HUMAN EVOLUTION

UCL AnthroSchools

UCL ANTHROPOLOGY, University College London, 14 Taviton Street, WC1H 0BW

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Table of Contents
Teacher’s Guide....................................................................................................................3
How to Use this Resource Pack................................................................................................3
Aims of the resource pack...........................................................................................................................3

Who is this for?.............................................................................................................................3

What does it address?.................................................................................................................3
How do you use it?......................................................................................................................4
How are the worksheets structured?.......................................................................................4
Future Resources and Looking Ahead....................................................................................5
1 Genetic Diversity and Adaptations in Humans.........................................................6
Worksheet details.........................................................................................................................6
Sections..........................................................................................................................................................6
Suggested Timings.......................................................................................................................................6

Syllabus Points.............................................................................................................................6
1.1 Human adaptations and selection pressures in hominid evolution................7
Learning Outcomes......................................................................................................................7
Adaptations in hominids..............................................................................................................................7
Theories of bipedalism.................................................................................................................................8

1.2 Recognising selection from fossil evidence and data.........................................9

Learning Outcomes......................................................................................................................9
Trends in human brain size.........................................................................................................................9
Selection in human brain size...................................................................................................................10

1.3 Natural selection in lactose intolerance and adaptive phenotypes...............12

Learning Outcomes....................................................................................................................12
Evolution of lactose intolerance................................................................................................................12
Genetic Diversity.........................................................................................................................................13

1.4 Phenotype and Environment – Sickle cell disease case study.......................15

Learning Outcomes....................................................................................................................15
Sickle Cell Disease and Malaria...............................................................................................................15

2 Human Evolution: Speciation and Taxonomy.........................................................18

Worksheet details.......................................................................................................................18
Sections........................................................................................................................................................18
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Suggested Timings.....................................................................................................................................18

Syllabus Points...........................................................................................................................18
2.1 Processes of evolution...............................................................................................19
Learning Outcomes....................................................................................................................19
Speciation....................................................................................................................................................19
What does evolution look like?.................................................................................................................19

2.2 Classifying Human Species......................................................................................21

Learning Outcomes....................................................................................................................21
Taxonomy and classification.....................................................................................................................21
Phylogeny....................................................................................................................................................23
Genetic sequencing....................................................................................................................................24

2.3 Extension challenge: Species in the hominin lineage.......................................25

Learning Outcomes....................................................................................................................25
Who are the hominins?..............................................................................................................................25
Early hominins.............................................................................................................................................26
Australopiths................................................................................................................................................27
The Genus Homo.......................................................................................................................................28
.......................................................................................................................................................................29
Timeline of human evolution.....................................................................................................................29

Extra Resources..................................................................................................................30
Glossary................................................................................................................................31
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Teacher’s Guide
How to Use this Resource Pack

Welcome to this AnthroSchools Evolution Resource Pack! Thank you for

downloading.

At AnthroSchools, we are focused on supporting teachers to deliver effective and

challenging material by utilising anthropological knowledge to supplement and
consolidate learning at A-level. Anthropologists study humanity in all of its diversity
and similarity, both past and present, and evolution is a core topic for all
anthropologists to understand human origins, behaviour and adaptation.
Anthropology seeks to answer big questions about evolution.

We hope that the materials provided here will challenge students to apply their
knowledge of human evolution and reinforce their learning in A-level Biology.
Contained within this resource pack are a series of worksheets that address core
topics on evolution in A-level Biology. In this how-to-use guide, we will provide you
with some brief guidance about how to get the most out of the worksheets to apply
anthropological knowledge to biology material at A-level.

Aims of the resource pack

To start, the aims of the resource pack are:
1. Consolidate and support classroom-based learning about A-level biology
knowledge about evolution.
2. Challenge students to apply their knowledge to answer complex questions about
human evolution.
3. Develop students’ critical thinking skills to think across different topics about the
relevance of what they learn.
4. Deepen their understanding of broader evolutionary processes.

Who is this for?

This resource pack has been tailored to accompany the AQA A-Level Biology
specification to support Key Stage 5 students in their learning about human
evolution.

What does it address?

The two broad topics included in this pack are:
1. Genetic Diversity and Adaptations in Humans
2. Human Evolution- Speciation and Taxonomy
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This covers the following points in the AQA A-Level Biology Syllabus

3.4 Genetic Information, variation and relationships between organisms

3.4.4 Genetic Diversity and adaptation
3.4.5 Species and Taxonomy
3.7 Genetics, populations, evolution and ecosystems
3.7.1 Inheritance
3.7.2 Populations
3.7.3 Evolution may lead to speciation

How do you use it?

Each part of the resource pack has been designed to address specific topics within
the study of human evolution as prescribed by the AQA A-Level Biology
specification. Each worksheet contains multiple sections with varied and challenging
questions. The pack has been designed to allow teachers to select specific sections
to use as in-class activities and/or homework tasks.

While sections build on each other, if you would like to select a particular,
individual section to address one specific topic (e.g. lactose intolerance), you can.
Students can either fill out the worksheet continuously over a series of lessons or
they can simply focus on a particular topic and return to the worksheet at another
time.

The pack has been designed to give you the most flexibility and challenge your
students to think across topics while continuously supporting their learning.

How are the worksheets structured?

Students will face a variety of questions in different formats, including short and long
answers, fill-in-the-blank, true/false and multiple-choice questions, sorting, and data
and graph analysis. This variety of questions is meant to challenge students to think
critically and imaginatively about evolution, consolidate their knowledge and
encourage inquiry-based learning throughout.

Some sections ask students to read an article, watch a video or analyse a graph and
then respond to questions using both the source material and the knowledge they
have gained from classroom or textbook learning. Any external materials (videos,
websites, articles) in the worksheet are from exclusively open access resources, all
available through hyperlinks provided.

The worksheets can be completed digitally or printed. Estimated timings for each
section are provided, though you are of course welcome to adjust the timings.
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Future Resources and Looking Ahead

If you have any questions or suggestions or feedback on how we can improve this
resource, or you would like to book a taster lecture or interactive workshop for your
school, please email us at anthroschools@ucl.ac.uk.

We will be adjusting this resource and adding some more, so make sure to check
back regularly at https://www.ucl.ac.uk/anthropology/anthroschools/teaching-
resources.
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1 Genetic Diversity and Adaptations in

Humans
Worksheet details
In this first broad topic, students will test their ability to apply their knowledge on
genetic diversity and adaptation in exercises and case-studies from a range of
interdisciplinary perspectives. The first two sections address natural selection and
adaptation in the field of Paleoanthropology, the discipline studying the early
development of anatomically modern humans. The last two sections focus on case-
studies that show the mechanisms of selection in action, in particular to do with
Lactose Intolerance and Sickle Cell diseases.

Sections
1.1. Human adaptations and selection pressures in hominid evolution
1.2. Recognising selection from fossil evidence and data
1.3. Natural selection in lactose intolerance and adaptive phenotypes
1.4. Phenotypes and environment - Sickle cell case study

Suggested Timings
1.1. 20-30mins
1.2. 20-30mins
1.3. 25-35mins
1.4. 25-30mins

Syllabus Points
3.4 Genetic information, variation and relationships between organisms
3.4.4 Genetic diversity and adaptation
 Genetic diversity as the number of different alleles of genes in a population and its
importance for natural selection.
 The principles of natural selection and its mechanism
 Directional and stabilising selection
 Natural selection results in species that are better adapted to their environment
 Anatomical, physiological and behavioural adaptations
3.7 Genetics, population, evolution and ecosystems
3.7.1 Inheritance
 The genotype is the genetic constitution of an organism
 The phenotype is the expression of this genetic constitution and its interaction with
the environment
 There may be many alleles of a single gene
3.7.3 Evolution may lead to speciation
 Variation in phenotype
 Definitions and effects on genetic diversity
 Process of natural selection leading to evolutionary change
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1.1 Human adaptations and selection

pressures in hominid evolution
Learning Outcomes
 Apply evolutionary knowledge to case studies in human evolution students may not be
familiar with
 Identify and explain examples of human adaptations
 Critically think about the emergence of specific patterns and theories of adaptations

Adaptations in hominids

There are many adaptations that make humans the species they are today. These evolved
over
millions of years due to various selection pressures. We can characterise adaptations in
behavioural, physiological and behavioural.

Here are some examples of other human adaptations: Hominid = all the
species of humans and
 Reduced teeth size great apes (both extinct
and alive today)
 Reduced tailbone
 Bipedalism (walking on two feet)
 Varied diet
Bipedalism = the
 Refined tool use condition of having
 Reduced gut size two feet or using two
 Sweat glands feet for locomotion

1. Sort these adaptations into behavioural, physiological, anatomical

Behavioural Physiological Anatomical

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1. All hominids (all the great ape and human species past and present) show a tendency
for upright posture, however Homo sapiens are the only living hominid that are
habitually bipedal (walk on two legs all the time). Can you think of any reasons why
being bipedal would be adaptive and selected for?

Theories of bipedalism
Read the following article to find out about some current theories of bipedalism. Were your
ideas similar?

Click here for the article

2. Name two features that are used to identify if a fossil specie was bipedal or not

3. Summarise one of the current main theories for how and why bipedalism evolved
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1.2 Recognising selection from fossil

evidence and data
Learning Outcomes
 Interpret data relating to the effect of selection in producing change within populations
 Identify types of selection
 Show understanding that adaptation and selection are major factors in evolution and
contribute to the diversity and adaptiveness of living organisms

Trends in human brain size Biological anthropologists

study human and primate
One way of understanding how humans evolved is to look at
behaviour and biology from
fossil evidence, which acts as a kind of record of the past. an evolutionary perspective.
Fossils provide a glimpse of what species were alive before the
present day and how these changed over long periods of time. Archaeologists study the
material remains of past
Biological anthropologists and archaeologists analyse the fossil human lives and activities.
record and measure certain features to help piece together
evolutionary relationships. Identifying certain trends in how a
feature changes can indicate selection, which helps us understand how a
species evolved over time.

For example, here we will be looking at the feature brain size. The human fossil record
contains many human skulls from across the world and of different ages. Brain size is one
feature that can be measured and is estimated from the volume of the brain case (where the
brain sits in the skull). This is known as the cranial capacity and measured in cubic
centimetres.

Below is a table containing the measurements of brain sizes for different human fossils.

Time (mya)
2

Source 1: Adapted from

https://www.britannica.com/science/human-evolution/Increasing-brain-size
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1. What trend do you see in the brain size? Describe this

Selection in human brain size

2. What kind of selection is occurring here to create this trend? Explain your answer
If you need a reminder about selection, check the info box below!

Types of selection:
When there is variation in phenotype, selection can cause different changes in phenotype
frequency. You should have encountered different types of selection in AQA syllabus point
3.7.3. Here are some graphs to remind you of the different types of selection.

1 2 3

3.

 Preserves the average  Selection in the  Preserves the extreme

Why do you think
phenotype this selection to occurred? Think about why
direction of one kind having a big brain would be an
phenotype
 advantage.
Selection against of phenotype  Selection against the
extreme phenotypes  Selection against the average form
other extreme form
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1.3 Natural selection in lactose

intolerance and adaptive phenotypes
Learning Outcomes

 Explain why individuals within a population of a species may show a wide range of
variation in phenotype
 Explain how evolutionary change over a long period of time has resulted in a great
diversity of species.
 Identifying the steps of natural selection in the evolution of lactose tolerance
 Recall definitions and sources of genetic diversity

Evolution of lactose intolerance

In humans our culture and biology have evolved together over time to create the species we
are today. One example of this coevolution is between the food we eat and our digestive
system; as our diet changed, our digestive system also changed in order to digest different
types of food, for instance milk.

1. What enzyme breaks down lactose?

Humans haven’t always been able to digest milk. 11,000 years ago, before animal
domestication, humans would stop producing lactase once they had been weaned off milk
as a child. This would mean humans stopped drinking milk as adult. However, this changed
once livestock was domesticated and humans started dairying.

Watch this video to see what happened after this. Click here.

2. In order for humans to be able to drink milk into adulthood, the mutant gene would have
been selected for and increased in frequency through natural selection. Arrange the
following steps to see how lactose tolerance evolved through the process of natural
selection.
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Orde Step in natural selection

r
1 In humans the enzyme lactase normally stopped being produced soon
after infancy when a child stops drinking milk.
Human populations in Northern Europe, East Africa, and the Middle East
began to domesticate and rear cattle or camels.
The lactose-tolerant populations were able to access the additional energy
from sugars in milk. Adding this energy source to their diet meant they
were more likely to survive famines.
These farming populations with domesticated animals and mutant gene
were able to consume and digest dairy into adulthood.
A mutation that allowed lactase to continue to be produced into adulthood
occurred in some populations. (It is thought a lactose tolerance mutation
occurred independently in at least four places around the world).
Those who could digest milk better were more likely to survive and
reproduce, so these lactose-tolerant populations grew in size.
Today, there is variation in the ability to digest milk. Those who are not
descendants of these populations did not inherit the ability to digest milk
beyond infancy and are lactose-intolerant in adulthood.
The genetic variant that allowed milk to be digested into adulthood was
passed on between generations and spread rapidly.

Genetic Diversity

As you have seen, there is diversity in adaptive phenotypes. Diversity in adaptive

phenotypes is achieved through genetic diversity. For example, some people can drink milk
and others can’t depending on what gene they have for lactase production. It is this variation
in genes that natural selection can work on. But what exactly is genetic diversity?

3. What is the most suitable definition of genetic diversity?
A. The number of different genes in a person
B. The number of different alleles in a population
C. The number of different genes in a population
Need a little help?
Definitions for these terms can
be found in syllabus point 3.4.4
and 3.7.2, or look at our glossary

Genetic diversity can be increased or decreased by different forces as well as natural

selection. Let’s investigate the different influences on genetic diversity.
Need a reminder on
Mutation
variation? Check out
A genetic mutation is a random change to the base sequence of DNA.
this video here!
It can create new alleles which may be harmful or beneficial.
Migration
The movement of individuals into a different population and the subsequent reproduction
with individuals of the new population can bring new alleles into the gene pool.
Meiosis
Random fertilisation of haploid gametes produces new combinations of alleles
Genetic Bottleneck
A big sudden reduction in population leading to a reduction in the number of different alleles
in the gene pool
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4. Do these processes increase or decrease genetic diversity? (delete as appropriate)

A. Mutation – increases/decreases
B. Flow of alleles into the population through migration – increases/decreases
C. Genetic bottleneck – increases/decreases
D. Meiosis – increases/decreases

Genetic diversity can affect variation in phenotype, because genes are transcripted and
translated into proteins to produce the phenotype. But the phenotype is also influenced by
the environment. In the next section we will investigate one interaction between genes and
the environment that affects the phenotype produced (see 1.4 Phenotype and Environment
– Sickle cell disease case study).
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1.4 Phenotype and Environment –

Sickle cell disease case study
Learning Outcomes
 Interpret graphic data on global health
 Critically apply evolutionary knowledge to the understanding of sickle cell disease
 Demonstrate an understanding of the consequences of a genetic mutation in different
environments

Sickle Cell Disease and Malaria

In this worksheet we will be looking at a
particular mutation in humans and how it
interacts with its environment.

Sickle cell disease is a genetic condition

caused by the sickle cell gene. The sickle
cell locus can feature a mutation in
the Haemoglobin-beta gene (located on Source 2: Science Photo Library
chromosome XI). This type of mutation is called
a point mutation: a nucleotide base is inserted/deleted or switched out for another. The
shape of the haemoglobin protein becomes abnormal leading to changes in the shape of the
body’s red blood cells from smooth and round, to a “sickle” or crescent shape. When an
individual is homozygous for the sickle cell trait, most of their red blood cells are this sickle
shape. This makes it harder for blood to flow through vessels and for oxygen to be
transported around the body.

Look at this graph below:

Check out this video for
more information on Sickle
Cell anaemia and its
relationship with malaria.
Click here!

Source 3: Prevalence of malaria among patients with and without sickle cell disease (SCD), by year of
hospital admission, from Komba et al (2009) Malaria as a Cause of Morbidity and Mortality in Children
with Homozygous Sickle Cell Disease on the Coast of Kenya. (LINK)
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1. Describe and compare the trends in the percentage of people with malaria between
individuals with SCD and those without SCD.

Malaria is a parasitic organism found in many areas of the world. Malaria Falciparum, a type
of malaria caused by the parasite plasmodium falciparum, accounted for 99.7% of malaria
cases in 2018 [WHO 2020]. This parasite enters the human bloodstream through the bite of
a malarial vector such as the female anopheles mosquito (this is the most common form of
transmission). After entering the blood, the malarial trophozoites (baby protozoa) infects
red blood cells, changing their properties and causing them to stick together. Those who are
heterozygous for the sickle cell trait show some protection against malaria. This because
the mutation in the haemoglobin prevents the malarial trophozoite from changing the
properties of the red blood cell, preventing them from sticking together.

Look at the map below.

Source 4: cdc.gov
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2. Where would you predict incidences of Sickle Cell Disease to be highest? Explain why?

3. Based on what you have learnt, reinterpret the graph above, identifying the types of
selection involved and when to explain the pattern of percentage of people with malaria
in those with SCD.

This case study of sickle cell disease shows how mutations can be beneficial in some
contexts, and environments, and potentially harmful in others. Anthropologists and social
scientists often attempt to study diseases in socio-cultural contexts rather than seeing
inherited disease caused by mutations as binary. Understanding the nature of the mutation
and the environment and social context it is in can help create more effective
health interventions.
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2 Human Evolution: Speciation and

Taxonomy
Worksheet details
The second broad part of the resource will address speciation and taxonomy from a
biological anthropology perspective. The first section will help students think critically about
evolution and speciation, with an attention to the notion that each species has evolved for its
specific environment, and that evolution doesn’t follow a predictable, straight line. It will also
address the different ways human species can be classified. The final section can be
considered an extra “challenge” for students interested in human evolution and
Palaeoanthropology, looking more closely at the species from our hominin lineage.

Sections
2.1 Processes of evolution
2.2 Classifying human species
2.3 Extension Challenge: species in the hominin lineage

Suggested Timings
2.1 30-40mins
2.2 35-45mins
2.3 60mins

Syllabus Points
3.4 Genetic information, variation and relationships between organisms
3.4.4 Genetic diversity and adaptation
 Natural selection results in species that are better adapted to their environment
3.4.5 Species and taxonomy
 Definition of a species and processes of speciation
 Taxonomy including the taxa kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus, species
 Phylogenetic classification
 Genetic sequencing
3.7 Genetics, population, evolution and ecosystems
3.7.2 Evolution may lead to speciation
 Species exist as one or more populations
 Concept of gene pool and allele frequency
3.7.3 Evolution may lead to speciation
 Natural selection as differential survival and reproduction
 Speciation through reproductive isolation
 Variation in phenotype
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2.1 Processes of evolution

Learning Outcomes
 Recall definitions of evolutionary terms and describe the process of speciation
 Analyse statements and representations of evolution, natural selection and
speciation

This worksheet will investigate the processes of evolution and show how natural selection
can lead to new species. To begin with watch this video from Khan Academy for an overview
of this topic.

Click here!

Speciation

1. Fill in the gaps in the following paragraph to test your knowledge on speciation:

The evolution of a new species is called _________. A species is a group of organisms

which have _______ ________________ and can interbreed to produce _______
_________. A new species can arise when a small of groups of individuals become
______________ ________ from the original population. This can happen in two ways:
__________ speciation is when reproductive isolation is caused by ____________
__________. _________ speciation is isolation caused without a physical barrier, and
instead by factors that are ecological, temporal, or behavioural for example.
When a population becomes geographically isolated, the new location is likely to have
different _____________ conditions, and therefore different _________ _________. Thanks
to the mechanisms of _______ _________ the best adapted organisms can survive and
_________. Over time enough _______ ___________ will be produced so that if the new
population reunited with the original population, individuals would not be able to __________
to produce fertile offspring. This process produces ___ species from ________ species.

fertile offspring / reproduce / selection pressures / interbreed / speciation / new / similar

characteristics / allopatric / genetic differences / sympatric / natural selection / reproductively
isolated / environmental / existing / geographical separation

Remember!
What does evolution look like?
The definition for evolution
in the AQA specification is
There are many definitions and ways of describing evolution. Often
this: change in allele
it depends on the scale you are looking at whether that is change frequencies in a population
at the level of the species, population, of allele frequencies.

Let’s look at some common misconceptions about evolution to deepen our understanding.
Below are some statements to do with the processes and outcomes of evolution.
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2. Are these statements true or false?

A. Evolution follows a straight line (is progressive), with more complex organisms being
the most advanced products of natural selection.
B. An ant is as evolutionarily advanced as a gorilla*. *This sentence means that two
C. Humans have evolved from chimpanzees. completely different species are
at the evolutionary stage they
D. Humans’ closest relatives are chimpanzees.
ought to be, given their
E. Natural selection would still be able to produce change environment. There is no “finish
without variation. line” for evolution!
F. Natural selection acts on phenotypes.
G. Each species has evolved to be adapted to their specific environment.

3. Which one of the following pictures describes better the way evolution via natural
selection occurs? Why?

B.
A.

If you are still unsure about these concepts

of evolution, check out this helpful video.

Click here!
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2.2 Classifying Human Species

Learning Outcomes
 Recall the definitions of the different taxa and apply this to human classification
 Demonstrate understanding of how analogous and homologous characteristics are
used to classify species
 Interpret evolutionary relationships from a phylogenetic tree
 Demonstrate understanding in how genetic sequence can be used to uncover
evolutionary relationships

Taxonomy and classification

Now that we understand how species are formed, let’s look at how species are classified.

1. Match the classification name to the correct taxa and highlight the binomial name.

Kingdom
Phylum Definitions for these
Class taxa can be found in the
glossary if you are stuck
Order
Family
Genus
Species

Chordata, Animalia, Homo, Hominidae, Mammalia, sapiens, Primates

Taxonomy is the theory and practice of classification. Taxonomic

The five kingdoms
classification is what you just completed above. All the identified species
are: Prokaryotes,
in the world have been classified in this way, where groups of organisms
Protoctista, Fungi,
are studied to determine what other organisms they are closely related
Plantae and Animalia
to. The five Kingdoms are a collection of the largest groups, and as you
move down the taxa, the groups become smaller, more numerous, and
the individuals within them are more closely related.

There are many ways to classify species. You could look at specific anatomical features, like
whether an organism has wings; for example, grouping organisms that have wings together
in one group and those without wings in another group. Using this logic, you could group
together butterflies, bats and birds. However, this doesn’t mean these species are closely
related to each other evolutionarily.
22

Wings are an example of analogous characteristics: characteristics

that serve the same function but have different origins and are the Convergent evolution =
result of convergent evolution. These aren’t that useful when you organisms that are not
want to find out if a species is evolutionarily related to each other closely related and do not
because they have different origins. Homologous characteristics, share a common ancestor
evolve similar
on the other hand, are shared characteristics that are derived from a
characteristics, usually for
common ancestor, that is, from the same evolutionary origin, a similar function
regardless of what their function is now. Different functions can arise
from divergent selection. Homologous characteristics are more Divergent evolution =
useful if you want to understand the evolutionary relationship organisms from the same
between species. This is because if two organisms share common ancestor evolve
homologous characteristics it is likely they are related to each other and accumulate enough
differences to form new
because they evolved from a common ancestor. See below for an
species
example of analogous and homologous limb structures.

Source 5: https://ib.bioninja.com.au/standard-level/topic-5-evolution-and-biodi/54-cladistics/structural-
evidence.html

2. Can you think of any other kinds of analogous characteristics? Write down two examples
Remember analogous characteristics often have the same function but have different
evolutionary origins and therefore will have different structures.
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Phylogeny
Homologous characteristics are used in phylogeny, the study of the evolutionary history of
groups of organisms. Phylogenetic trees are used to show evolutionary line of descent and
the relationship between species. Take a look at the phylogeny of the humans and our
closest relatives. This group of species are collectively called the hominids.

Hominids

Last common ancestor = the

most recent species from
which all the organisms or
species from a particular
3. Circle the last common ancestor between humans and group have descended from
chimpanzees.

4. Are gorillas or orangutans more closely related to humans? Why?

5. Are Chimpanzees or Bonobos more closely related to humans (Homo sapiens)? Explain
your answer
24

Genetic sequencing Want to find out more about

how the human genome was
sequenced? Check out this
Advancements in immunology and genome sequencing
video.
has helped to clarify evolutionary relationships between
organisms. Comparing genetic sequences is another Click here!
way to understand if organisms are related or not. It is
sometimes more accurate than comparing anatomical features (like above) as you can
examine the actual DNA sequence of genes to see how they have mutated and changed
over time.

You can now even buy kits that let you send samples of spit to a lab that sequences your
DNA for you to understand your own genetic identity. Check out the surprising way saliva
has brought these six strangers together.

Click here!

6. From an evolutionary perspective, how is it possible that six people with different
phenotypes share almost the exact same genetic pool?
25

2.3 Extension challenge: Species in

the hominin lineage
Learning Outcomes
 Practice reading and digesting a long piece of writing in order to summarise the main
points
 Demonstrate the ability to apply knowledge on species to a topic outside the syllabus
 Analyse the information gained from the reading from a different perspective

Who are the hominins?

In this section we will be zooming into the human phylogeny and focus on a particular part
of human evolution called hominin evolution. The hominins are represented by the orange
line on the phylogeny below and are a group containing all the fossils and species from the
last common ancestor between humans and the chimpanzees/bonobo lineage all the way up
to present day Homo sapiens. Studying this lineage is important if we want to understand
our own evolutionary history and what makes us who we are.

Hominins

Hominids

Although Homo sapiens are the only remaining living hominin, we used to share the planet
with many other human species. Over the last century countless archaeological discoveries
have uncovered fossils of these now extinct species. Studying these fossils is important to
understand the story of our evolution.

Human evolutionists look at features, such as brain size, teeth structure, and bone structure,
in order to identify the fossil’s species and to see how they relate to other fossils. However,
this process can be tricky, and the fossil record is far from complete, so there is a lot of
debate in human evolution on the identity of certain fossils, how many hominin species
existed and what the exact evolutionary relationship is.
26

We are now going to look at some of the more well-known and understood hominin species.

1. Complete the species profiles below by using information from the following website.
Click here!

Early hominins

Sahelanthropus tchadensis
 Estimated age ____________________
 Date discovered ____________________
 Location ____________________
 Main characteristics

Orrorin tugenensis
 Estimated age ____________________
 Date discovered ____________________
 Location ____________________
 Main characteristics

Ardipithecus ramidus
 Estimated age ____________________
 Date discovered ____________________
 Location ____________________
 Main characteristics

Australopiths
27

Australopithecus afarensis
 Estimated age ____________________
 Date discovered ____________________
 Location ____________________
 Main characteristics

Australopithecus africanus
 Estimated age ____________________
 Date discovered ____________________
 Location ____________________
 Main characteristics

Robust Australopiths/Paranthropus
 Estimated age ____________________
 Date discovered ____________________
 Location ____________________
 Main characteristics

The Genus Homo

Homo habilis
 Estimated age ____________________
 Date discovered ____________________
 Location ____________________
 Main characteristics
28

Homo erectus
 Estimated age ____________________
 Date discovered ____________________
 Location ____________________
 Main characteristics

Homo neanderthalis

 Estimated age ____________________

 Date discovered ____________________
 Location ____________________
 Main characteristics

Homo sapiens
 Estimated age ____________________
 Date discovered ____________________
 Location ____________________
 Main characteristics

For more information on

each species follow the
Timeline of human evolution links in the glossary!

Hopefully you are now more familiar with the hominin species!

2. Based on the estimated age of each fossil place these species groups onto the following
timeline of human evolution

Sahelanthropus / Orrorin / Ardi / Australopithecus / Paranthropus / H. habilis / H.

erectus / H. neanderthalis / H. sapiens
29
30

Extra Resources

Explanation of the process of natural selection - https://www.youtube.com/watch?

v=aTftyFboC_M

Delve into the history of the theory of evolution - https://www.youtube.com/watch?

v=dfsUz2O2jww

Interactive timeline of human evolution - https://humanorigins.si.edu/evidence/human-

evolution-timeline-interactive

Virtual lab where you can interact with human fossils - https://africanfossils.org/
31

Glossary
Adaptation
A change in structure, function, or behaviour by which a species or individual improves its chance of
survival in a specific environment.

Alleles
An allele is a variant form of a gene.

Analogous characteristics
Analogous structures are similar structures that evolved independently in two living organisms to
serve the same purpose.

Animalia
That one of the basic groups of living things that comprises either all the animals or all the
multicellular animals.

Anopheles
A mosquito of a genus which is particularly common in warmer countries and includes the
mosquitoes that transmit the malarial parasite to humans.

Bipedalism
The condition of having two feet or of using only two feet for locomotion.

Chordata
A chordate is an animal that belongs to the phylum Chordata, which is part of the Deuterostomes
kingdom (see definition below). The phylum (see definition below) Chordata includes a wide range of
organisms, as it is comprised of all vertebrates, which are organisms with a backbone, and many
invertebrates; organisms that don't have a backbone.

Class
In biological classification, class (Latin: classis) is a taxonomic rank, as well as a taxonomic unit,
a taxon, in that rank.

Disease Incidence
Incidence refers to the occurrence of new cases of disease or injury in a population over a
specified period of time. Although some epidemiologists use incidence to mean the number of new
cases in a community, others use incidence to mean the number of new cases per unit of
population.

Evolution
Evolution is change in the heritable characteristics of biological populations over successive
generations.

Family
In biology, a family is a taxonomic rank, or a taxon at that rank. Each family contains one or more
genera (see definition below – Genus).
32

Gene
A base sequence of DNA that codes for the amino acid sequence of a polypeptide, or a functional
RNA.

Genetic Bottleneck
A genetic bottleneck occurs when a population is greatly reduced in size.

Genetic Diversity
The number of different alleles in a population.

Genetic Sequencing
Sequencing DNA means determining the order of the four chemical building blocks - called "bases" -
that make up the DNA molecule. The sequence tells scientists the kind of genetic information that is
carried in a particular DNA segment.

Genus
Genus, plural genera, biological classification ranking between family and species.

Haemoglobin
Hemoglobin, also spelled haemoglobin, iron-containing protein in the blood of many animals—in the
red blood cells (erythrocytes) of vertebrates—that transports oxygen to the tissues.

Heterozygous
A heterozygous individual is a diploid organism with two alleles, each of a different type.

Hominin
Any of the lineages of human beings, including the early human predecessors such as Homo erectus,
Homo habilis, Homo neanderthalensis, and Australopithecus species.

Homo sapiens
Homo sapiens, (Latin: “wise man”) the species to which all modern human beings belong. Homo
sapiens is one of several species grouped into the genus Homo, but it is the only one that is not
extinct.

Hominidae
Hominidae, in zoology, one of the two living families of the ape superfamily Hominoidea, the other
being the Hylobatidae (gibbons). Hominidae includes the great apes—that is, the orangutans (genus
Pongo), gorillas (Gorilla), and chimpanzees and bonobos (Pan)—as well as human beings (Homo).

Homologous characteristics
Characteristics in different organisms that are similar because they were inherited from a common
ancestor that also had that character.

Homozygous
A homozygous individual is a diploid organism with two alleles, each of the same type.

Interbreed
(With reference to an animal) breed or cause to breed with another of a different race or species.
"wolves and dogs can interbreed".
33

Kingdom
In biology, kingdom is the second highest taxonomic rank, just below domain.

Lactase
An enzyme which catalyses the hydrolysis of lactose to glucose and galactose.

Lactose intolerance
Lactose intolerance is a common digestive problem where the body is unable to digest lactose, a
type of sugar mainly found in milk and dairy products. This is caused by an absence of lactase
enzyme in the body.

Locus
The specific location of a gene in a DNA molecule.

Malaria
An intermittent and remittent fever caused by a protozoan parasite which invades the red blood
cells and is transmitted by mosquitoes in many tropical and subtropical regions.

Mammalia
A class of vertebrate animals.

Mutation
A mutation is a change that occurs in our DNA sequence, either due to mistakes when the DNA is
copied or as the result of environmental factors

Natural Selection
Natural selection is the process through which populations of living organisms adapt and change.

Order
A taxonomic rank used in classifying organisms, generally below the class, and comprised of families
sharing a set of similar nature or character.

Parasite
A parasite is an organism that lives on or in a host organism and gets its food from or at the expense
of its host. There are three main classes of parasites that can cause disease in humans: protozoa,
helminths, and ectoparasites.

Phenotype
The term "phenotype" refers to the observable physical properties of an organism; these include the
organism's appearance, development, and behaviour.

Phylogenetic Tree
A branching diagram that shows the evolutionary relationships among different biological species
based on similarities and differences in their physical or genetic characteristics.

Phylogeny
Phylogeny, the history of the evolution of a species or group, especially in reference to lines of
descent and relationships among broad groups of organisms.

Phylum
A primary category in biological taxonomy especially of animals that ranks above the class and below
the kingdom.
34

Plasmodium
Plasmodium is a genus of unicellular eukaryotes that are obligate parasites of vertebrates and
insects. The life cycles of Plasmodium species involve development in a blood-feeding insect host
which then injects parasites into a vertebrate host during a blood meal.

Primates
Primate, in zoology, any mammal of the group that includes the lemurs, lorises, tarsiers, monkeys,
apes, and humans. In taxonomy, the order Primates is the highest order of mammals. They are
placental mammals with good eyesight and flexible hands and feet.

Protozoa
Protozoa are single celled organisms. They come in many different shapes and sizes ranging from an
Amoeba which can change its shape to Paramecium with its fixed shape and complex structure.

Sapiens
Homo sapiens is one of several species grouped into the genus Homo, but it is the only one that is
not extinct. Sapiens is the present participle of sapere or "to be wise".

Sickle cell disease/anaemia

Sickle cell anemia is an inherited red blood cell disorder in which there aren't enough healthy red
blood cells to carry oxygen throughout your body. Normally, the flexible, round red blood cells move
easily through blood vessels. In sickle cell anemia, the red blood are shaped like sickles or crescent
moons.

Sickle cell trait

Sickle cell trait (SCT) is not a disease, but having it means that a person has inherited the sickle cell
gene from one of his or her parents. People with SCT usually do not have any of the symptoms of
sickle cell disease (SCD) and live a normal life.

Speciation
The formation of new and distinct species in the course of evolution. Speciation involves the splitting
of a single evolutionary lineage into two or more genetically independent lineages.

Species
A group of living organisms consisting of similar individuals capable of exchanging genes or
interbreeding. The species is the principal natural taxonomic unit, ranking below a genus and
denoted by a Latin binomial, e.g. Homo sapiens.

Taxon
A group of one or more populations of an organism or organisms that form a taxanomic unit of any
rank. (plural. Taxa)

Taxonomy
The classification of something, especially organisms. A scheme of classification.

Trophozoites
A growing stage in the life cycle of some sporozoan (type of protozoan) parasites, when they are
absorbing nutrients from the host.
35

EXTRA SPECIES TERMS:

Ardipithecus ramidus: see

https://humanorigins.si.edu/evidence/human-fossils/species/ardipithecus-ramidus

Australopithecus afarensis: see

https://humanorigins.si.edu/evidence/human-fossils/species/australopithecus-afarensis

Australopithecus africanus: see

https://humanorigins.si.edu/evidence/human-fossils/species/australopithecus-africanus

Homo erectus: see

https://humanorigins.si.edu/evidence/human-fossils/species/homo-erectus

Homo habilis: see

https://humanorigins.si.edu/evidence/human-fossils/species/homo-habilis

Homo sapiens: see

https://humanorigins.si.edu/evidence/human-fossils/species/homo-sapiens

Homo neanderthalensis: see

https://humanorigins.si.edu/evidence/human-fossils/species/homo-neanderthalensis

Orrorin tugenensis: see

https://humanorigins.si.edu/evidence/human-fossils/species/orrorin-tugenensis

Robust Australopiths/Paranthropus: see

https://humanorigins.si.edu/evidence/human-fossils/species/paranthropus-robustus

Sahelanthropus tchadensis: see

https://humanorigins.si.edu/evidence/human-fossils/species/sahelanthropus-tchadensis