TABLE OF CONTENTS

Contents
COURSE OVERVIEW ....................................................................................................................................... 3
TABLE OF CONTENTS.................................................................................................................................... 13
MODULE 1: GEOLOGY ................................................................................................................................ 14
ENGAGE .................................................................................................................................................... 14
EXPLORE ..................................................................................................................................................... 14
EXPLAIN ...................................................................................................................................................... 29
ELABORATE ................................................................................................................................................ 43
EVALUATE .................................................................................................................................................. 43
MODULE 2: MINERALOGY .......................................................................................................................... 45
ENGAGE .................................................................................................................................................... 45
EXPLORE ..................................................................................................................................................... 45
EXPLAIN ...................................................................................................................................................... 58
ELABORATE ................................................................................................................................................ 67
EVALUATE .................................................................................................................................................. 67
MODULE 3: PETROLOGY ............................................................................................................................. 67
ENGAGE .................................................................................................................................................... 68
EXPLORE ..................................................................................................................................................... 68
EXPLAIN ...................................................................................................................................................... 82
ELABORATE ................................................................................................................................................ 93
EVALUATE .................................................................................................................................................. 93
MODULE 4: STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY AND ROCK MECHANICS .......................................................... 95
ENGAGE .................................................................................................................................................... 95
EXPLORE ..................................................................................................................................................... 95
EXPLAIN .................................................................................................................................................... 114
ELABORATE .............................................................................................................................................. 116
EVALUATE ................................................................................................................................................ 116
MODULE 5: GEOLOGICAL AND GEOPHYSICAL INVESTIGATION IN CIVIL ENGINEERING......... 118
ENGAGE .................................................................................................................................................. 118
EXPLORE ................................................................................................................................................... 118
EXPLAIN .................................................................................................................................................... 131
ELABORATE .............................................................................................................................................. 139
EVALUATE ................................................................................................................................................ 139
CONTACT INFORMATION OF THE FACILITATOR .................................................................................. 140

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 MODULE 1: GEOLOGY

ENGAGE
What is the importance of learning Geology in the CE profession?

Differentiate the theory of continental drift and plate tectonics.

How do you think land formations are created?

Why is weathering an important factor to consider in the CE profession?

Where is water stored?

What is the importance of learning basic concepts of earthquake in CE profession?

EXPLORE

GEOLOGY
Science that deals with Earth’s physical structure and substance, history and the processes
that act on it
BRANCHES OF GEOLOGY
1. PHYSICAL GEOLOGY
§ Branch of geology that deals with the present physical properties of earth
a) PETROLOGY
§ Deals with the mode of formation, structure, texture, composition, occurrence, and
types of ROCKS
§ Most important geology in Civil Engineering point of view

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 b) MINERALOGY
§ Deals with the formation, composition, occurrence, types, properties and uses of
MINERALS
c) STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY
§ Also known as GEOTECTONIC or TECTONIC geology
§ The study of the three-dimensional distribution of rock units with respect to their
deformation history
§ Deals with the internal structure of rocks which may result to the occurrence of faults,
joints and folds
d) GEOMORPHOLOGY
§ The study of the physical features of the Earth’s surface and its relation to its geological
structure
§ Deals with the development / transformation of its landforms
e) GEOPHYSICS
§ The study of the physical properties of earth (e.g. Density, magnetism, texture, etc)
f) GEOCHEMISTRY
§ Deals with the occurrence, distribution, mobility and abundance of elements in the
earth’s crust
2. HISTORICAL GEOLOGY
§ branch of geology that focuses on the preserved evidence of geological events
a) STRATIGRAPHY
§ Concerned with the order and relative position of strata and their relationship to
geological time scale
§ Used for study of archaeological remains
b) PALEONTOLOGY
§ Deals with the study of life of geologic past.
§ involves the analysis of plant and animal fossils preserved in rocks
c) OCEANOGRAPHY
§ Deals with the study of all aspects of the ocean
§ Includes marine life and ecosystem

** ALLIED BRANCHES
§ applies knowledge of geology in other sciences and/or field
1. ENGINEERING GEOLOGY/ GEOLOGY ENGINEERING
§ application of geology in Civil Engineering
2. MINING GEOLOGY
§ application of geology in Mining Engineering
3. GEOHYDROLOGY / HYDROGEOLOGY
§ deals with groundwater movement

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 EARTH STRUCTURE
STRUCTURE OF THE EARTH
§ The structure of the Earth consists of various spherical shells or layers that can be
categorized in two manners:
a) Chemical/ Elemental compositions b) Mechanical/physical properties

Figure 1. Layers of the Earth

COMPOSITIONAL (CHEMICAL) LAYERS OF EARTH

§ more commonly discussed layers of earth; layers are defined based on its chemical or
elemental composition

Figure 2. Compositional Layers of Earth

1. CRUST
§ Consist of several elements
§ 3 to 5 miles thick under the ocean and approximately 25 miles thick under the
continents

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 Elements in the Crust
3.6 2.6 2.1
5
oxygen,O
8.1
Silicon, Si
46.6
Aluminum, Al
Iron, Fe
Calcium, Ca
Potassium, K
27.7
Sodium, Na

Figure 2. Composition of Earth Crust

2 TYPES of CRUST
a. OCEANIC CRUST (Basaltic) 71%
§ Composed of magma that erupts on the seafloor to create basalt lava flow; or
cools deeper down to create igneous rock gabbro
§ Sediments coat the seafloor, thickest near the shore
§
b. CONTINENTAL CRUST (Granitic) 29%
§ Made up of different types of rocks
§ Average composition is granite which is less dense than mafic igneous rocks
oceanic crust
§ Thicker part of the crust

2. MANTLE
§ Layer under the crust, compromises 82% of Earth volume
§ About 1, 800 miles deep
§ Consist mostly of silicate rocks rich in magnesium and iron
§ Heat causes rocks to rise

**CONDUCTION
– heat transfer through rapid collision of atoms which only happens in solid
– heat flows from warmer to cooler places until it reaches same temperature
**CONVECTION
– process of material that can move and flow and develops convection currents

3. CORE
§ Center of the Earth made of 85% iron metal and 15% nickel
a. Inner core
§ Solid part of the core made of iron
§ Has a radius of about 760 miles according to NASA
§ Hottest layer of earth at 7000°C

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 b. Outer core
§ Liquid part of the core composed of nickel-iron alloy
§ About 1,355 miles thick
§ Temperature at 5000°C

MECHANICAL (PHYSICAL) LAYERS OF EARTH

§ layers of earth defined and divided based on the behaviors of the layers; corresponds
to the mechanical properties of the layers

a) LITHOSPHERE
§ the solid, outer part of the Earth; includes the brittle upper portion of the mantle and
the crust, the outermost layers of Earth's structure
§ bounded by the atmosphere above and the asthenosphere
§ sometimes called the Geosphere itself
b) ASTHENOSPHERE
§ the soft upper layer of the earth's mantle, below the lithosphere,
§ relatively low resistance to plastic flow and convection is thought to occur.
c) MESOSPHERE:
§ layer below the asthenosphere but above the outer core; essentially the lower
mantle.
§ Despite high temperatures, the intense pressure in this region restricts the
movements of the molecules of the silicate material despite being under high
temperature, thus making it extremely rigid.
d) OUTER CORE
§ extends from the bottom of the mesosphere or the lower mantle and surrounds the
inner core
§ extreme temperature allows metals to remain in their liquid phases
§ the only layer of the Earth that is a true liquid
§ Strong magnetic field is caused by convection
e) INNER CORE
§ solidity is due to the intense pressure from the upper layers
§ Spins at different speed than the rest of the planet, which is thought to cause the
Earth’s magnetic field

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 Figure 3. Mechanical Layers of Earth

CONTINENTAL DRIFT AND PLATE TECTONICS

CONTINENTAL DRIFT

§ developed in the early part of the 20th century, mostly by Alfred Wegener
§ all of Earth’s continents were once part of an enormous, single landmass
called Pangaea, existed about 240 million years ago and began breaking up about 200
million years ago

Other supercontinents:
Pannotia formed about 600 million years ago
Rodinia existed more than a billion years ago.

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PLATE TECTONICS
• Scientific theory of the large-scale motion of seven(7) large plates and movements of
larger number of smaller plates
• Began between 3.3 to 3.5 B years ago
• Average tectonic plate thickness in the lithosphere is about 100 km

7 Major Tectonic Plates

q South American Plate (43, 600, 000 sq km)
q Indo-Australian Plate (58, 900,000 sq km)
q Antarctic Plate (60, 900, 000 sq km)
q African Plate (61, 300, 000sq km)
q Eurasian Plate (67, 800, 000 sq km)
q North American Plate (75, 900, 000 sq km)
q Pacific Plate (103, 300, 000 sq km)

TYPES OF TECTONIC PLATES

1. OCEANIC PLATES
• Made of oceanic crust; composed mostly of magnesium and silicon minerals
2. CONTINENTAL PLATES
• Made of continental crust; composed mainly of aluminum and silicon materials

BOUNDARIES OF TECTONIC PLATES

1. TRANSFORM BOUNDARY
§ Occur between plates which move past each other by sliding
§ Plates gets minimal damage
§ Locations of these boundaries are called FAULTS

2. DIVERGENT BOUNDARY
§ Plates slide apart from each other
§ Moves in opposite directions
§ Often occurs in seafloors, resulting to a new one
§ volcanic activity produces a mid ocean ridge and
small earthquakes.

3. CONVERGENT BOUNDARY
§ Plates move against each other
§ One plate goes underneath another plate
§ Volcanoes and mountains are formed at these boundaries

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MOVEMENT OF PLATES
Mantle convection drives plate tectonic
1. Hot mantle rises at the ridge axis,
creating new ocean crust.
2. The top of convection cell moves
horizontally away from the ridge crest
,as does the new seafloor
3. The outer limbs of the convection cells
plunge down into the deeper mantle,
dragging oceanic crust, at the deep-
sea trenches
4. The material sinks to the core and
move horizontally.
5. The material heats up and reaches the zone where It rise again.

LANDFORMS AND EARTH PROCESSES

EARTH PROCESS
- dynamic actions that occur inside the earth or on the earth’s surface
Constructive process: any process that builds earth material or landforms
e.g. erosion, transportation of sediments
Destructive process: any process that breaks down earth material or destroy
landforms
e.g. weathering, earthquakes, volcanic eruption

WEATHERING
- breakdown of rocks at earth’s surface under the influence of certain physical and
chemical agencies

FACTORS affecting Weathering:

1. nature of Rocks 2. length of time 3. climate

PROCESSES OF WEATHERING
1. DISINTEGRATION
§ the process of breaking up of rocks into small pieces by the mechanical agencies of
physical agents
2. DECOMPOSITION
§ the process of breaking up of mineral constituents to form new components by the
chemical actions of the physical agents
3. DENUDATION
§ term used when the earth surface is worn away by the chemical and mechanical
actions of physical agents and the lower layers are exposed

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TYPES OF WEATHERING
1. PHYSICAL WEATHERING
- Physical breakdown of rock masses under the attack of certain atmospheric agents
- A single rock block is broken gradually into smaller irregular fragments and then into
particles smaller dimensions
- most active in cold, dry, and higher areas of the earth surface
- Temperature variations are responsible to a great extent of physical weathering

Exfoliation
- Curved plates of rock are stripped also known as onion-skin weathering
- Often results in dome-shaped hills or dome rocks
- Occurs along planes of parting called joints
- caused by unequal expansion and contraction, since some rocks are either
colder or warmer on the outer surface

** FREEZE-THAW WEATHERING
- Water enters cracks on rocks and freezes when temperature drops and melts and
seeps deeper in the crack. Process repeats until rock splits completely

2. CHEMICAL WEATHERING
- The chemical decomposition of the rock
- internal structure of mineral is altered by addition or removal of elements due to the
chemical reaction between the atmosphere and the rocks
- takes place in the presence of water which dissolves many active gases from the
atmosphere
- conditions are defined primarily by chemical composition of the rocks humidity and
the environmental surrounding the rock under attack

Spheroidal Weathering
- a form of chemical weathering, caused by penetration of water at bounding
joints/ fractures, attacking from all sides
- concentric or spherical shells of decayed rock are successively loosened and
separated from a block of rock

3. THERMAL STRESS WEATHERING

- sometimes known as isolation weathering
- Contributes to both physical and chemical weathering
- Temperature change is important in arid and semi-arid regions
§ Rocks split apart into fragments when expanding and contracting due to
changes in temperature (physical)
§ Moisture alters composition of rock minerals (chemical)

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 2 MAIN TYPES
§ thermal fatigue
§ caused by a rapid change of temperature of a certain point
§ happen when a surface is repeatedly heated and cooled
§ thermal shock
§ failure occurs immediately during a single, rapidly applied thermal load

4. BIOLOGICAL WEATHERING
- Plants and animals can influence rocks
- Roots burrow into the rock, weakening the structure of the rock until it breaks away

EARTH PROCESS BY WIND:

1. EROSION
a. DEFLATION
§ Process of wind removing loose material from flat dry areas, uncemented
sediments
§ Occurs in deserts, dry lake beds, floodplains, and glacial washout plains
b. ABRASION
§ Scraping of rock surface by friction between rocks and moving particles

2. TRANSPORTATION
§ The total sediment load carried by a wind can be divided into two

a. Bed load
§ larger and heavier particles such as sands or gravels
§ moved by the winds but not lifted more than 30 to 60 cm of the earth surface
b. Suspended load
§ finer clay or dust particles which are lifted by the moving winds by a distance of
hundreds of meters above the earths surface

3. DEPOSITION OF SEDIMENT
- sediments get dropped and deposited forming what are known as Aeolian deposits
a. Sand dunes
- huge heaps of sand formed by the natural deposition of wind blown sand
- sometimes of characteristics and recognizable shape
- often found to migrate from one place to another due to change in the
direction and velocity of wind

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 3 Types of Sand Dunes:
Barchans or Crescent-Shape dunes
§ most common occurrence and triangular in section
§ steep side:
§ facing away from the direction of wind
§ inclined at an angle of about 30°to 33°
§ Gentle side
§ lies on the windward side
§ makes an angle about 10° to15°
§ maximum height: 335 meters; horn to horn width: 350 meters

Transverse Dunes
§ similar to a barchan in section
§ not curved in plan like barchans
§ its longer axis is broadly transverse to the direction of the prevailing winds

Longitudinal Dunes
§ elongated ridges of sand with their longer axis broadly parallel to the direction of
the prevailing wind
§ 3 m height and 200 m long in average

b. Loess
§ a loosely compacted yellowish-gray deposit of windblown sediment of which
extensive deposits occur

BY WATER (COASTAL PROCESSES):

1. EROSION
- wearing away of rock along the coastline
- Caused by Destructive waves on the coastline
- occurs where waves have direct contact with the rock

a. Hydraulic action - this is the sheer power of the waves as they smash against the cliff. Air
becomes trapped and compressed into cracks in the rock with explosive force causing
the rock to break apart.

b. Abrasion - this is when pebbles grind along a rock platform or cliff base much like
sandpaper. Over time the rock becomes smooth.

c. Attrition - this is when rocks that the sea is carrying knock against each other. They break
apart to become smaller and more rounded.

d. Solution - this is when sea water dissolves certain types of rocks. In the UK, chalk and
limestone cliffs (soft rock) are prone to this type of erosion.

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2. TRANSPORTATION
a. Solution - when minerals in rocks like chalk and limestone are dissolved in sea water and
then carried in solution. The load is not visible.
b. Suspension - small particles such as silts and clays are suspended in the flow of the
water.
c. Saltation - where small pieces of shingle or large sand grains are bounced along the
seabed.
d. Traction - where pebbles and larger material are rolled along the seabed.

3. MASS MOVEMENT
a. Rockfall – bits of rock fall off the cliff face, usually due to freeze-thaw weathering
b. Mudflow – saturated soil flows down a slope
c. Landslide – large blocks of rock slide downhill
d. Rotational slip – saturated soil slumps down a curved surface

4. DEPOSITION
- When the sea loses energy, it drops the material it has been carrying
- occur on coastlines that have constructive waves
Factors leading to deposition include:
• waves starting to slow down and lose • sheltered areas, eg bays
energy • little or no wind
• shallow water

GROUND WATER HYDROLOGY

the science of the occurrence, distribution, and movement of water below the surface of
the earth
GROUND WATER
§ Also called subsurface water
§ Water that occurs below the surface of Earth
§ Occupies all or part of the void spaces in soils or geologic strata
§ an important source of water supply throughout the world
§ 0.58% of the total water resources available in nature, 22.21% fresh water part and
2.6% of reservoirs
§ Located at 4km depth in earth’s surface
§ used in irrigation, industries, urban and rural home continues to increase
§ Regulated by
§ quantum and speed of rains § dryness of air
§ extent of vaporization during rain § porosity and permeability of rocks
§ Temperature § vegetative cover
§ slope of land § water absorbing capacity of soil

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ORIGIN OF GROUND WATER
1. Meteoric water:
§ Main source of groundwater
§ Received in the form of rain and snow through infiltration of pores, fissures and joints
2. Connate Water:
§ Exists in pores and cavities of sedimentary rocks of seas and lakes
§ Also called sedimentary water
3. Magmatic Water:
§ Converts water after condensation of vapor as result of volcanic action at time of
entering hot rocks

GROUNDWATER OCCURRENCE
§ Groundwater occurrence is controlled by geology
§ Groundwater occurs when water recharges the subsurface through cracks and pores in
soil and rock

1. Zone of Aeration (unsaturated)

§ Consists of interstices occupied partially by water and partially by air
§ Soil Water zone
§ Sub-soil zone
§ Capillary zone
2. Zone of Saturation (saturated)
§ All interstices are filled with water under hydrostatic pressure
§ Extends from the upper surface of saturation down to the underlying
impermeable rock
§ Water table (Phreatic surface) occurs if there is no overlying impermeable strata
§ Forms the upper surface of the zone of saturation

4 Types of Geological Formations

1. Aquifers
§ A saturated formation of earth material
§ Stores water and yield sufficient quantity
§ Transmits water relatively easily due to high permeability
§ Sand and gravel form good aquifers

TYPES OF AQUIFERS
a. Unconfined Aquifer
§ Also called water table
§ Upper water surface is at atmospheric pressure
§ Able to rise and fall
§ Usually closer to earth's surface

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 b. Confined Aquifer
§ Also known as artesian or pressure aquifers
§ Below the land surface saturated with water
§ Bound by impermeable layers above and below
§ Under pressure
§ If penetrated by a well, water rises above the top of aquifer

c. Leaky Aquifers
§ Also called semi-confined aquifers
§ both of Upper and lower boundaries are aquitards
§ Or one boundary is an aquitard and the other is an aquiclude

2. Aquitard
§ Formation through which seepage is possible
§ Yield significant compared to an aquifer
§ Partly permeable
§ Appreciable quantities of water may leak to an aquifer below it

3. Aquiclude
§ A porous but not permeable geological formation
§ May bear water but do not yield
§ Argillaceous rocks, clay and shale are typical examples

4. Aquifuge
§ Neither a porous nor permeable geological formation
§ No interconnected openings
§ Cannot transmit or absorb water
§ Suitable for ground water occurrence
§ Massive granites and quartzite are typical examples

EARTHQUAKE
§ any sudden shaking of the ground caused by the passage of seismic waves through
Earth’s rocks; occur most often along geologic faults
§ the release of sudden and extreme energy that is caused by shifting in the Earth's crust

SEISMOLOGY
- the study of earthquakes and seismic waves that move through and around the earth

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FAULTS
- narrow zones where rock masses move in relation to one another
- a planar or gently curved fracture in the rocks of the Earth’s crust, where compression
or tensional forces cause relative displacement of the rocks on the opposite sides of the
fracture
- may be vertical, horizontal, or inclined at any angle

CLASSIFICATION:
1. Normal Slip
- the crust is being pulled apart, the overlying (hanging-wall) block moves down with
respect to the lower (foot wall) block
2. Reverse Slip
- the crust is being compressed, the hanging-wall block moves up and over the
footwall block – slip on a gently inclined plane is referred to as thrust faulting
3. Strike Slip
- Crustal blocks move sideways past each other, usually along nearly-vertical faults
i. Sinistral Strike Slip
- far side moves to the left
ii. Dextral Strike Slip
- far side moves to the right
b. Oblique Slip
- involves various combinations of these basic movements

FOCUS
- exact spot underneath the earth surface at which an earthquake originates
EPICENTER
- the part of the earth's surface directly above the focus of an earthquake
INTENSITY
§ severity of earthquake shaking
§ based on actual effects produced by the quakes on the earth
MAGNITUDE
§ quantitative measure of the size of the earthquake at its source
§ based on the total energy released
MODIFIED MERCALLI INTENSITY SCALE
§ measures the intensity of an earthquake by observing its effect on people, the
environment and the earth’s surface
§ labels an earthquake from I to XII depending on the effects of the earthquake
RICHTER MAGNITUDE SCALE
§ measures the energy released by an earthquake using a seismograph
§ assigns earthquakes a number between 1 and 10 in order of increasing intensity

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CAUSES OF EARTHQUAKE
1. DUE TO SUPERFICIAL MOVEMENTS:
- feeble earthquakes are caused due to superficial movements
- dashing waves cause vibrations along the seashore
- Water descending along high waterfalls, impinges the valley floor and causes
vibrations along the neighboring areas
- At high altitudes the snow falling is an avalanche
2. DUE TO VOLCANIC ERUPTIONS:
- Volcanic eruptions cause feeble tremors in the surface of the earth
- cause a severe vibration on the adjoining area and have really disastrous effects
3. DUE TO FOLDING OR FAULTING:
- caused due to folding of the layers of the earth’s crust
- are more disastrous and are known as tectonic earthquakes
- directly or indirectly change the structural features of the earth crust

CLASSIFICATIONS OF EARTHQUAKE
a) BASED ON DEPTH OF FOCUS:
§ SHALLOW
§ Lies anywhere up to 50 km below surface
§ INTERMEDIATE
§ Originates 50km to 300 km below the surface
§ DEEP SEATED

b) BASED ON CAUSE OF ORIGIN

§ TECTONIC EARTHQUAKES
§ Due to relative movements of crystal block on faulting
§ NON-TECTONIC EARTHQUAKES
§ Due to volcanic eruptions or landslides

c) BASED ON INTENSITY
§ Initially given by Rossi and Ferel (Scale 1-10)
§ Based on the sensation of people and damage caused
Later modified by Mercalli and later by Wood and Neumann
EXPLAIN
Importance of Geology in Civil Engineering
ü provides a systematic knowledge of construction material, its occurrence,
composition, durability, and other properties
ü knowledge of the geological work of natural agencies helps in planning and carrying
out major civil engineering works
ü knowledge about ground water quantity and depth of occurrence is required in
connection with water supply, irrigation, excavation and many other civil engineering
works

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 ü foundation problems of dams, bridges and buildings are directly concerned with the
geology of the area where they are to be built
ü Helps greatly in interpreting drilling data for foundation works
ü the knowledge about the nature and structure of rocks is very necessary in tunneling,
road construction, canals, docks and in determining stability of cuts and slopes
ü natural formation of soil materials is necessary in soil mechanics
ü a detailed geological report which is accompanied by geological maps and
sections, is prepared prior major engineering projects
ü stability of civil engineering structure is considerably increased if the geological
feature like faults, joints, bedding planes, folding solution channels etc. in the rock
beds are properly located and suitably treated
ü Planning and design, and cost and safety depends on soil conditions

PLATE TECTONICS

FORMATIONS DUE TO MOVEMENTS OF PLATE TECTONICS

v PACIFIC RING OF FIRE

Most ocean trenches circle the Pacific in the
"Ring of Fire," which also includes active
volcanoes and earthquake zones.
(National Geographic)

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 v MARIANA TRENCH: result of convergent
boundary between the Pacific and Mariana
Plates (Pacific moves underneath Mariana)

v PUERTO RICO TRENCH, the deepest

spot in the Atlantic Ocean, is
created where the oceanic crust of
the North American plate (carrying
the western Atlantic Ocean) is being
subducted beneath the oceanic
crust of the smaller Caribbean plate

v HIMALAYA MOUNTAIN RANGE: result of

convergent boundary between the Eurasian
and Indian Plates

v The ALPS in New Zealand are fold mountains

created as the tiny Adriatic microplate
rotates clockwise against the Eurasian plate
to the north.

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 v the Nazca plate is subducting beneath the
South American plate, resulting in the ANDES
MOUNTAINS

v JUAN DE FUCA RIDGE: a mid-ocean

spreading center and divergent
plate boundary that separates
the Pacific Plate to the west and
the Juan de Fuca Plate to the east.

v Iceland: where the MID-ATLANTIC RIDGE separates the

North American and Eurasian plate

v The EAST
PACIFIC RISE is
a mid-oceanic ridge, a divergent tectonic
plate boundary located along the floor of
the Pacific Ocean. It separates the Pacific
Plate to the west from (north to south)
the North American Plate, the Rivera Plate,
the Cocos Plate, the Nazca Plate, and
the Antarctic Plate.

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 v the Arabian, Indian, and African plates are
drifting apart, forming the GREAT RIFT VALLEY in
Africa. The Dead Sea fills the rift with seawater

v the ALEUTIAN ISLANDS along the pacific is an

island arc formed by overriding of the North
American plate on the Pacific plate.

v The Ryukyu Islands, also known as the Nansei Islands

or the Ryukyu Arc. An island arc formed by the Uruma
fluctuation – earth’s crust movement that occurs
along with the formation of the Ryukyu Islands. Since
its formation, the islands have repeated uplifting and
sinking.

LANDFORMS AND EARTH PROCESSES

EROSION

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jµ_ardnasac / sknlazo 34 | P a g e
TRANSPORTATION

COASTAL PROCESSES: MASS MOVEMENT

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RIVER PROCESSES

DEPOSITION
SAND DUNES

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LOESS

CHEMICAL WEATHERING

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PHYSICAL WEATHERING

EXFOLIATION WEATHERING

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SPHEROIDAL WEATHERING

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ENGINEERING IMPORTANCE OF WEATHERING
v selection of suitable quarry for the extraction of stones for structural and decorative
purposes
v weathering always causes a loss in the strength of the rocks or soil
v For a construction engineer it is always necessary to see:
v the extent the area under consideration for a proposed project has been
affected by weathering
v the possible effects of weathering processes typical of the area on the
construction materials

ENGINEERING CONSIDERATION FOR EARTH PROCESSES:

v In general, no site is selected for any type of important work on the moving dunes
because such dunes are always a source of trouble
v moving dunes damage certain important works
v IF compelled to select such a site, special methods should be adopted to check
the motion of the moving dunes

TYPES OF GEOLOGICAL FORMATIONS AND AQUIFERS

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EARTHQUAKE FAULTS
ü Sierra Nevada Fault in California, United
Statescasued 1872 Lone Pine Earthquake
of M 7.4 – 8.3

ü Sparta Fault in Greece caused M7.2 Sparta

Earthquake in 464BC

ü Independence Valley Fault system in

Nevada United States caused 2008 Wells
earthquake – M6.0
ü Glarust Thrust in Switzerland exist during
Cenozoic Period.
ü Kern Canyon Fault in Sierra Nevada,
California is a thrust fault
ü Seattle Fault in Washington is an active
thrust Fault
ü San Andreas Fault, had a maximum
movement of 6 metres (20 feet) during the
1906 San Francisco earthquake is a 1300km
Dextral strike-slip fault
ü North Anatolian Fault, during the İzmit
earthquake of 1999, moved more than 2.5
metres (8.1 feet) is a Dextral Strike Slip Fault
ü Palu-Koro Fault in Indonesia is a 500km
Sinistral strike-slip fault caused M7.5
Sulawesi Earthquake in 2018
ü Septentrional-Orient Fault Zone is an active
Sinistral strike-slip fault in the Caribbean.
1842 Earthquake in Cap Haitien(M8.1)
ü Marikina Valley Fault System : Dextral Strike
Slip

ü 1855 Wairarapa Fault rupture, combination

of reverse and dextral movement.

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MERCALLI AND RICHTER SCALE:

ENGINEERING CONSIDERATION FOR EARTHQUAKE

§ time and intensity of the earthquake can never be predicted
§ Remedy is to provide additional factors in the design of structure to minimize the losses
due to shocks of an earthquake
§ collect sufficient data, regarding the previous seismic activity in the area
§ assess the losses, which are likely to take place in furniture due to earthquake
shocks
§ provide factors of safety, to stop or minimize the loss due to sever earth shocks

PRECAUTIONS to make building earthquake resilient

ü foundation should rest on a firm rock bed
ü Grillage foundations preferably be provided
ü Excavation of foundation must be up to same level throughout the building
ü concrete should be laid in rich mortar and continuous
ü Masonry must be in max 1:4 cement mortar ratio
ü R.C slab, cantilevers, projections, parapets, domes should be provided
ü All parts of building must be tied firmly with each other
ü Building should be uniform height
ü Best materials should be used.

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ELABORATE
Watch:
Plate Tectonics: https://youtu.be/RA2-Vc4PIOY
Tectonic Plate Movement: https://youtu.be/f4V4amhLZdU
Transform Boundaries: https://youtu.be/QE_RC6gqT3w
Convergent Boundaries: https://youtu.be/L2XixysJgPs
Divergent Boundaries: https://youtu.be/wfHwAeVNrzA
Groundwater: https://youtu.be/zyHtkDCwQUw
Wind Erosion: https://youtu.be/PQmon7Rj6ns
Aquifers: https://vimeo.com/288326731
Earthquakes: https://youtu.be/T0AEtX-uPLA

Answer Quiz given by course facilitator.

EVALUATE

Tectonic Plates: Make a research on the tectonic plates found in Asia.

1. You are required to submit a geological map identifying the different plates.
2. Include an information sheet about details of the plates.
a. Location
b. Area
c. Evolution
d. Other important information
3. Provide the references at the end of your research.
4. Avoid plagiarism. Corresponding deductions will be applied.
5. Files shall be placed in docx files, ppt or pdf. Since your creativity is graded, you can
use any appropriate font, but the minimum size should be 12. This is not to be taken
like a photo album or scrapbook. Make it professional looking like an engineer’s
presentation.

Earthquake: Make a presentation about the different fault lines in the Philippines.

1. You are required to submit a geological map identifying the different fault lines
2. Include an information sheet about details:
a. Location
b. Length
c. Movement
d. Other important information
3. Provide the references at the end of your research.
4. Avoid plagiarism. Corresponding deductions will be applied.
5. Files shall be placed in docx files, ppt or pdf. Since your creativity is graded, you can
use any appropriate font, but the minimum size should be 12. This is not to be taken

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 like a photo album or scrapbook. Make it professional looking like an engineer’s
presentation.

Answer Exam given by course facilitator

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