Sustainable Production and Consumption 32 (2022) 550–561

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Sustainable Production and Consumption

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/spc

Research article

Antecedents of green computer purchase behavior among Malaysian

consumers from the perspective of rational choice and moral
norm factors
Paul H.P. Yeow a,⁎, Wee Hong Loo b
a
Sunway University Business School, Sunway University, School of Business, Monash University Malaysia, Malaysia
b
Sunway University Business School, Department of Marketing, Sunway University, Malaysia

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Prior studies of pro-environmental behavior investigated its antecedents from the perspective of either rational
Received 11 May 2022 choices or moral norms. However, as highlighted by many researchers, green purchase behavior associated with
Accepted 13 May 2022 high-cost products such as green computers can be influenced by both perspectives. Thus, this study aims to pre-
Available online 19 May 2022
dict the influence of the theory of planned behavior's (TPB) rational choice factors and the value-belief-norm
(VBN) theory's moral norm factors on the green computer purchase behavior (GCPB) of consumers in the
Editor: Prof. Dale Southerton
Malaysian context.
A survey questionnaire was developed and administered to 1000 Malaysian respondents through convenience-
Keywords: and purposive-sampling methods. The structural equation modeling (SEM) function of the AMOS software was
Green computer purchase used to analyze the survey data and TPB factors (subjective norms), were found to be more important than the
High-cost pro-environmental behavior VBN factors (personal norms), in predicting GCPB. This implies that Malaysian consumers have a stronger ten-
Sustainable consumption dency to follow social norms than fulfill moral obligations when deciding to buy green computers. Additionally,
Value-belief-norm theory biospheric and altruistic values were drivers for the rational choice model while biospheric values drove the
Theory of planned behavior
moral norm model.
The results of this research provide recommendations to marketers, governments, environmental NGOs, educa-
tors, and manufacturers on how to communicate and engage with consumers to promote sustainable consump-
tion through green computer purchases. The study's originality is in the development and use of a comprehensive
integrated model that provides an understanding of consumer behavior when faced with moral-norm and
rational-choice decisions in the purchase of a high-cost product in an emerging market context.
© 2022 Published by Elsevier Ltd on behalf of Institution of Chemical Engineers.

1. Introduction
Green purchase behavior is a pro-environmental behavior since the
action enhances the quality of the environment through purchase deci-
sions that reduce environmental problems arising from unsustainable
production and consumption (Steg et al., 2014). According to Gocer
and Sevil Oflac (2017), private households' purchase of non-green prod-
ucts is responsible for 40% of global environmental degradation. This
study focused specifically on green computer purchase behavior
(GCPB), i.e., the behavior associated with the purchase of computers
that are rated by the Electronic Product Environmental Assessment
⁎ Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: paulyeow@sunway.edu.my (P.H.P. Yeow),
weehongl@sunway.edu.my (W.H. Loo).
Tool (EPEAT), as the use of such computers could significantly mitigate
the carbon footprint generated by these devices over their useful life.
EPEAT is a globally-recognized ecolabel and standard that provides IT
manufacturers with certification by the Green Electronics Council of
products that meet several environmental performance criteria. The
criteria cover 1) substance management, 2) materials selection, 3) de-
sign for end of life, 4) product longevity/life-cycle extension, 5) energy
conservation, 6) end-of-life management, 7) packaging, 8) life cycle as-
sessment, and 9) carbon footprint (Greenelectronicscouncil.org, 2018).
In 2018, 181 billion EPEAT-registered IT products were estimated
to have prevented the disposal of 68,413 metric tons of hazardous
waste into the environment, as such products contained less hazardous
material than non-green IT products (Greenelectronicscouncil.org,
2018). Furthermore, in the same year, EPEAT-certified products con-
sumed less energy, saving 38 billion kWh of electricity, and reduced
greenhouse gas emissions by 19.5 million metric tons, including

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.spc.2022.05.015
2352-5509/© 2022 Published by Elsevier Ltd on behalf of Institution of Chemical Engineers.
P.H.P. Yeow and W.H. Loo
from the reduction of electricity generated to power such IT products
(Greenelectronicscouncil.org, 2018).
Many prior pro-environmental studies of green product purchases
have used either the moral norm model based on the value-belief-
norm (VBN) theory or the rational choice model based on the theory
of planned behavior (TPB) to examine the behavior associated with
such purchases. For example, Jaini et al. (2019), Sahin (2013), Steg
et al. (2005), and Valle et al. (2005) used the VBN model to explain
low-cost, pro-environmental behavior associated with the purchase
of cosmetic products. In contrast, Nguyen et al. (2016a, 2017a)
and Sivadasan et al. (2020) used the TPB model (or part of it) to
explain the pro-environmental behavior associated with the purchase
of high-cost energy-efficient appliances, and sustainable properties.
It is noted that the applicability of the VBN theory to high-cost pro-
environmental purchase behavior like GCPB may not be conclusive
(Moser, 2015; Van der Werff and Steg, 2015) because of conflicting de-
cisions, such as whether to benefit oneself or follow personal norms
such as fulfilling one's moral obligation to the environment. Many re-
searchers (e.g., Li et al., 2021; Liu et al., 2020; Wolf, 2015; Bamberg
and Schmidt, 2003; Stern, 2000) opined that since pro-environmental
behavior is complex and can be motivated by rational as well as moral
norm factors, integrating factors from both rational and moral models
is required. While consumer GCPB (which aims to reduce environmen-
tal impact) is based on a moral decision in this study, it can be
constrained by rational choice factors. This is because consumers can
choose the easy way out by following the social norm where most con-
sumers in emerging markets purchase cheaper, non-green products
(Chikaji et al., 2014; Shahnaei, 2012).
In addition, few studies have examined the antecedents of the green
purchase behavior of individual consumers, particularly in emerging
market economies such as Malaysia, with its collectivist culture and
where most of the population are members of low- and middle-
income groups (Ahamad and Ariffin, 2018). The expansion of green
products into emerging markets such as Malaysia, Vietnam, and
Turkey has spurred international and local marketing practitioners to
gain an understanding of the antecedents of green purchase behavior
so they can design interventions that encourage consumers to practice
such behavior (Le et al., 2019; Gocer and Sevil Oflac, 2017; Mohd
Nazri et al., 2016). Ghazali et al. (2019) studied pro-environmental be-
havior among ethnic groups in Malaysia, including general green pur-
chase behavior. Nguyen et al. (2016a, 2017a, 2017b) conducted three
studies among Vietnamese consumers on the antecedents of purchasing
energy-efficient appliances. Gocer and Sevil Oflac (2017) conducted a
study in Turkey on the factors influencing young consumers' tendency
to purchase eco-labeled products. Other studies that examined the an-
tecedents of green purchase behavior were mostly conducted in devel-
oped markets (Nguyen et al., 2016a, 2017a).
Hence, the objective of this study was to predict the influence of the
TPB's rational choice factors and the VBN theory's moral norm factors on
consumers' GCPB in the Malaysian context. It is important to study GCPB
due to the uniqueness of the context. First, although GCPB may be able
to mitigate unsustainable production and consumption issues involving
computers, the subject has yet to be explored. Second, the integration
of factors from the TPB and the VBN theory can provide a holistic view
of the factor(s) that are salient in influencing GCPB. Third, Malaysia
is ranked as the 30th largest computer importer in the world
(Observatory of Economic Complexity (OEC), 2019) and information re-
garding the antecedents of Malaysian consumers' GCPB can provide
marketers, governments, environmental NGOs, educators, and manu-
facturers with insights on how to communicate and engage with con-
sumers to promote sustainable consumption through green computer
purchases.
We anticipated that subjective norms (a TPB factor) would be more
important than personal norms (a VBN theory factor) in the context of
high-cost pro-environmental behavior in Malaysia, meaning that con-
sumers are influenced by social groups rather than a moral obligation
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Sustainable Production and Consumption 32 (2022) 550–561
when choosing to buy green computers. This is due to the country's col-
lectivist culture where consumers' expectations, sanctions, and obliga-
tions to buy green computers are anchored more in adhesion to the
norms of their social groups than in their own moral obligations.
2. Literature review and conceptual framework
The literature shows that well-established socio-psychological theo-
ries, such as the rational choice model (TPB) and the moral norm model
(VBN), which contain precise operationalizations of constructs with val-
idated causal relationships among constructs, have been used in the
context of pro-environmental behavior (PEB) (Abrahamse and Steg,
2011, p. 3; Steg and Vlek, 2009; Wolf, 2015). Each model has its limita-
tions. The TPB, for example, focuses on self-interest and omits moral fac-
tors while, inversely, the VBN covers moral motivators but neglects self-
interest. To address the limitations, several researchers (e.g., Nguyen
et al., 2016b; Ghazali et al., 2019) employed some of the factors from
each model to explain low-cost PEB. They found that low-cost PEB
could be influenced to varying degrees by a mixture of TPB and moral
factors, although the influence was limited to one of the TPB factors.
For example, Nguyen et al. (2016b) selected the perceived behavioral
control factor from the TPB model and the moral obligation factor
from the VBN model to explain conservation behaviours such as
recycling and saving water. Ghazali et al. (2019) used the subjective
norms factor from the TPB model and most of the factors from the
VBN model to predict general green purchase behavior. Nguyen et al.
(2016b) and Ghazali et al. (2019) proposed future research involving
other VBN and TPB factors and high-cost PEB. This study integrates the
TPB and the VBN theory and considers all the factors of each in
predicting GCPB, which is a high-cost PEB. The justification for the inclu-
sion of each of the TPB (Fig. 1) and VBN factors (Fig. 2) is discussed in the
following section.
2.1. Green computer purchase behavior
This study's dependent factor is GCPB. The factor is derived from the
concept of responsible consumption behavior, which refers to the con-
sumption of goods and services without harming the environment
(Stern, 2000). Owing to its broad definition, “consumption” can be di-
vided into acquisition/purchase, use, and disposal. This study focused
on purchase since the right purchasing decision can address the envi-
ronmental problems created by computers in their use and disposal
phases, not merely during their production (Thøgersen, 1999). The
green computers in this study included desktop computers, notebooks,
laptops, netbooks, and tablet computers following their high penetra-
tion (Business Insights, 2010; etforecast, n.d.). Hence, this study opera-
tionalized the definition of GCPB as “the purchase of green computer
products with minimal or no harmful impacts on the environment, as
such behavior is imperative in sustaining the environment” (Ajzen,
1991; Murugesan, 2008; Stern, 2000).
2.2. The moral norm model (value-belief-norm theory)
2.2.1. Value orientations
According to the VBN model, three distinct value orientations may
influence general environmental concern, namely, egoistic, altruistic,
and biospheric (De Groot and Steg, 2007, as cited in Sharma and
Gupta, 2020). This study adopts Sharma and Gupta's (2020) definition
of the orientations and operationalizes egoistic values as those focusing
on maximizing individual outcomes, which are measured by social
power, wealth, authority, influence, and ambition. Altruistic values
focus on the welfare of others through activities such as donating to a
charity and volunteering with a social service organization. Biospheric
values focus on the environment and include preventing pollution,
being one with nature, protecting the environment, and respecting the
earth.
P.H.P. Yeow and W.H. Loo
Attitude towards Behaviour
Subjective Norms
Perceived Behavioural Control
Fig. 1. The theory of planned behaviour.
Adapted from Ajzen (1991).
According to the VBN theory, basic values (i.e., a set of general beliefs
about the relationship between humans and nature as reflected in the
New Ecological Paradigm (NEP) (see Dunlap et al., 2000)) will shape an
individual's environmental concern. This concern includes consideration
for humankind's abuse of the environment, the earth's limited resources,
and so forth (Sharma and Gupta, 2020). In this study, the terms “New
Ecological Paradigm” and “environmental concern” are interchangeable.
The empirical findings of research by Chen (2015) and Sharma and
Gupta (2020) evidenced that the values people hold are indicative of
how they see themselves in relation to the environment. Their findings
illustrated that individuals who hold weak egoistic values (also known
as self-enhancement values) and strong altruistic and biospheric values
(i.e., self-transcendence values) are more likely to accept the NEP. In
short, egoistic values relate negatively to environmental concern, while
altruistic and biospheric values relate positively. This is attributed to the
fact that people who value their own interests (egoistic values) will try
to maximize individual outcomes, thus paying less attention to the envi-
ronment compared to those who value the welfare of other human be-
ings (i.e., possess altruistic values) and non-human beings and species
(i.e., possess biospheric values) (Sharma and Gupta, 2020). Similarly,
this study posits that egoistic, altruistic, and biospheric values are deter-
minants of environmental concern/NEP in the same directions but in
the context of GCPB. Accordingly, we propose the following hypotheses:
H1ai. Consumers' egoistic values negatively affect their environmental
concern.
H1aii. Consumers' altruistic values positively affect their environmen-
tal concern.
H1aiii. Consumers' biospheric values positively affect their environ-
mental concern.
Fig. 2. The theory of value-belief-norm of environmentalism.
(Adapted from Stern, 2000, p. 412).
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Sustainable Production and Consumption 32 (2022) 550–561
Behavioural Behaviour
Intention
2.2.2. Environmental concern (or NEP)
Dunlap et al. (2000), as cited in Sharma and Gupta (2020), suggested
that the rise of the environmental movement is linked to a growing ac-
ceptance of the NEP and its notion that human actions have substantial
adverse effects on the fragile biosphere. The NEP refers to an emerging
worldview on ecology, known as environmental concern, that is related
to human activity that endangers the environment (Sharma and Gupta,
2020). This study operationalizes the NEP as an individual's perception
of the vulnerability of the environment due to human interference. This
was adapted from Sharma and Gupta's (2020) definition.
In the VBN model, environmental concern affects an individual's
general awareness of the consequences (AC) of negative impact on
the environment (Stern et al., 1993, as cited in Sharma and Gupta,
2020). In this study, the influence on AC was divided into three dimen-
sions reflecting each value orientation, i.e., that an individual's environ-
mental concern will affect his/her judgment of the consequences to
him/herself (ACego), the biosphere (ACbio), and others (ACaltru), by
not practicing GCPB. For example, if an individual is concerned about
the environment, they may have a specific belief that buying a non-
green computer rather than a green computer may result higher in
CO2 emissions that may have harmful effects on oneself, non-human
species, and others. Thus, we offer the following hypotheses:
H1bi. Consumers' environmental concern negatively affects the AC of
their action on themselves.
H1bii. Consumers' environmental concern positively affects the AC of
their action on others.
H1biii. Consumers' environmental concern positively affects the AC of
their action on non-human species.
P.H.P. Yeow and W.H. Loo
2.2.3. Awareness of consequences
Stern et al. (1993, p. 328) extended Schwartz's, 1977 model of the
awareness of consequences from other persons to include conse-
quences for “non-human species” and “adverse consequences for the
self.” This study adopts Stern et al.'s (1993) conceptualization and clas-
sifies AC based on the valued objects of the self (ACego), others
(ACaltru), and the biosphere (ACbio). ACego, ACaltru, and ACbio are op-
erationalized as an individual's beliefs about the consequences to one-
self, others, and the biosphere, respectively, of not practicing GCPB.
Each AC belief provides a distinct AC, such that two people can express
the same AC, i.e., they are both aware of the negative environmental
consequences of something, but the awareness is applied to a different
object; GHG emissions are dangerous to oneself (egoistic), society (al-
truistic), and forests or nature (biospheric).
According to the VBN model, AC will lead to an ascription of respon-
sibility (AR). The prior studies of Chen (2015), Karimi (2019), Ghazali
et al. (2019), and Sharma and Gupta (2020), which assessed this rela-
tionship, did not segregate AC beliefs based on whether an individual
valued the self, others, or the biosphere. Therefore, this study investi-
gated whether specific AC beliefs are determinants of AR beliefs and
measured AC belief in a specific way according to what individuals
value. The study makes distinctions about AC based on whether the val-
ued object is egoistic (ACego), biospheric (ACbio), or altruistic
(ACaltru). We posit that consumers' AC to the self, others, and the bio-
sphere will affect their sense of responsibility (i.e., AR) for the conse-
quences of not practicing GCPB, and we propose the following
hypotheses:
H1ci. Consumers' AC of their action on themselves (ACego) negatively
affects AR for not practicing GCPB.
H1cii. Consumers' AC of their action toward others (ACaltru) positively
affects AR for not practicing GCPB.
H1ciii. Consumers' AC of their action toward the environment (ACbio)
positively affects AR for not practicing GCPB.
2.2.4. Ascription of responsibility
Ascription of responsibility refers to an individual's belief that they
would bear significant responsibility for the consequences of a decision
or action (Stern et al., 1999; Stern, 2000, as cited in Sharma and Gupta,
2020). Prior studies expounded on AR, defining it as an individual's be-
lief that one can act to reduce threats. For this study, AR was operation-
alized as the perception of individuals that they are responsible for
consequences, such as greenhouse gas effects, environmental problems,
and the depletion of energy resources, resulting from not practicing
GCPB.
According to the VBN theory, feelings of responsibility will lead to
the activation of personal norms (PN) (Sharma and Gupta, 2020). This
is applicable in the present context because individuals who feel re-
sponsible for the negative consequences of not practicing GCPB will
feel a moral obligation to practice GCPB to reduce such consequences.
Accordingly, we offer the following hypothesis:
H1d. Consumers' AR positively affects their PN for practicing GCPB.
2.2.5. Personal norms
Schwartz, 1977, as cited in Bamberg et al., 2007) defined PN as self-
expectations based on internalized values (i.e., moral obligations) to
engage in certain behavior. Schwartz (1977) distinguished PN from
the subjective/social norms (SN) construct developed by Ajzen and
Fishbein (1970) since the expectations, sanctions, and obligations
tied to PN are anchored in the self while social/subjective norms are an-
chored in social groups (Schwartz, 1977; Schwartz and Howard, 1981).
This study adopts Schwartz's (1977) definition and operationalizes PN
as an individual's feelings of a moral obligation to perform GCPB.
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Sustainable Production and Consumption 32 (2022) 550–561
The literature shows that moral obligation has a positive relationship
with low-cost pro-environmental behavior. In the case of Karimi
(2019), this applied to general pro-environmental behavior ranging
from organic food consumption, and energy conservation and recycling,
to the use of public transportation. For Nguyen et al. (2016b), it applied
to energy conservation, and for Sharma and Gupta (2020) it applied to
visiting national parks. In this study, we believe that the same relation-
ship applies to high-cost pro-environmental behavior, such as GCPB,
and that an individual is likely to engage in GCPB if he/she feels morally
obligated to do so. As a result, we posit the following hypothesis:
H1e. Consumers' PN positively affect their GCPB.
2.3. Rational choice model (theory of planned behavior)
2.3.1. Attitudes towards GCPB (ATGCPB)
Fishbein and Ajzen (1975) defined attitudes as “the enduring posi-
tive and negative feelings about performing a targeted behavior.” The
present study applies this definition to GCPB to arrive at ATGCPB,
which are the enduring positive and negative feelings about performing
GCPB. The past literature confirms that specific attitudes will lead to
specific behavior in the context of environmentally-responsible behav-
ior. For Nguyen et al. (2016a), this behavior involved the purchase of
energy-efficient appliances, while Kang and Moreno (2020) found
that it applied to the purchase of sustainable apparel. For Klein et al.
(2019), it involved the purchase of bioplastic products. Similarly, con-
sumers with positive attitudes towards purchasing green computers
will engage in GCPB. Thus, we advance the following hypothesis:
H2a. Consumers' ATGCPB positively affects their GCPB.
2.3.2. Subjective/social norms
Social norms (SN) in the TPB model refers to the belief that an im-
portant person or group of people will approve and support a particular
behavior (Ajzen, 1991, as cited in Kim et al., 2012). This study adapted
the operationalization of SN from Ajzen (1991) regarding an individ-
ual's perception of social pressure to perform GCPB. Melnyk et al.
(2010) found that SN displaces intention and directly impacts behavior.
This is because individuals act according to self-interest and conve-
niently infer that their behavior is sensible if everyone else is engaging
in it (Cialdini et al., 1990, as cited in Kim et al., 2012). Kang and
Moreno (2020), Nguyen et al. (2016a), and Thogersen (2008) substan-
tiated that SN influences PEB (green purchase behavior). Hence, this
study predicts that individuals will purchase green computers if their
referents (e.g., friends and family), perceive that they should do so.
This supports the following hypothesis:
H2b. Consumers' SN positively affects their GCPB.
2.3.3. Perceived behavioral control (PBC)
PBC refers to “people's perceptions of the ease or difficulty of per-
forming the behavior of interest” (Ajzen, 1991). Specifically, PBC reflects
two dimensions: (a) the external conditions that may augment or mod-
erate an individual's ability to adopt a certain behavior, and (b) an indi-
vidual's perceived ability to carry out the behavior. Hence, PBC in this
study was operationalized according to Ajzen's (1991) definition and
in the context of an individual's perceptions of the ease or difficulty of
performing GCPB. Many prior studies defined PBC as a perceived incon-
venience and validated that PBC influenced green purchase behavior
(Barbarossa and De Pelsmacker, 2016; Nguyen et al., 2016a, 2017a).
Similarly, in this study, we argue that perceived inconveniences such
as cost, time, product availability, and the limited labeling of green com-
puters will negatively affect consumers' GCPB, resulting in the following
hypothesis:
P.H.P. Yeow and W.H. Loo
H2c. Consumers' PBC negatively affects their GCPB.
2.3.4. The integration of the TPB and VBN models through value orientations
Apart from testing if consumers' GCPB is determined by rational
choice factors (in the TPB model) or moral norm factors (in the VBN
model), or both, this study also aimed to investigate the common factors
that integrate the two models. Based on the literature, this study posits
that value orientations are the common factors.
2.3.5. Altruistic values
Kim and Choi's (2005) study found that consumers with altruistic
values are prone to comply with social norms because compliance itself
is altruistic when considering the collective benefits to the group rather
than the benefits to oneself (Kim and Choi, 2005). Similarly, Nguyen
et al. (2017b) found that altruistic values had a direct influence on social
norms in the purchase of energy-efficient appliances in Vietnam. Con-
sidering the above literature, we posit that consumers with altruistic
values will follow social norms in the context of GCPB, and we share
the following hypothesis:
H3a. Consumers' altruistic values positively affect their SN.
Consumers with biospheric values have positive attitudes towards
green purchasing, are concerned about the environment, and will em-
phasize purchasing eco-friendly products to protect the environment
(De Groot and Steg, 2008; Stern, 2000). This relationship (between bio-
spheric values and attitudes) was tested in Soyez's (2012) study on the
purchase of organic products in Germany, Nguyen et al.'s (2016a) re-
search on the purchase of energy-efficient appliances in Vietnam, and
Ateş's (2020) research on general pro-environmental behavior in
Turkey. We posit that this relationship also applies to the purchase of
green computers in Malaysia by suggesting the following hypothesis:
H3bi. Consumers' biospheric values positively affect their ATGCPB.
Soyez's (2012) study of consumers in Western countries such as the
United States, Canada, Germany, and Australia found that an eco-centric
(biospheric) value orientation is the main driver of SN in the purchase of
green products. Similarly, Nguyen et al. (2016a) and Ateş (2020) sub-
stantiated this relationship between biospheric values and SN in
Vietnam and Turkey (emerging markets), respectively. In this study,
we posit that Malaysian consumers develop perceived SN relating to
purchasing green computers because of their biospheric values:
H3bii. Consumers' biospheric values positively affect their SN.
According to Steg and De Groot (2012), consumers with strong bio-
spheric values that emphasize environmental quality will engage in
green purchasing regardless of perceived inconveniences such as higher
prices, extra effort in finding green products, and limited choice and la-
beling information. Nguyen et al. (2016a) and Ateş (2020) found a rela-
tionship between biospheric values and PBC in the context of
purchasing energy-efficient appliances and general pro-environmental
behavior, respectively. Likewise, we posit that this also applies to pur-
chasing green computers with the following hypothesis:
H3biii. Consumers' biospheric values negatively affect PBC.
We did not include a hypothesis related to the relationship between
egoistic values and the TPB's determinants because Ybarra and
Trafimow's (1998) study reported no such relationship since pro-
environmental behavior is irrelevant to egoistic consumers.
2.4. Conceptual framework
The relationships among the factors in this study are shown in the
conceptual framework in Fig. 3.
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3. Methodology
3.1. Measures
Appendix A shows the items that were used to measure the factors
in this study. The items used to measure the independent factors related
to the VBN model (Ego, Altru, Bio, EC, ACego, ACaltru, ACbio, AR, and PN)
were adapted from Steg et al. (2005). The items used to measure the in-
dependent factors related to the TPB model (ATGCPB, PBC, and SN),
were adapted from Ajzen (1991).The items used to measure the depen-
dent factor (GCPB) were adapted from Ajzen (1991) and Murugesan
(2008). A Likert five-point scale, with values ranging from strongly dis-
agree (1) to strongly agree (5) was used for all items in Appendix A.
3.2. Common method bias
Common method bias was minimized through robust survey design
and implementation, as well as statistical checks. The former included
obtaining data from various respondents, protecting respondents' ano-
nymity, randomizing the order of the survey questions, improving the
scale items, avoiding double-barreled questions, and pre-testing the
survey questionnaire. The latter included checking the collected data
using Harman's single factor test and evaluating the amount of variance
in observed factors that could be explained by the first factor of the
unrotated factor solution. The findings of these checks showed that
the cumulative percentage of the first component was less than 50%, in-
dicating that common method bias was not a substantial issue in this
study.
3.3. Pretest and pilot study
Before administering the survey questionnaire to respondents, 10
experts consisting of researchers, lecturers, and a professor pretested
the questionnaire to validate its content. Necessary adjustments and
improvements were made to the questionnaire's format, content, ter-
minology, comprehensibility, and ease of completion based on their
feedback. Following this, a pilot study was conducted in which 100
questionnaires were administered in public places such as bus stations,
shopping complexes, parks, etc. The questionnaire was tested for reli-
ability and all factors had achieved the reliability with a Cronbach's
alpha value greater than 0.7. Following this, some amendments were
made to the language used in the questionnaire and to the arrangement
of some of the questions.
3.4. Sampling method and sample size
Non-probability sampling, in the form of convenience and purposive
sampling, was used to obtain participants for the study because a popu-
lation frame (a list of all computer owners) did not exist. The criteria for
inclusion in the sample was that respondents must own a computer and
be at least 17 years old. This is because most individuals below the age of
17 do not have purchasing power since they have yet to enter the work-
force (Ganesan, 2012). Using G*Power, the sample size was calculated
to be 240 (Actual Power of 80.01). This is similar to Kline's (2005) rule
of thumb that a study's SEM model with 51 observed factors should
have at least 255 respondents (51 × 5). The 1000 responses that were
collected for this study were, thus, sufficient (>255) to perform an
SEM analysis.
3.5. Data collection
The questionnaire was self-administered to passers-by in public
places such as shopping complexes, bus stations, parks, etc. The ques-
tionnaire was distributed throughout Malaysia in all 13 states (Johor,
Kedah, Kelantan, Malacca, Negeri Sembilan, Pahang, Perak, Perlis, Pe-
nang, Sabah, Sarawak, Selangor, and Terengganu) as well as in the
P.H.P. Yeow and W.H. Loo Sustainable Production and Consumption 32 (2022) 550–561

Fig. 3. Proposed conceptual framework — an integrated model of the TPB and the VBN.

federal territory of Kuala Lumpur. Before obtaining their consent to par- SN2, PBC2, PBC4, E2, E3, E5, Altru 1, Altru3, EC2, EC3, AC6, AR2, and PN2)
ticipate in answering the questionnaire, potential respondents were were excluded from the final analysis. Although the loading of GCPB3
asked if they had purchased a computer. Out of the 1050 questionnaires (0.631) was slightly below the accepted loading, the item was retained
that were completed and returned, 50 were excluded from the final in the final measurement model since it did not violate other indices of
analysis because (1) respondents did not proceed after completing the composite reliability, content validity, and convergent validity (Byrne,
information sheet accompanying the questionnaire, (2) respondents 2005). Fourteen constructs were identified in the final measurement
had not purchased a computer, or (3) respondents were below the model (see Table 2). Composite reliability (CR) indicates good internal
age of 17. consistency for all the factors in the final model, with values being
well above 0.70 (Nunnally and Bernstein, 1994). The average variance
3.6. Respondent profile
Table 1
Table 1 provides a breakdown of respondents' demographic details. Respondents' demographic information.
The number of male and female respondents was almost balanced. Most
Demographics Frequency Percent
respondents (76.6%) were between 17 and 32 years old and were in the
Gender Male 539 53.9
youngest age group. About three-quarters of respondents had at least a
Female 461 46.1
diploma-level education. Additionally, the majority (81.9%) had a low Age 17–32 years old 766 76.6
income of less than RM4000 (US$998) per month. 33–47 years old 198 19.8
48–66 years old 29 2.9
4. Results 67 years old 7 0.7
Monthly income RM0–2000 576 57.6
RM2001–4000 243 24.3
Structural equation modeling (SEM) was performed using the anal- RM4001–6000 122 12.2
ysis of moment structures (AMOS) software to analyze the hypothe- RM6001–8000 31 3.1
sized relationships among the various constructs in the research >RM8000 28 2.8
Education level Primary 14 1.4
model (Hair et al., 2010). This covariance-based SEM technique inte-
Secondary 214 21.4
grates path and factor analysis and allows for a simultaneous examina- STPM 50 5.0
tion of multiple relationships in a research model (Byrne, 2005). Diploma 361 36.1
Table 2 shows that the final measurement model for all independent Degree 280 28.0
and dependent constructs was examined via confirmatory factor analy- Master's degree 61 6.1
PhD 20 2.0
sis (CFA). Fourteen indicators with loadings of less than 0.70 (ATGCPB2,

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Table 2 Additionally, the paths from EC to ACego, ATGCPB to GCPB, and Bio to
Summary of final measurement model. PBC were deleted because their beta values were less than 0.10. The
Construct Items Loadings Sig. AVE CR path from ACego to AR became insignificant after deleting the non-
Green-computer purchase behaviour GCPB1 0.777 0.001 0.560 0.790
significant paths and paths with a beta value of less than 0.10. The
(GCPB) GCPB2 0.822 0.001 paths from EC to ACaltru and ACaltru to AR were deleted (as suggested
GCPB3 0.631 0.001 by McDonald, 1985) since the indicator of ACaltru appeared with nega-
Attitudes towards green-computer ATGCPB1 0.993 0.001 0.953 0.984 tive variances.
purchase behaviour (ATGCPB) ATGCPB3 0.938 0.001
The revised parsimonious integrated model, as shown in Fig. 4, ex-
ATGCPB4 0.996 0.001
Subjective norms (SN) SN1 0.968 0.001 0.948 0.973 hibits satisfactory goodness-of-fit indices. The χ2/DF value of the revised
SN3 0.979 0.001 integrated model is 3.984, which is within the recommended value of
Perceived behavioural control (PBC) PBC1 0.964 0.001 0.940 0.980 less than 4 (Bollen, 1989). Additionally, the fit indices are above the
PBC3 0.961 0.001 cut-off points of CFI ≥ 0.90, TLI ≥ 0.90, GFI ≥ 0.90, and RMSEA < 0.08.
PBC5 0.983 0.001
Egoistic (Ego) E1 0.953 0.001 0.938 0.968
As indicated in Table 4, hypothesis H1aiii, H1biii; H1ciii, H1d, H1e,
E4 0.984 0.001 H2b, H3a, and H3bii are supported.
Altruistic (Atru) Altru2 0.969 0.001 0.956 0.977
Altru4 0.986 0.001 5. Discussion
Biospheric (Bio) Bio1 0.964 0.001 0.943 0.985
Bio2 0.983 0.001
Bio3 0.962 0.001 5.1. Moral norms model (VBN)
Bio4 0.976 0.001
Environmental concern (EC) EC1 0.981 0.001 0.973 0.808 For the moral norms model, the results reveal that only biospheric
EC4 0.983 0.001 values affect EC (H1aiii), not egoistic (H1ai) or altruistic values
EC5 0.995 0.001
Awareness of consequences—egoistic AC1 0.992 0.001 0.981 0.994
(H1aii). This finding is aligned with the recent literature of Kang and
(ACego) AC2 0.997 0.001 Morena (2020) and Nguyen et al. (2016a) in which the biospheric
AC3 0.982 0.001 value is the most significant determinant of PEB. Congruent with
Awareness of consequences— AC4 0.992 0.001 0.958 0.978 Nguyen et al.'s (2016a) findings, Malaysian consumers' perception of
altruistic (ACaltru) AC5 0.966 0.001
their relationship with the environment is derived entirely from the en-
Awareness of consequences— AC7 0.979 0.001 0.943 0.987
biospheric (ACbio) AC8 0.993 0.001 vironmental/biospheric value. This is because the VBN model on which
AC9 0.940 0.001 the moral norms model is based measures concern related to objects in
Ascription of responsibility (AR) AR1 0.994 0.001 0.985 0.992 the biosphere and this is only relevant to biospheric values (De Groot
AR3 0.991 0.001 and Steg, 2007; Steg and De Groot, 2012). Consumers with egoistic
Personal norms (PN) PN1 0.983 0.001 0.967 0.983
PN3 0.984 0.001
values are concerned about the environment to the extent that such
concern serves their self-interest while those with altruistic values are
similarly concerned although for the welfare of others; neither group
is concerned about the environment per se.
extracted (AVE) is greater than 0.5, which indicates adequate conver- The findings show that consumers' EC will affect their ACbio but not
gent validity. their ACaltru and ACego, thus, only hypothesis H1biii is supported. This
Table 3 shows the mean rating, standard deviation, and correlations reinforces the findings of Sharma and Gupta (2020), and Kiatkawsin
of all constructs. The results reveal that all construct correlations are less and Han (2017) where the items measuring the AC construct were con-
than the corresponding square root AVE values, providing evidence that sequences centered on the biosphere, not on oneself or society. This is
each construct exhibits high discriminant validity. Additionally, all con- unlike the original AC construct developed by Stern et al. (1993),
structs meet the non-multicollinearity assumption of the underlying which was not disintegrated into the three components (biospheric, al-
SEM since all the correlations are less than 0.8 (Sekaran, 2000). truistic, and egoistic). The current study provides additional evidence
As shown in Table 4, the value of the structural model of the pro- that AC is a multidimensional construct and that individuals organize
posed initial model – the χ2/DF of the initial integrated model – is their beliefs based on specific concerns (Ryan and Spash, 2012,
5.669, which exceeds the requirement of a value of less than 4, sug- p. 2509). As a result, consumers who are concerned about the environ-
gested by some authors (Bollen, 1989), or 5, suggested by others ment will pay more attention to the adverse consequences of environ-
(Wheaton et al., 1977). Therefore, model trimming was required (Hair mental problems on the biosphere, while ignoring incongruent
et al., 2010) (refer to Table 4). The paths from Ego to EC, Altru to EC, information (such as GCPB) could have harmful effects on the next gen-
PBC to GCPB, and Bio to ATGCPB were deleted as they were insignificant. eration or oneself.

Table 3
Means, standard deviation and correlations between measured variables.

Mean SD AT GCPB SN PBC Ego Altru Bio EC AC ego AC altru AC bio AR PN GCPB

ATGCPB 4.050 0.800 0.976

SN 3.421 0.931 0.263 0.974
PBC 3.616 0.758 0.265 0.173 0.970
Ego 2.983 1.21 0.010 0.089 0.124 0.970
Altru 3.624 0.897 0.436 0.459 0.237 0.053 0.978
Bio 2.814 1.260 0.045 0.176 0.085 0.376 0.080 0.971
EC 2.919 1.361 0.020 0.211 0.087 0.205 0.107 0.695 0.953
ACego 3.608 1.095 0.348 0.117 0.147 −0.100 0.350 0.079 0.060 0.990
ACaltru 3.254 1.022 0.463 0.173 0.186 0.005 0.435 −0.009 −0.068 0.657 0.979
ACbio 3.630 1.028 0.308 0.303 0.134 0.064 0.398 0.141 0.155 0.242 0.220 0.971
AR 3.757 0.875 0.516 0.261 0.339 0.045 0.451 0.017 0.008 0.384 0.477 0.403 0.992
PN 3.620 0.826 0.522 0.314 0.237 −0.001 0.510 0.042 0.046 0.358 0.446 0.437 0.527 0.983
GCPB 3.114 0.935 0.148 0.342 0.180 0.077 0.387 0.141 0.180 0.067 0.152 0.402 0.261 0.300 0.803

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P.H.P. Yeow and W.H. Loo Sustainable Production and Consumption 32 (2022) 550–561

Table 4
Structural equation modelling for the initial model and the parsimonious model.

Hypothesis Proposed Proposed init. model Parsimonious model Hypothesis results

relationships
Standardised t-Value Standardised t-Value
beta beta

H1ai Ego → EC −0.047n.s. 1.38 −0.047n.s. 1.38 Not supported

The path is deleted as the relationship is insignificant, P > 0.05.
H1aii Altru → EC 0.039n.s. 1.08 0.039n.s. 1.08 Not supported
The path is deleted as the relationship is insignificant, P > 0.05.
H1aiii Bio → EC 0.701*** 23.36 0.694*** 25.70 Supported
H1bi EC → ACego −0.066n.s. 2.54 −0.066n.s. 2.54 Not supported
The path is deleted during model-trimming process due to beta < 0.10
H1bii EC → ACaltru 0.132n.v. 5.50 0.132n.v. 5.50 Deleted from analysis as negative variance exist
H1biii EC → ACbio 0.177*** 7.38 0.176*** 7.33 Supported
H1ci ACego → AR 0.212 8.48 0.212 8.48 Not supported
The path is deleted because the relationship became insignificant after deletion of other
insignificant & beta < 0.10 paths
H1cii ACaltru → 0.240 n.v. 9.60 0.240 n.v. 9.60 Deleted from analysis as negative variance exist
AR
H1ciii ACbio → AR 0.270*** 10.00 0.498*** 19.15 Supported
H1d AR → PN 0.460*** 17.69 0.606*** 8.54 Supported
H1e PN → GCPB 0.150*** 4.41 0.153*** 4.50 Supported
H2a ATGCPB → 0.099n.s 2.75 0.099n.s 2.75 Not supported
GCPB The path is deleted during model-trimming process due to beta <0.10
H2b SN → GCPB 0.540*** 7.01 0.540*** 7.01 Supported
H2c PBC → GCPB 0.044n.s 1.51 0.044n.s 1.51 Not supported
The path is deleted as the relationship is insignificant, P > 0.05.
H3a Altru → SN 0.627*** 20.23 0.613*** 19.77 Supported
H3bi Bio → 0.036n.s 1.71 0.036n.s 1.71 Not supported
ATGCPB The path is deleted as the relationship is insignificant, P > 0.05.
H3bii Bio → SN 0.210*** 10.00 0.237*** 11.85 Supported
H3biii Bio → PBC 0.059n.s 2.56 0.059n.s 2.56 Not supported
The path is deleted during model-trimming process due to beta <0.10
Goodness-of-fit Goodness-of-fit
statistics statistics
Model fit: χ2 = Model fit: χ2 =
2851.623; CFI = 709.079; CFI = 0.984;
0.959; TLI = 0.954; GFI TLI = 0.981; GFI =
= 0.841; RMSEA = 0.941; RMSEA =
0.068; PCLOSE = 0.055; PCLOSE =
0.000; AIC = 3035.632 0.000; AIC = 815.079
Note: *p < 0.05; **p < Note: *p < 0.05; **p <
0.01; ***p < 0.001; n.s. 0.01; ***p < 0.001; n.s.
= non-significant; n.v. = non-significant; n.v.
= negative variances = negative variances

Fig. 4. Structural model for the parsimonious integrated model.

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P.H.P. Yeow and W.H. Loo
ACbio was found to be a predictor of AR but as ACego and ACaltru do
not affect AR, only H1ciii is supported. This is in line with the findings of
Sharma and Gupta (2020) and Kiatkawsin and Han (2017) and further
supports the importance of disintegrating the constructs, which the pre-
vious PEB studies of Chen (2015) and Karimi (2019) did not do. The
findings of this study show that Malaysian consumers only consider re-
sponsibility for the consequences of not practicing GCPB if they are
aware that their actions may influence the valued object (i.e., the envi-
ronment). AR, in this study, measured responsibility for consequences
related to the environment and, thus, is only affected by ACbio. For the
subsequent causal chain of VBN relationships, AR affects PN (supporting
hypothesis H1d), and PN affects GCPB (supporting hypothesis H1e).
Consistent with the findings of prior studies (e.g., Sharma and Gupta,
2020; Kiatkawsin and Han, 2017; and Karimi, 2019), Malaysian con-
sumers' GCPB is driven by a moral obligation to practice GCPB if they
feel responsible for the consequences of their actions towards the envi-
ronment. The findings extend the applicability of the VBN model to pre-
dict high-cost pro-environmental behavior such as GCPB in an
emerging-market context where GCPB is a morally right behavior
driven by moral norm factors. The findings also enrich the VBN model,
where a distinction among egoistic, altruistic, and biospheric values is
supported empirically. This differs from past studies where they could
not be distinguished (Stern and Dietz, 1994).
5.2. Rational choice model (TPB)
For the rational choice model, our findings reveal that SN exerts
the greatest (and only) influence on GCPB, supporting hypothesis
H2b. Undoubtedly, the antecedents in predicting consumers' pro-
environmental behavior in emerging markets differ from those of devel-
oped markets. For example, attitudes and PBC are more important pre-
dictors than SN in developed countries and Abrahamse et al.'s (2009)
findings revealed that the pro-environmental behavior of Canadians
was explained by attitudes and PBC, not SN. Another study by Chan
and Lau (2002), who applied the TPB in predicting environmental con-
sciousness among Chinese and Americans, reported that adhering to so-
cial norms was vital for Chinese consumers while American consumers
placed importance on their own environmental attitudes. This could be
ascribed to the fact that Americans are members of a culture that prizes
individualism. In contrast, SN is the most significant predictor of pro-
environmental behavior in China and Malaysia (as found in this
study). This can be explained by Asia's collectivist culture, where indi-
viduals' decisions are influenced by others' expectations to gain social
approval. This also supports Nguyen et al.'s (2017a) findings that SN
has the strongest positive influence on green intentions.
It is interesting to note that Bio values do not affect attitudes
(i.e., ATGCPB) and PBC, and attitudes and PBC do not affect GCPB. This
is contrary to Nguyen et al.'s (2016a) study, which found that Bio values
have a direct effect on attitudes and PBC and that attitudes and PBC have
a direct effect on green purchase behavior. A plausible explanation
might be that Malaysians do not have a deep enough understanding
of how GCPB will benefit them specifically, as indicated by the findings
of Haron et al. (2005), which revealed a low level of complex environ-
mental knowledge among Malaysian respondents. For instance, over
70% of respondents in that study did not know specific environmental
terms such as CO2 emissions. Consequently, although some
respondents in this study had biospheric values, they failed to form
favorable attitudes or unfavorable PBC to perform GCPB. This was be-
cause they found it difficult to understand complex environmental con-
cepts and issues, especially how the EPEAT rating system and various
features of EPEAT computers (such as power-saving modes, ease of
upgrading and disposal/take-back options, and the use of less toxic ma-
terials, etc.) affect the environment. In contrast, consumers in Nguyen
et al.'s (2016a) easily understood energy-efficient electrical appliances
that did not have such complex features, except for an energy-saving
mode.
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Sustainable Production and Consumption 32 (2022) 550–561
5.3. Integrated VBN and TPB model
The predictive power of the integrated model is 31% and Malaysian
consumers' GCPB is explained by SN and PN collectively. In addition,
the predictive power of the preceding factors for PN is moderate except
for EC, which leads to ACbio (3%): Bio leads to EC (48%), ACbio leads to
AR (25%), and AR leads to PN (37%). Altru and Bio values explain 43% of
the variance in SN. Thus, SN, PN, and their preceding factors should be
taken into consideration in the GCPB context.
Fig. 4 shows that the TPB model prevailed, as SN was 3.6 times (path
coefficient = 0.54) more important than PN (path coefficient = 0.15) in
determining Malaysian consumers' GCPB. The results show that con-
sumers in Malaysia put much more weight on TPB factors than VBN fac-
tors. This is due to the same influence of collectivist culture on the
finding of the VBN model: that meeting social expectations takes prece-
dence over fulfilling one's moral obligation in green purchase behavior.
In other words, for Malaysian consumers, the expectations, sanctions,
and obligations to buy green computers are anchored in following the
norms of their social group rather than adhering to their individual
sense of moral obligation.
Additionally, it is interesting to find that biospheric values drive both
the rational choice and moral norm factors. Biospheric values drive the
moral norm value chain of environmental concern, awareness of conse-
quences, ascription of responsibility, and personal norms. Biospheric
values also exert social pressure to adopt GCPB. This is in line with the
studies of Soyez (2012) and Nguyen et al. (2016a), which found that
consumers who possess biospheric values will internalize information
by applying a social change.
Furthermore, altruistic values drive social norms, as in the studies of
Kim and Choi (2005) and Nguyen et al. (2017b) studies, where con-
sumers with altruistic values were prone to comply with social norms
because compliance for the collective benefit is itself a form of altruism.
5.4. Theoretical implications
This study aimed to explain the antecedents of GCPB in the
Malaysian context. The most significant theoretical contribution of the
research is a new theoretical framework that integrates the TPB and
VBN factors via biospheric and altruistic values to provide a more com-
prehensive framework explaining high-cost PEB. This is an improve-
ment from past studies that tested the theories separately (Kaiser
et al., 2005) or that only chose certain factors (e.g., Ghazali et al.,
2019) from each theory. Moreover, the integrated model demonstrates
its unique contribution by disintegrating the AC construct. Despite the
VBN theory being used in past studies, scant attention was paid to the
AC construct (e.g., Bamberg et al., 2007; Ghazali et al., 2019), specifically
to its multi-dimensional nature. The present study unveils the specific
component of AC (biospheric values) that influences the process of
forming PN.
5.5. Practical implications
This research discovered that Malaysian consumers are more in-
clined to yield to social norms than personal norms when deciding to
buy green computers, because of Malaysian collectivist culture. As in
prior studies, the current social trend in emerging markets is for con-
sumers to buy non-green products because these products dominate
the market. As a result, anyone who buys green products is acting con-
trary to social norms and must pay a higher price (Chikaji et al., 2014;
Shahnaei, 2012). We recommend that marketers, governments, and en-
vironmental NGOs create normative pressure/social norms to buy green
computers. Marketers, for example, can devise social marketing strate-
gies to position GCPB as a social norm in the eyes of the public via inte-
grated marketing communication tools, such as online or traditional
advertising, sales promotions, etc. Such information may lead to con-
sumers opting for green computers due to their desire to comply with
P.H.P. Yeow and W.H. Loo Sustainable Production and Consumption 32 (2022) 550–561

social expectations, thus creating social support for GCPB. For govern- (FRGS) (Ref: FRGS/1/2016/SS01/MUSM/02/1). The authors also thank
ments and NGOs, given the finding that altruistic values influence social the respondents who participated in this research.
norms, these institutions can collaborate to introduce apps or cam-
paigns that reinforce social messaging about the social expectations of Appendix A. Items used to measure the factors in this study
performing GCPB to achieve altruistic/collective benefits. For example,
GCPB can be advocated as a means of reducing harmful environmental Green-Computer Purchase Behaviour (GCPC)
impacts on the next generation and society and so provide a strong so-
GCPB1 I have bought energy efficient (eco-friendly) computers.
cial norm.
GCPB2 I have referred to Electronic Product Environmental Assessment
For educators, since biospheric values are the direct/indirect drivers
Tool (EPEAT) EPEAT before making purchase decisions.
of both SN and PN, these individuals can play a vital role in using infor-
GCPB3 I have bought a computer with consideration of its negative im-
mational strategies to instill biospheric values among public. Formal
pacts on environment at the end of its life cycle.
and informal environmental education should start as early as pre-
school through outdoor experiences involving exposure to nature
Egoistic values (Ego)
through camping, nature walks/discoveries, and tree planting
To what extent the following values were important “as a guiding
(Watkins et al., 2019). In this way, a love for nature can be instilled
principle in your life”.
among the young, and social norms and moral obligations towards the
environment can be developed from an early age. For manufacturers, E1 Social power
as biospheric values are the core values that influence both the rational E2 Wealth
choice and moral norm models, they can disseminate appropriate infor- E3 Authority
mation about the benefits of practicing GCPB throughout the distribu- E4 Influential
tion channel to the final consumers of their products. Such E5 Ambitious
information could describe to consumers how their actions can mitigate
environmental problems associated with computer production and Altruistic values (Altru)
consumption. To what extent the following values were important “as a guiding
principle in your life”.
6. Conclusion, limitations, and future studies
Altru1 Equality
In summary, this study integrated the theory of planned behavior Altru2 A world at peace
with the value-belief-norm theory to predict green computer purchase Altru3 Social justice
behavior (GCPB) in the Malaysian context. A parsimonious model Altru4 Helpful
consisting of eight factors was developed using SEM. In analyzing the
study data using this method, TPB factors were found to be more impor- Biospheric values (Bio)
tant than VBN factors in predicting GCPB. This suggests that Malaysian To what extent the following values were important “as a guiding
consumers have a stronger tendency to adhere to social obligations principle in your life”.
than fulfill personal moral obligations when deciding to buy a green Bio1 Preventing pollution
computer. Additionally, biospheric and altruistic values were drivers Bio2 Respecting the earth
for the rational choice model while biospheric values were the driver Bio3 Unity with nature
for the moral norm model. Bio4 Protecting the environment
This study has several limitations. First, it focused specifically on
buying green computers in Malaysia, an emerging market. Caution Perceived behavior control (PBC)
should be exercised in attempting to generalize the findings to other
high-cost green products or other emerging markets without replicat- PBC1 There are insufficient eco-labels to encourage me to purchase
ing the study according to the specific context. Future studies could computers responsibly.
also investigate the applicability of this study in another similar context. PBC2 There are few environmental advertisements that encourage me
Second, this study focused only on the main effects of the TPB and VBN to practise green-computer purchase behaviour.
factors via integrating biospheric and altruistic values. To increase the PBC3 I perceive that it is unreasonable to pay a higher price for com-
explanatory power of the integrated model, other relevant/important puters that are produced in an eco-friendly way.
factors, such as environmental knowledge and hedonic values, can be PBC4 I perceive that it is difficult to find outlets that sell eco-friendly
taken into consideration in future studies. Moreover, future studies computers.
can include moderating factors such as age, gender, or income, which PBC5 Eco-friendly computers are marketed in such a way that I really
can be useful in providing meaningful information for marketers and find it incompatible with my lifestyle. For example, I prefer com-
policymakers to promote high-cost GCPB among different groups of puters are marketed in such a way that emphasized on its price,
consumers. Finally, the current study is limited by its quantitative ap- colours, style instead of their green attributes.
proach. Future studies can consider investigating the antecedents of
GCPB adoption through a mixed-methods approach. Personal norms (PN)

PN1 I feel strong personal obligation to practise green-computer pur-

Declaration of competing interest
chase behaviour.
PN2 I am willing to put extra effort into practising green-computer
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
purchase behaviour.
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influ-
PN3 I would feel guilty if I didn't practise green-computer purchase
ence the work reported in this paper.
behaviour.

Acknowledgement
Attitudes towards GCPB (ATGCPB)

The authors thank the Ministry of Higher Education, Malaysia for ATGCPB1 Green-computer purchase behaviour is a good idea.
funding this research under the Fundamental Research Grant Scheme ATGCPB2 Green-computer purchase behaviour is pleasant.

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P.H.P. Yeow and W.H. Loo
ATGCPB3 Green-computer purchase behaviour gives me satisfaction.
ATGCPB4 I like the idea of purchasing green computer.
Ascriptions of responsibility (AR)
AR1 I feel jointly responsible for greenhouse effects due to not practis-
ing green-computer purchase behaviour.
AR2 I feel responsible for the presently occurring environmental
problems due to not practising green-computer purchase behav-
iour.
AR3 I feel responsible for the depletion of energy resources due to not
practising green-computer purchase behaviour.
Subjective norms (SN)
SN1 People who influence my behavior think that I should practise
green-computer purchase behaviour.
SN2 People who are important to me think that I should practise
green-computer purchase behaviour.
SN3 Malaysian government encourages citizens to practise green-
computer purchase behaviour.
Environmental concern (EC)
EC1 The so-called “ecological crisis” facing humankind has been
greatly exaggerated.
EC2 The earth is like a spaceship with limited room and resources.
EC3 If things continue their present course, we will soon experience a
major ecological catastrophe.
EC4 The balance of nature is strong enough to cope with the impacts
of modern industrial nation.
EC5 Mankind is severely abusing the environment.
Awareness of consequences — egoistic (ACego)
AC1 Climate change (greenhouse effects) resulted from not practising
green-computer purchase behaviour will be a serious problem
for me and my family.
AC2 The problems of toxic substances in air, water and resulted from
not practising green-computer purchase behaviour will be a seri-
ous problem for me and my family.
AC3 The depletion of resources due to not practising green-computer
purchase behaviour will be a serious problem for me and my
family.
Awareness of consequences – altruistic (ACaltru)
AC4 Climate change (greenhouse effects) resulted from not practising
green-computer purchase behaviour will be a serious problem to
society, country and next generation.
AC5 The problems of toxic substances in air, water and resulted from
not practising green-computer purchase behaviour will be a seri-
ous problem to society, country and next generation.
AC6 The depletion of resources due to not practising green-computer
purchase behaviour will be a serious problem for society, country
and next generation.
Awareness of consequences — biospheric (ACbio)
AC7 Climate change (greenhouse effects) resulted from not practising
green-computer purchase behaviour will be a serious problem
for other species of plants and animals.
AC8 The problems of toxic substances in air, water and resulted from
not practising green-computer purchase behaviour will be a seri-
ous problem to other species of plants and animals.
AC9 The depletion of resources due to not practising green-computer
purchase behaviour will be a serious problem for other species of
plants and animals.
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Paul H.P. Yeow, PhD (Orcid ID: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2277-8916) is currently an
Adjunct Professor in Sunway University Business School. He was the Professor and Head
of Department of Business Innovation, School of Business and Management, RMIT
Vietnam. His current research interests include consumer behaviour, sustainable con-
sumption, green purchasing, and environmental sustainability. He was also formerly an
Associate Professor in School of Business, Monash University Malaysia for 11 years.
Wee Hong Loo, PhD is a lecturer in Sunway University Business School. Her research inter-
est emphasizes on the environmental problems associated with human consumption be-
haviour e.g. acquisition, use and disposal.