Singapore (the Republic of Singapore)

Official Name: Republik Singapura (MAY); 新 加 坡 共 和 国 (ZH);

சிங்கப்பூர் குடியரசு (TAM); Republic of Singapore (ENG)

Capital: Singapore

Official Language/s: English, Malay, Mandarin, Tamil

Form of Government: Unitary Dominant-party Parliamentary Republic

Population: 5,791,901 (2018) [113th]

GDP (PPP): $589.187 billion (2019 est.); $103,717 per capita (2019 est.)

GDP (Nominal): $372.807 billion (2018 est.); $65,627 per capita (2019 est.)

Currency: Singapore Dollar (SGD)

Background

The Foundation of Singapore

According to legend Singapore was founded centuries ago when a prince from Sumatra
landed on the island and saw a lion. He took it as a good omen and founded a city called
Singapura, which means lion city. The legend may or may not be true. In fact the name
Singapura was not recorded until the 16th century and Singapore was really only a trading post
with a small population not a city.

Modern Singapore was founded in 1819 by Sir Stamford Raffles (1781-1826). Raffles became a
clerk for the British East India Company in 1795. He rose rapidly in the company. In 1805 he
was sent to Penang and in 1811 he was made Lieutenant Governor of Java.

In 1818 Raffles was made governor of Bencoolen on the island of Sumatra. Raffles believed the
British should establish a base on the Straits of Melaka and in 1819 he landed on the island of
Singapore. The island consisted of swamps and jungle with a small population but Raffles
realized it could be made into a useful port.

At that time two men were vying to become Sultan of the Empire of Johor, which controlled
Singapore. In 1812 the Sultan died and his two sons quarreled over the succession. Raffles
supported the older brother Hussein and recognized him as Sultan. Raffles made a deal with him.
The British East India Company was given Singapore in return for an annual payment. In 1824
the Company was given the island in return for a lump sum of money.

The British established a new trading post at Singapore and it grew very rapidly. As well as
Europeans, Malays, Chinese, Indians and Arabs came to live and work there. By 1824 the
population had risen to 10,000.
In 1826 Singapore was joined with Melaka and Penang to form the Straits Settlements. In 1867
Singapore became a Crown Colony ruled directly by the British government rather than the East
India Company. By 1870 the population of Singapore had risen to 100,000.

Many grand buildings were erected in Singapore in the 19th and early 20th centuries. Among
them was the Victoria Theatre & Concert Hall, which was built in 1862.

Several temples were built at that time including the Thian Hock Keng Temple, which was built
in 1842. The Sri Mariamman Temple was first built in 1823 but it was rebuilt in 1843. The Sri
Srinivasa Perumal Temple was built in 1855. The Leong San See Temple was built in 1917. The
Sakya Muni Buddha Gaya Temple was built in 1927.

When the Suez Canal was built in 1869 Singapore became even more important as a 'gateway'
between Europe and eastern Asia.

Modern Singapore

In the early 20th century Singapore continued to prosper. Huge amounts of rubber and tin
from the region were exported from Singapore. Meanwhile Chinese immigrants continued to
arrive.

Then in January 1942 the Japanese conquered Malaysia. On 15 February 1942 Singapore was
forced to surrender. The Japanese called Singapore Yonan, which means Light of the South but
their rule was tyrannical. Thousands of Chinese Singaporeans were executed.

However Japan surrendered in August 1945 and on 5 September 1945 the British re-occupied
Singapore.

However after 1945 Singapore slowly moved towards independence. In 1946 the Strait
Settlements were dissolved and Singapore was separated from Malaysia. The People's Action
Party was formed in 1954 and it proved to be a major force in Singaporean politics. In 1955 a
new constitution was introduced. Under it 25 out of 32 members of the legislature were elected.
In 1957 it was replaced by an elected 51 member legislature. The People’s Action Party led by
Lee Kuan Yew won 43 out of 51 seats. Self-government was granted in 1959. Lee Kuan Yew
became prime minister.

In 1963 Singapore joined with Malaysia. However the union was short lived. Singapore left in
1965 and became completely independent.

From 1965 to the 1990s Singapore enjoyed rapid economic growth. By the 1990s it was an NIC
(newly industrialized country) and the people had a high standard of living. However the
government was authoritarian and society was strictly controlled.

In 1990 Lee Kuan Yew resigned as prime minister. He was replaced by Goh Chok Tong. He
introduced a more liberal regime. Today Singapore is a prosperous nation and its economy is
growing steadily. Singapore is also a very busy port. Today the population of Singapore is 5.6
million.

Government and Politics

Government

The Government of Singapore is defined by the Constitution of the Republic of

Singapore to mean the Executive branch of government, which is made up of the President and
the Cabinet of Singapore. Although the President acts in his/her personal discretion in the
exercise of certain functions as a check on the Cabinet and Parliament of Singapore, his/her role
is largely ceremonial. It is the Cabinet, composed of the Prime Minister and other Ministers
appointed on his/her advice by the President, that generally directs and controls the Government.
The Cabinet is formed by the political party that gains a simple majority in each general election.

A statutory board is an autonomous agency of the Government that is established by an Act of

Parliament and overseen by a government ministry. Unlike ministries and government
departments that are subdivisions of ministries, statutory boards are not staffed by civil servants
and have greater independence and flexibility in their operations.

There are five Community Development Councils (CDCs) appointed by the board of
management of the People's Association (PA) for districts in Singapore. Where there are not less
than 150,000 residents in a district, the PA's board of management may designate the chairman
of a CDC to be the mayor for the district that the CDC is appointed for. As it is the practice for
MPs to be appointed as Chairmen of CDCs, these MPs have also been designated as mayors.

From the founding of modern Singapore in 1819 until 1826, Singapore was headed by two
residents in succession. Following Singapore's amalgamation into the Straits Settlements in
1826, it was governed by a governor together with a legislative council. An executive council of
the Straits Settlements was introduced in 1877 to advise the Governor but wielded no executive
power. In 1955, a Council of Ministers was created, appointed by the Governor on the
recommendation of the Leader of the House. Constitutional talks between Legislative Assembly
representatives and the Colonial Office were held from 1956 to 1958, and Singapore gained full
internal self-government in 1959. The governor was replaced by the Yang di-Pertuan Negara,
who had power to appoint to the post of prime minister the person most likely to command the
authority of the assembly, and other ministers of the Cabinet on the prime minister's advice. In
the 1959 general elections, the People's Action Party (PAP) swept to power with 43 out of the 51
seats in the assembly, and Lee Kuan Yew became the first prime minister of Singapore. The
executive branch of the Singapore Government remained unchanged following Singapore's
merger with Malaysia in 1963, and subsequent independence in 1965. The PAP has been
returned to power in every general election and has thus formed the Cabinet since 1959. The
government is generally perceived to be competent in managing the country's economy and
largely free from political corruption. On the other hand, it has been criticized for using unfair
election tactics, violating freedom of speech and its excessive use of the death penalty (by
hanging) for non-violent crimes.
Politics

In an early general election in November 2001, the electorate gave the People’s Action
Party (PAP) a decisive endorsement, when it took 82 of the 84 elective seats with 73.7 per cent
of the votes. The Workers’ Party (WP) and the four-party Singapore Democratic Alliance (SDA)
each won one seat.

In August 2004 Goh Chok Tong was succeeded by Lee Hsien Loong, son of Lee Kuan Yew and
Deputy Prime Minister since 1990.

The PAP was again returned with 82 seats in the May 2006 general election, receiving 66.6 per
cent of the votes. The WP and SDA each won one seat. Opposition parties contested 47 seats,
and it was the first time more than half the seats were contested.

In the May 2011 general election the PAP won 81 seats and received 60.1 per cent of the votes.
Opposition parties contested 82 seats and the WP took six. Two non-constituency seats were
allocated to the WP and one to the Singapore People’s Party. Turnout was 93 per cent.

In a hard-fought presidential contest, in August 2011, former Deputy Prime Minister Dr Tony
Tan – with 35.2 per cent of the votes cast – defeated his three rivals; Tan Cheng Bock secured
34.9 per cent of the votes, Tan Jee Say 25.0 per cent and Tan Kin Lian 4.9 per cent. Dr Tan
succeeded retiring President S. R. Nathan on 1 September 2011.

Former Prime Minister Lee Kuan Yew (1959–90) died on 23 March 2015.

Sources:

http://www.localhistories.org/singapore.html

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Government_of_Singapore

https://thecommonwealth.org/our-member-countries/singapore/constitution-politics
Laos (Lao People's Democratic Republic)
Official Name: ສາທາລະນະລັດ ປະຊາທ ິ ປະໄຕ ປະຊາຊົ ນລາວ (LAO);
Saþalanalat Paxaþipatai Paxaxōn Lao (Romanisation); République
démocratique populaire lao (FR); Lao People’s Democratic Republic
(ENG)

Capital: Vientiane

Official Language/s: Lao, Hmong, Khmu, French

Form of Government: Unitary Marxist-Leninist One-party Socialist Republic

Population: 7,061,507 (2019) [103rd]

GDP (PPP): $58.329 billion (2019 est.); $8,450 per capita (2019 est.)

GDP (Nominal): $20.153 billion (2019 est.); $2.670 per capita (2019 est.)

Currency: Kip (LAK)

Background

Ancient Laos

The earliest inhabitants of Laos were hunter-gatherers. Later they were farmers growing
rice and pulses. The first farmers used stone tools, but from about 2,000 BC bronze was used in
Laos and from about 500 BC iron.

However unlike Vietnam the people of Laos were influenced by Indian rather than Chinese
culture. From the 1st century AD Indian merchants introduced Theravada Buddhism into Laos.

From the 9th to the 13th century the Khmers from Cambodia ruled much of what is now Laos.

However in the 14th century the ancestors of today's Laotians founded a kingdom called Lan
Xang. The first king was the ambitious Chao Fa Ngum, who was succeeded by his son Phaya
Samsenthai in 1373. He ruled until 1421 and under him Lan Xang became a prosperous
kingdom. Unfortunately his successors were less skillful rulers.

In the 16th century Lan Xang was threatened by Burma but it managed to retain its
independence.

In the 17th century greatness was restored to Lan Xang by Souriyavongsa (1637-1694). His long
reign is seen as a golden age. During it Lan Xang was powerful and prosperous. However when
Souriyavongsa died in 1694 he did not leave a heir.

In the early 18th century Lan Xang split into 3 regions centered on Luang Prang in the north,
Vientiane in the middle and Champasak in the south. When it was divided in that way Laos was
weakened and fell prey to Siam (Thailand). In 1779 Siamese forces occupied Vientiane.
Afterwards the three Laotian states were dominated by Siam (Thailand).

In 1804 Anouvong became king of Vientiane. By 1825 Anouvong was determined to overthrow
Siamese domination and restore the kingdom of Lan Xang. In 1827 he advanced into Siam but
was defeated and forced to retreat. Anouvong fled to Vietnam. Several months later he returned
to Vientiane but was captured by the Siamese (Thais) ending all hope of a restored Lan Xang.

The French in Laos

In 1867-68 a Frenchman called Francis Garnier traveled through Laos. However the French left
Laos alone for two decades. Then in the late 1880s and early 1890s French influence in the area
grew. Finally in 1893 the Siamese formally surrendered all territory east of the River Mekong to
the French.

Laos became part of the French empire in Southeast Asia. However the French took little interest
in Laos and few French people lived there.

In 1941 the French fought a war with the Thais for Laotian territory. The Japanese forced an
armistice and parts of Laos were given to Thailand. Then in April 1945 the Japanese forced the
pro-French king Sisavang Vong to declare independence from France. Following the Japanese
surrender in September 1945 Prince Phetsarath was prime minister of Laos. He headed a
government called Lao Issara (free Lao).

However Laotian independence did not last long. In March 1946 the French invaded Laos and by
May 1946 they were in control of the country again.

Modern Laos

Then in 1950 the Pro-Communist Prince Souphanouvong formed an organisation that

became known as Paphet Lao (Land of the Lao). At first it was a relatively small organisation
backed by the Viet Minh.

Meanwhile the French were losing control of Southeast Asia and in 1953 they withdrew from
Laos, which became an independent, constitutional monarchy.

However Laos in the 1950s was a divided country. Most was ruled by Royalist governments
supported by the USA while parts were ruled by the Pro-Communist Paphet Lao assisted by their
allies the Viet Minh.

All attempts to find a political solution failed and in the 1960s Laos became drawn into the wider
Asian War. From 1964 to 1973 the USA bombed Paphet Lao territory but failed to defeat them.
Then in 1975 South Vietnam and Cambodia fell to the Communists. Seeing the way things were
going Royalists fled from Laos allowing the Paphet Lao to take over. The Lao People's
Democratic Republic was founded on 2 December 1975.
A full Communist regime was introduced. However in 1988 the government of Laos introduced
market reforms. As a result the economy of Laos began to grow rapidly. Today Laos is still a
poor country but it is developing rapidly and poverty is declining. Laos also has great potential
for tourism.

Meanwhile Laos joined ASEAN in 1997. It joined the WTO in 2013. Today the population of
Laos is 7 million.

Government and Politics

Government

Laos is one of the last bastions of communism along with Cuba, North Korea, Vietnam
and China. The country is formally under the control of the Laotian People’s Revolutionary
Party (LPRP). The Communist Party in Laos is a bit shy about coming across as too overtly
Communist. The word “Communism” does not appear on any government documents and there
are no statues of Marx or Lenin other than a bust of Lenin in the Lao National History Museum.

Laotian politics is characterized by strongmen and secrets. No one outside the inner circle seems
to know what is really going on. One European diplomat told the New York Times, “It’s still
vague and murky. That’s my best assessment.” There are no real alternatives to the LPRP. The
diploma told the New York Times, “There is nothing to take its place, no civil society, no
democratic opposition, nothing. This country is totally repressed.” Additionally, there is no
charismatic leader like Burma’s Aung San Suu Kyo for local people and the international
community to rally around.

Government type: Laos is a Communist state governed by the Lao People’s Revolutionary Party.
According to the U.S. state department Laos is a "most repressive state" and a "place of
unusually harsh government control." The republic democratic people party of Laos came to
power in 1975. The executive power is controlled by the president and elected by the national
assembly for a 5 year period. The president is assisted by the prime minister who, in turn, is in
charge of the ministry council. The legislative power, guarantor of the constitution, is held by the
national assembly, which consists of 85 representatives elected by the people for a term of 5
years. The most recent National Assembly (NA) election was held in 2011. The constitution
legitimizes only a single party, the LPRP, and almost all candidates in the 2011 election were
LPRP members vetted by the party.

Reforms and new political will are thus both necessary for the country to prosper. The LPRP is
now Marxist-Leninist in nothing but name. Rather it exercises a single-party dictatorship, and is
becoming increasingly nationalistic. This may appeal to Lowland Lao, but less to the tribal
minorities. Care will be needed to maintain social cohesion. It remains to be seen whether the
Party has the resourcefulness to meet the challenges ahead.
Politics

The politics of the Lao People's Democratic Republic takes place in the framework of a
one-party socialist republic. The only legal political party is the Lao People's Revolutionary
Party (LPRP). The de jure head of state is President Bounnhang Vorachith, who also is LPRP
general secretary making him the de facto leader of Laos.

The head of government is Prime Minister Thongloun Sisoulith. Government policies are
determined by the party through the all-powerful nine-member Politburo and the 49-member
Central Committee. Important government decisions are vetted by the Council of Ministers.

The FY 2000 central government budget plan called for revenue of $180 million and
expenditures of $289 million, including capital expenditures of $202 million.

Laos' first, French-written and monarchical constitution was promulgated on May 11, 1947 and
declared it to be an independent state within the French Union. The revised constitution of May
11, 1957, omitted reference to the French Union, though close educational, health and technical
ties with the former colonial power persisted. The 1957 document was abrogated on December 3,
1975, when a communist state was proclaimed.

A new constitution was adopted in 1991 and enshrined a "leading role" for the LPRP. The
following year, elections were held for a new 85-seat National Assembly with members elected
by secret ballot to five-year terms. This National Assembly, which essentially acts as a rubber
stamp for the LPRP, approves all new laws, although the executive branch retains authority to
issue binding decrees.

The most recent elections took place in April 2006. The assembly was expanded to 99 members
in 1997 and in 2006 elections had 115.

Sources:

http://www.localhistories.org/laos.html

http://factsanddetails.com/southeast-asia/Laos/sub5_3d/entry-2972.html
Cambodia (Kingdom of Cambodia)

Official Name: ព្រះរាជាណាចក្រកម្ពុជា (Khmer); prĕəh riəciənaacak

kampuciə
(Romanisation); Royaume du Cambodge (French); Kingdom of
Cambodia(ENG)

Capital: Phnom Penh

Official Language/s: Khmer, English, French

Form of Government: Constitutional Monarchy

Population: 15,288,489 (2019) [72nd]

GDP (PPP): $76.635 billion (2019 est.); $4,645 per capita (2019 est.)

GDP (Nominal): $26.628 billion (2019 est.); $1,614 per capita (2019 est.)

Currency: Riel (KHR)

Background

Ancient Cambodia

Cambodia has a rich and fascinating history. The first humans in Cambodia were Stone
Age hunters and gatherers. However farming was introduced into Cambodia about 2,300 BC.
The first farmers in Cambodia used stone tools but from about 1,500 BC the Cambodians used
tools and weapons made from bronze. By about 500 BC they had learned to use iron.

The first civilization in the area arose about 150 AD in the Mekong River delta in South
Vietnam. This civilization was known to the Chinese who called it Fu-nan.

While Fu-nan was trading with the Chinese Cambodian society grew more sophisticated.
Settlements grew larger. So did kingdoms. By the beginning of the 7th century AD all of
Cambodia was highly civilized.

At first Cambodia was divided into rival states. However at the beginning of the 9th century a
king named Jayavarman II founded the Khmer Empire in Cambodia.

The Khmer Empire in Cambodia

Like all early civilizations the Khmer Empire was an overwhelmingly agricultural
society. Although there were many craftsmen the great majority of the people were farmers.
Their staple diet was rice.

The Khmers were animists. They believed that spirits inhabited natural phenomena such as the
earth and trees. Later Indian religions (Hinduism and Buddhism) were introduced but they co-
existed with traditional beliefs. The rich and powerful built fine temples (the only stone buildings
in Cambodia). They were richly decorated with fine stone carvings. The most famous temple is
Angkor Wat which was built in the early 12th century.

For Cambodia was prosperous and powerful. Then about 1000 AD King Jayavarman V was
killed. Civil war followed until Suryavarman I founded another dynasty. By 1011 he was in
control of Cambodia. However his dynasty only lasted until 1080 when it was replaced by
another.

In 1177 a people called the Chams from Champa (on the coast of Vietnam) invaded Cambodia.
However King Jayavarman VII managed to drive them out by 1183 and between 1203 and 1220
he was able to force the Chams to submit to him. Nevertheless by the mid-13th century the
Khmer kingdom was in decline.

In 1431 the Thais captured the Cambodian capital, Angkor. Afterwards it was abandoned and
new capital was founded at Phnom Phen. By the mid-16th century Angkor was overgrown by the
jungle and it was accidentally re-discovered by a Cambodian king.

Cambodia 1500-1800

During the 16th century Cambodian power continued to decline. At the end of the
century Cambodia fell under Thai suzerainty (lose control). In 1594 the Thais captured the
capital. After that they dominated the region.

From the middle of the 17th century the power of Vietnam grew. In the early 17th century the
Cambodians controlled parts of what is now South Vietnam. They held a port called Prey Nokor.
(Later it was renamed Saigon). In the late 17th century Prey Nokor fell under Vietnamese rule.

During the 18th century Cambodia found itself squeezed between two powerful neighbors,
Thailand and Vietnam. The Thais invaded Cambodia several times in the 18th century and in
1772 they destroyed Phnom Phen. In the last years of the 18th century the Vietnamese also
invaded Cambodia. The Cambodian king was forced to look to the Thais for protection. In return
Thailand took north-west Cambodia.

Cambodia in the 19th Century

In the early 19th century King Chan (1806-1834) turned to the Vietnamese for protection
from the Thais! The Thais were annoyed by this policy and when a rebellion occurred in south
Vietnam in 1833 they took advantage by invading Cambodia. However the Vietnamese king
crushed the rebellion and the Thai army retreated.

As a result the Vietnamese emperor strengthened his control over Cambodia. When Cambodian
King Chan died in 1834 one of his daughters was installed as Queen and Vietnamese people
settled in Cambodia. The Vietnamese regarded the Cambodians as 'barbarians' an tried to
'civilize' them by teaching them Vietnamese customs.
Resentment at Vietnamese influence led to a rebellion in 1840-1841. The Thais invaded again to
re-assert their control of Cambodia.

However in the 1850s French missionaries arrived in Cambodia. The Cambodian king turned to
the French to protect him from both the Thais and the Vietnamese. So in 1863 Cambodia became
a French protectorate.

Cambodia in the 20th Century

Under French rule some economic development took place in Cambodia. Roads and
railways were built and in the 1920s a rubber industry grew up. However the Cambodians were
forced to pay heavy taxes and from the 1930s Cambodian nationalism grew.

Then in 1941 Cambodia was occupied by the Japanese. However at first they allowed French
officials to remain in their posts but in March 1945 as the Japanese were losing the war they
desperately tried to curry favor with the Cambodians. They arrested French officials and declared
Cambodia independent. However when the Japanese surrendered the French took over again.
They arrived in October 1945.

This time the French did allow the Cambodians to have political parties and a constitution. By a
treaty of 1949 Cambodia was made semi-independent. Then in 1952 King Sihanouk dismissed
the government and took personal control of the country. Events then moved swiftly. On 9
November 1953 the French finally allowed Cambodia to become fully independent and in 1955
Sihanouk abdicated in favor of his father and elections were held.

Sihanouk formed his own political movement. From 1955-1970 he dominated politics in
Cambodia so much so that it is sometimes called the 'Sihanouk era'. In 1960, when his father
died, he named himself 'Chief of State'. Sihanouk called his movement 'Buddhist Socialism'.
However it was not really socialist at all.

Sihanouk's reign began to crumble in 1968 when the communists began a civil war. In 1970
Sihanouk left the country. While he was away the National Assembly voted to remove him as
chief of state. Cambodia was renamed the Khmer Republic.

However the communists slowly made headway. The Americans bombed Cambodia to try and
stop the communists. Nevertheless they captured Phnom Penh on 17 April 1975.

The Khmer Rouge in Cambodia

In 1975 a horrific and tragic era of Cambodian history began in the reign of the Khmer
Rouge. They were led by Pol Pot (or Saloth Sar) also known as 'Brother Number One'. How
many people were killed by Pol Pot and the Khmer Rouge is not known for certain but it was
probably at least 1.5 million and it may have been as many as 3 million. Pol Pot declared that
history would begin again in Cambodia. The first year of revolution was now the first year of
history.
In 1975 Cambodia was a mainly agricultural country. Pol Pot decided it should be completely
agricultural. This meant all the people from the towns and cities were forced to move to the
countryside. Pol Pot also decided that agricultural output should double in 4 years (a totally
unrealistic target). Private property was banned and collective farms were formed. They were
supposed to grow 3 tonnes of rice per hectare (again a completely unrealistic target). People were
made to work very long hours to try and grow the extra rice. They were given insufficient food
and many fell ill and died from a combination of exhaustion and malnutrition.

That was not all. Religion was banned in Cambodia (people caught practicing Buddhism were
executed). Family relationships were banned (on the grounds that parents exploited their
children). Furthermore the smallest infringement of the rules resulted in execution. Although
they were half starved people caught foraging for food were executed. People were also executed
for being lazy. Needless to say anyone who complained was executed.

Furthermore the Khmer Rouge murdered intellectuals. Soon people who could speak a foreign
language or who wore glasses were executed. This nightmarish situation was only ended by a
war with Vietnam. The Vietnamese invaded Cambodia in December 1978 and quickly prevailed.
Unfortunately Pol Pot escaped and he did not die until 1998.

Pol Pot's soldiers fled to Thailand and they were welcomed by the Thai's who feared a
Vietnamese invasion. The Khmer Rouge continued a guerrilla war against the Vietnamese.
However the Vietnamese forces withdrew from Cambodia in 1989.

Afterwards negotiations began among several different parties. The result was the Paris Peace
Accords of 1991. Communism was abandoned in Cambodia and a provisional government ruled
until 1993 when elections were held and a constitution was framed. Sihanouk was made a
constitutional monarch.

However the Khmer Rouge refused to take part in the elections and they continued their guerrilla
war. Fortunately in 1996 Pol Pot's second in command Ieng Sary defected in 1996. Many Khmer
Rouge troops followed him. Pol Pot himself died in 1998 and peace returned to Cambodia.

In 1999 Cambodia joined ASEAN.

Cambodia in the 21st Century

In 2004 King Norodom Sihanouk abdicated. His son became King Norodom Sihamoni in
his place.

Today Cambodia is still a poor country but there is every reason to be optimistic about its future.
In the early years of the 21st Century the Cambodian economy grew rapidly. Today the economy
of Cambodia is growing strongly. The textiles industry in Cambodia is booming so is tourism.
Cambodia is growing more and more prosperous.

In 2005 oil was discovered in the sea off Cambodia and it holds great promise for the future.
Today the population of Cambodia is 16 million.
Government and Politics

Government

National politics in Cambodia take place within the framework of the nation's
constitution of 1993. The government is a constitutional monarchy operated as a parliamentary
representative democracy. The Prime Minister of Cambodia, an office held by Hun Sen since
1985, is the head of government, while the King of Cambodia (currently Norodom Sihamoni) is
the head of state. The prime minister is appointed by the king, on the advice and with the
approval of the National Assembly. The prime minister and the ministerial appointees exercise
executive power.

Legislative powers are shared by the executive and the bicameral Parliament of Cambodia,
which consists of a lower house, the National Assembly and an upper house, the Senate.
Members of the 123-seat Assembly are elected through a system of proportional representation
and serve for a maximum term of five years. The Senate has 61 seats, two of which are appointed
by the king and two others by the National Assembly, and the rest elected by the commune
councillors from 24 provinces of Cambodia. Senators serve six-year terms.

On 14 October 2004, King Norodom Sihamoni was selected by a special nine-member Royal
Throne Council, part of a selection process that was quickly put in place after the abdication of
King Norodom Sihanouk a week prior. Sihamoni's selection was endorsed by Prime Minister
Hun Sen and National Assembly Speaker Prince Norodom Ranariddh (the king's half-brother
and current chief advisor), both members of the throne council. He was enthroned in Phnom
Penh on 29 October 2004.

Officially a multiparty democracy, in reality "the country remains a one-party state dominated by
the Cambodian People's Party and Prime Minister Hun Sen, a recast Khmer Rouge official in
power since 1985. The open doors to new investment during his reign have yielded the most
access to a coterie of cronies of his and his wife, Bun Rany. Cambodia's government has been
described by the Human Rights Watch's Southeast Asian director, David Roberts, as a "relatively
authoritarian coalition via a superficial democracy".

Prime Minister Hun Sen has vowed to rule until he is 74. He is a former Khmer Rouge member
who defected. His government is regularly accused of ignoring human rights and suppressing
political dissent. The 2013 election results were disputed by Hun Sen's opposition, leading to
demonstrations in the capital. Demonstrators were injured and killed in Phnom Penh where a
reported 20,000 protesters gathered, with some clashing with riot police. From a humble farming
background, Hun Sen was just 33 when he took power in 1985, and is by some considered a long
ruling dictator.

Since the 2017 crackdowns on political dissent and free press, Cambodia has been described as a
de facto one-party state.
Politics

The politics of Cambodia are defined within the framework of a constitutional monarchy,
in which the King serves as the head of state, and the prime minister is the head of government.
The collapse of communism set in motion events that led to the withdrawal of the Vietnamese
armed forces, which had established their presence in the country since the fall of the Khmer
Rouge.[1] The 1993 constitution, which is currently in force, was promulgated as a result of the
1991 Paris Peace Agreements, followed by elections organized under the aegis of the United
Nations Transitional Authority in Cambodia. The constitution proclaims a liberal, multiparty
democracy in which powers are devolved to the executive, the judiciary and the legislature.
However, there is no effective opposition to the Prime Minister Hun Sen, who has been in power
for over 35 years. His Cambodian People's Party won all 125 seats in the National Assembly in
2018 after the banning of opposition party CNRP. Furthermore, the governing charter declares
Cambodia to be an "independent, sovereign, peaceful, permanently neutral and non-aligned
State."

Executive power is exercised by the Royal Government, on behalf of and with the consent of the
monarch. The government is constituted of the Council of Ministers, headed by the prime
minister. The prime minister is aided in his functions by members of the Council such as deputy
prime ministers, senior ministers and other ministers. Legislative power is vested in a bicameral
legislature composed of the National Assembly, which has the power to vote on draft law, and
the Senate, that has the power of review. Upon passage of legislation through the two chambers,
the draft law is presented to the monarch for signing and promulgation. The judiciary is tasked
with the protection of rights and liberties of the citizens, and with being an impartial arbiter of
disputes. The Supreme Court is the highest court of the country and takes appeals from lower
courts on questions of law. A separate body called the Constitutional Council was established to
provide interpretations of the constitution and the laws, and also to resolve disputes related to
election of members of the legislature.

The Cambodian People's Party has dominated the political landscape since the 1997 armed
clashes in Phnom Penh. Other prominent political parties include the royalist FUNCINPEC and
the erstwhile Cambodia National Rescue Party that was dissolved by the Supreme Court in 2017.
Comparative political scientists Steven Levitsky and Lucan Way have described Cambodia as a
"competitive authoritarian regime", a hybrid regime type with important characteristics of both
democracy and authoritarianism.

Sources:

http://www.localhistories.org/cambodia.html

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cambodia#Government

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politics_of_Cambodia
Brunei (Nation of Brunei, the Abode of Peace)

Official Name: Negara Brunei Darussalam (Rumi script); ‫نڬارا بروني‬

‫( دارالسالم‬Jawi script); Nation of Brunei, the Abode of Peace (ENG)

Capital: Bandar Seri Begawan

Official Language/s: Malay, English

Form of Government: Constitutional Monarchy with a Ministerial

Government

Population: 442,400 (2018) [168th]

GDP (PPP): $36.854 billion (2019 est.); $83,777 per capita (2019 est.)

GDP (Nominal): $13.325 billion (2019 est.); $30,290 per capita (2019 est.)

Currency: Brunei Dollar (BND)

Background

Brunei is a country located on the north coast of the island of Borneo in Southeast Asia.
Apart from its coastline with the South China Sea, the country is completely surrounded by the
insular Malaysian state of Sarawak. It is separated into two parts by the Sarawak district of
Limbang. Brunei is the only sovereign state completely on the island of Borneo; the remainder of
the island's territory is divided between the nations of Malaysia and Indonesia. Brunei's
population was 428,963 in 2018.

At the peak of the Bruneian Empire, Sultan Bolkiah (reigned 1485–1528) is alleged to have had
control over most regions of Borneo, including modern-day Sarawak and Sabah, as well as the
Sulu Archipelago off the northeast tip of Borneo, Seludong (modern-day Manila), and the islands
off the northwest tip of Borneo. The maritime state was visited by Spain's Magellan Expedition
in 1521 and fought against Spain in the 1578 Castilian War.

During the 19th century, the Bruneian Empire began to decline. The Sultanate ceded Sarawak
(Kuching) to James Brooke and installed him as the White Rajah, and it ceded Sabah to the
British North Borneo Chartered Company. In 1888, Brunei became a British protectorate and
was assigned a British resident as colonial manager in 1906. After the Japanese occupation
during World War II, in 1959 a new constitution was written. In 1962, a small armed rebellion
against the monarchy was ended with the help of the British.

Brunei gained its independence from the United Kingdom on 1 January 1984. Economic growth
during the 1990s and 2000s, with the GDP increasing 56% from 1999 to 2008, transformed
Brunei into an industrialised country. It has developed wealth from extensive petroleum and
natural gas fields. Brunei has the second-highest Human Development Index among the
Southeast Asian nations, after Singapore, and is classified as a "developed country".According to
the International Monetary Fund (IMF), Brunei is ranked fifth in the world by gross domestic
product per capita at purchasing power parity. The IMF estimated in 2011 that Brunei was one of
two countries (the other being Libya) with a public debt at 0% of the national GDP. Forbes also
ranks Brunei as the fifth-richest nation out of 182, based on its petroleum and natural gas fields.

Government and Politics

Government

Brunei's political system is governed by the constitution and the national tradition of the
Malay Islamic Monarchy. The three components of MIB cover Malay culture, Islamic religion,
and the political framework under the monarchy. It has a legal system based on English common
law, although Islamic law (shariah) supersedes this in some cases. Brunei has a parliament but
there are no elections; the last election was held in 1962.

Under Brunei's 1959 constitution, His Majesty Paduka Seri Baginda Sultan Haji Hassanal
Bolkiah Mu'izzaddin Waddaulah is the head of state with full executive authority. Since 1962,
this authority has included emergency powers, which are renewed every two years. Brunei has
technically been under martial law since the Brunei Revolt of 1962. Hassanal Bolkiah also serves
as the state's Prime Minister, Finance Minister and Defence Minister. The Royal family retains a
venerated status within Brunei.

Politics

The politics of Brunei take place in a framework of an absolute monarchy, where by the
Sultan of Brunei is both head of state and head of government (Prime Minister of Brunei).
Executive power is exercised by the government. Brunei has a legislative council with 36
appointed members, that only has consultative tasks. Under Brunei's 1959 constitution, His
Majesty Paduka Seri Baginda Sultan Haji Hassanal Bolkiah Mu'izzaddin Waddaulah, is the head
of state with full executive authority, including emergency powers since 1962. The Sultan's role
is enshrined in the national philosophy known as "Melayu Islam Beraja" (MIB), or Malay
Islamic Monarchy. The country has been under hypothetical martial law since a rebellion
occurred in the early 1960s and was put down by British troops from Singapore.

Sources:

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brunei#Politics_and_government

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brunei

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politics_of_Brunei
Myanmar (or Burma; the Republic of the Union of Myanmar)

Official Name: Pyidaunzu Thanmăda Myăma Nainngandaw Burmese);

Republic of the Union of Myanmar (ENG)

Capital: Naypyidaw

Official Language/s: Burmese Script

Form of Government: Unitary Parliamentary Republic

Population: 53,582,855 (2017) [25th]

GDP (PPP): $355 billion (2019 est.); $6,707 per capita (2019 est.)

GDP (Nominal): $66 billion (2019 est.); $1,245 per capita (2019 est.)

Currency: Kyat (MMK)

Background

Myanmar is a country in Southeast Asia. Myanmar is bordered by Bangladesh and India

to its northwest, China to its northeast, Laos and Thailand to its east and southeast, and the
Andaman Sea and the Bay of Bengal to its south and southwest. With a size of 676,578 square
kilometres (261,228 square miles), Myanmar is the largest of the Mainland Southeast Asian
states by area. As of 2017, the population is about 54 million. Its capital city is Naypyidaw, and
its largest city is Yangon (Rangoon). Myanmar has been a member of the Association of
Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) since 1997.

Early civilisations in Myanmar included the Tibeto-Burman-speaking Pyu city-states in Upper

Burma and the Mon kingdoms in Lower Burma. In the 9th century, the Bamar people entered the
upper Irrawaddy valley and, following the establishment of the Pagan Kingdom in the 1050s, the
Burmese language, culture and Theravada Buddhism slowly became dominant in the country.
The Pagan Kingdom fell due to the Mongol invasions and several warring states emerged. In the
16th century, reunified by the Taungoo dynasty, the country was for a brief period the largest
empire in the history of Mainland Southeast Asia. The early 19th century Konbaung dynasty
ruled over an area that included modern Myanmar and briefly controlled Manipur and Assam as
well. The British East India Company seized control of the administration of Myanmar after
three Anglo-Burmese Wars in the 19th century and the country became a British colony.
Myanmar was granted independence in 1948, as a democratic nation. Following a coup d'état in
1962, it became a military dictatorship under the Burma Socialist Programme Party.

For most of its independent years, the country has been engrossed in rampant ethnic strife and its
myriad ethnic groups have been involved in one of the world's longest-running ongoing civil
wars. During this time, the United Nations and several other organisations have reported
consistent and systematic human rights violations in the country. In 2011, the military junta was
officially dissolved following a 2010 general election, and a nominally civilian government was
installed. This, along with the release of Aung San Suu Kyi and political prisoners, has improved
the country's human rights record and foreign relations, and has led to the easing of trade and
other economic sanctions. There is, however, continuing criticism of the government's treatment
of ethnic minorities, its response to the ethnic insurgency, and religious clashes. In the landmark
2015 election, Aung San Suu Kyi's party won a majority in both houses. However, the Burmese
military remains a powerful force in politics.

Myanmar is a member of the East Asia Summit, Non-Aligned Movement, ASEAN and
BIMSTEC, but not a member of the Commonwealth of Nations. It is a country rich in jade and
gems, oil, natural gas and other mineral resources. Myanmar is also endowed with renewable
energy; it has the highest solar power potential compared to other countries of the Great Mekong
Subregion. In 2013, its GDP (nominal) stood at US$56.7 billion and its GDP (PPP) at
US$221.5 billion. The income gap in Myanmar is among the widest in the world, as a large
proportion of the economy is controlled by supporters of the former military government. As of
2016, Myanmar ranks 145 out of 188 countries in human development, according to the Human
Development Index.

Government and Politics

Government

Government type: parliamentary government led by a military-backed political party took

power in March 2011. Before that Myanmar was led by a military junta. Myanmar is still largely
under the control of centralized bureaucracy run by the army and its mass organization.

The military has ruled the country since 1962. In the face of growing opposition to the
government and its socialist policies, Ne Win and President San Yu resigned in July 1988, and
widespread civil unrest followed. General Saw Muang formed a new military regime known as
the State Law and Order Restoration Council (SLORC) and abolished much of the socialist
system. Elections were held for the 485-member People's Assembly in 1990. The opposition
National League for Democracy (NLD) won 396 seats, while the military-backed party won only
10. The People's Assembly was never convened, and many of its leaders were arrested or forced
into exile. The military began drafting a new constitution in 1992, but this task has not been
completed. The regime changed its name to the State Peace and Development Council (SPDC) in
1997. The council included a chairman and twenty other members. The government formed by
the council consists of a prime minister, two deputy prime ministers, and thirty-seven ministers.

Administrative Divisions: Myanmar is divided into seven states and seven divisions. The
divisions are predominantly Bamar. The states, in essence, are divisions which are home to
particular ethnic minorities. The administrative divisions are further subdivided into townships,
wards, and villages. Major cities are divided into districts called townships. The states (pyi ne-
myar, singular - pyi ne) in Myanmar includes Chin State, Kachin State, Kayin State, Kayah
State, Mon State, Rakhine (Arakan) State and Shan State. The divisions, or region, (taing-myar,
singular - taing) in Myanmar consists of Ayeyarwady Division, Bago Division , Magway
Division, Mandalay Division , Sagaing Division , Tanintharyi Division and Yangon Division.
The capital is a union territory: Nay Pyi Taw.

Capital: Nay Pyi Taw is the administrative capital. Yangon (Rangoon) is the economic and
former administrative capital. During it history the capital of Burma-Myanmar and the location
of the capital has changed 10 times.

The constitution of Myanmar, its third since independence, was drafted by its military rulers and
published in September 2008. The country is governed as a parliamentary system with a
bicameral legislature (with an executive President accountable to the legislature), with 25% of
the legislators appointed by the military and the rest elected in general elections.

The legislature, called the Pyidaungsu Hluttaw, is bicameral and made up of two houses: the
224-seat upper house Amyotha Hluttaw (House of Nationalities) and the 440-seat lower house
Pyithu Hluttaw (House of Representatives). The upper house consists of 224 members, of whom
168 are directly elected and 56 are appointed by the Burmese Armed Forces. The lower house
consists of 440 members, of whom 330 are directly elected and 110 are appointed by the armed
forces.

Politics

Myanmar (also known as Burma) is a unitary parliamentary republic under its

constitution of 2008. The Economist Intelligence Unit rated Myanmar an "authoritarian regime"
in 2019. The military of Burma holds a large amount of power in the government, despite the
end of the last Burmese military dictatorship.

Myanmar, formerly called Burma, was a monarchy which was ruled by various dynasties prior to
the 19th century. The British colonized Burma (Myanmar) in the late 19th century, and it was
part of British India until 1937.

Burma (Myanmar) was ruled as a British colony from 1824 until 1948. While the Bamar
heartland was directly administered, first as a part of India and then, from 1937, as British
Burma, ethnic regions outside the heartland were allowed some measure of self-rule along the
lines of the Princely States of India. This led to split loyalties among the various ethnic groups to
outside powers in Burma either to the British or Japanese. The dominant ethnic group in Burma
are the Bamar, who make up approximately sixty-eight percent of the population. During World
War II, many members of the Bamar ethnic group volunteered to fight alongside the Japanese in
hopes of overthrowing the occupying British forces

Meanwhile, many other ethnic groups supported the Allied forces in combating the Japanese and
Burman forces. This conflict would come to be very significant in the aftermath of World War
Two when Burma was granted its independence from Great Britain in 1948. By granting
independence to Burma, the British government gave the new ruler, Aung San, control over
areas that were not traditionally controlled by the Bamar. This conglomeration of formerly
British-owned land created a state that is home to over twenty distinct minority ethnic groups.

From the time of the signing of the Burmese Constitution in 1948, ethnic minorities have been
denied Constitutional rights, access to land that was traditionally controlled by their people and
participation in the government. The various ethnic minority groups have been consistently
oppressed by the dominant Burman majority and have also suffered at the hands of warlords and
regional ethnic alliances. Religion also plays a role in the ethnic conflicts that have taken place.
Muslims, Hindus, Christians and Buddhists all live in Burma. These religious differences have
led to several incidents that have affected hundreds of thousands of citizens that live in Burma.

The SPDC had been responsible for the displacement of several hundred thousand citizens, both
inside and outside of Burma. The Karen, Karenni, and Mon ethnic groups have been forced to
seek asylum in neighbouring Thailand, where they are also abused by an unfriendly and
unsympathetic government. These groups are perhaps more fortunate than the Wa and Shan
ethnic groups who have become Internally Displaced Peoples in their own state since being
removed from lands by the military junta in 2000. There are reportedly 600,000 of these
Internally Displaced Peoples living in Burma today. Many are trying to escape forced labour in
the military or for one of the many state-sponsored drug cartels. This displacement of peoples
has led to both human rights violations as well as the exploitation of minority ethnic groups at
the hands of the dominant Burman group. The primary actors in these ethnic struggles include
but are not limited to the Government of Burma (junta), the Karen National Union and the Mong
Tai Army.

Sources:

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myanmar

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politics_of_Myanmar

http://factsanddetails.com/southeast-asia/Myanmar/sub5_5f/entry-3100.html