take a red color LED a nd connect its negative leg with the negative rail vi a a 220 ohms resistor.
• Connect its positive l eg with pins 3, 2, 4, a nd 7 of the ic using Zener diodes.
• Then take a yellow color LED and connect its negative leg with the negative rail vi a a 220 ohms resistor.
• Joi n its positive l eg with pins 10 a nd 11 using Zener diodes as s hown.
• At l a st, take a green color LED and connect i ts negative l eg with the negative ra il vi a a 220 ohms resistor.
• Joi n its positive l eg with pins 1, 5, 6, a nd 9 using Zener diodes.
• Jus t make sure that you make all the connections right before testing it.
Result:
• Advantages:

1. Traffic signals help for movement of traffic securely without any collision.
2. They can reduce the number of accidents on roads like pedestrian accident and right-angle collision of two cars.
3. Signals can increase the capacity of traffic handling at the intersection.
4. The traffic signals help for the safe movement of slow-moving traffic by interrupting heavy traffic at regular intervals.
5. The indications of the signals can be seen easily in foggy weather or at night time. Without signalling system, it is very difficult to
control traffic by the traffic policeman at night or in foggy weather or on a rainy day

Disadvantages:

1. They delay the traffic by stopping the vehicles at the intersection during peak hours.
2. During signals breakdown, there are serious and wide-spread traffic difficulties during peak hours.
• Future scope:
1. Smart Traffic Signals: Traffic signals are likely to become more intelligent and adaptive.
They may use real-time data from cameras, sensors, andvehicle-to-infrastructure (V2I)
communication to adjust signal timings dynamically based on traffic flow. This can optimize traffic
management and reduce congestion.

2. Connected and Autonomous Vehicles (CAVs): As self-driving cars become more

prevalent, traffic signals may communicate directly with these vehicles. This
interaction could allow for smoother traffic flow, safer intersections, and better
coordination between vehicles and signals.

3. Pedestrian and Cyclist Integration: Future traffic signals may be designed to

prioritize pedestrian and cyclist safety, offering more sophisticated crossing
features, countdown timers, and better synchronization with pedestrian movements.
References:
1. https://elonics.org/model-traffic-lights-circuit-using-555-ic/
2. https://techatronic.com/traffic-light-project-circuit-using-555-timer-
ic/