See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.

net/publication/296486128

Eggplant

Chapter · November 2015

DOI: 10.1201/b19252-25

CITATIONS READS

6 20,552

5 authors, including:

Maria José Zaro Ariel Vicente

Universidad Nacional de La Plata Universidad Nacional de La Plata
21 PUBLICATIONS 329 CITATIONS 124 PUBLICATIONS 5,108 CITATIONS

SEE PROFILE SEE PROFILE

Cristian Matias Ortiz Analía Concellón

Universidad Nacional de La Plata National Scientific and Technical Research Council- National Unive…
20 PUBLICATIONS 536 CITATIONS 56 PUBLICATIONS 1,384 CITATIONS

SEE PROFILE SEE PROFILE

Some of the authors of this publication are also working on these related projects:

Postharvest physiology of fruits vegetables and nuts View project

Postharvest biology and technology of fruits and vegetables. View project

All content following this page was uploaded by Cristian Matias Ortiz on 05 July 2016.

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

21
Eggplant

M.J. Zaro, Ariel R. Vicente, C.M. Ortiz, Alicia R. Chaves, and A. Concellón

CONTENTS
21.1 Origin and Production................................................................................................................... 479
21.2 Morphology, Varietal Groups, and Crop Requirements............................................................... 480
21.3 Composition.................................................................................................................................. 482
21.4 Harvest Operations, Postharvest Biology, and Technology.......................................................... 483
21.4.1 Quality Attributes and Harvest Operations...................................................................... 483
21.4.2 Postharvest Physiology..................................................................................................... 483
21.4.3 Major Causes of Postharvest Deterioration...................................................................... 484
21.4.4 Postharvest Handling....................................................................................................... 485
21.5 Processing..................................................................................................................................... 486
21.5.1 Preliminary Treatments.................................................................................................... 486
21.5.2 Drying............................................................................................................................... 489
21.5.3 Freezing and Pickling....................................................................................................... 489
21.5.4 Cooking............................................................................................................................ 489
Acknowledgments................................................................................................................................... 490
References............................................................................................................................................... 490

21.1 Origin and Production

Eggplant, brinjal or aubergine (Solanum melongena L.) is together with tomato among the most widely
known edible fruits of the Solanaceae family (Daunay, 2008). Eggplants are thought to be derived from
the wild African species, Solanum incanum. The scarlet eggplant (Solanum aethiopicum L.) and the
gboma eggplant (Solanum macrocarpon L.), grown and consumed in Africa and represent an important
source of genetic variation (Daunay et al., 2001b).
Eggplants were already domesticated in Southeast Asia, particularly in Northeast India and southeast
China more than 2000 years ago (Sekara et al., 2007). Historical, morphological, and molecular evi-
dence suggests that the Indochinese region is the primary center of diversity of S. melongena (Muñoz-
Falcón et al., 2009). The species was then introduced in Europe through Spain from where it spread to
New World (Prohens et al., 2005).
With an implanted surface of 1.8 million of ha, eggplant world production is 46.6 million Ton
(FAOSTAT, 2014). China and India are the major growing countries with 60% and 25% of the total
volume respectively, followed by Iran (2.7%), Egypt (2.5%), Turkey (1.8%), Indonesia (1.1%), and Japan
(0.7%). Spain, Italy, and Greece concentrate most eggplant production in Europe. Eggplant world com-
merce has shown a growing trend. In 2012 exports reached 440,000 Ton, the main contributors being
Spain, Jordan, Mexico, the Netherlands and Syria, Germany, France, and the United Kingdom. U.S.
production is not sufficient to cover the domestic demands and the country together with Russia, Canada,
Iraq, and Italy accounts for 75% of global imports (FAOSTAT, 2014).

479
 480 Handbook of Vegetable Preservation and Processing

21.2 Morphology, Varietal Groups, and Crop Requirements

Eggplants have a strong and well-developed root system. The stem is 0.5–2 m tall and may often be spiny.
Leaves are large (10–20 cm), lanceolate, and coarsely lobulated (Figure 21.1). Most varieties bloom in
three to five flowers bunches. Flowers are large, white, or purple-white and have a five-lobed corolla and
large anthers (Figure 21.2). Their long style difficult self-pollination, but the plant is mainly autogamous
(Daunay et al., 2001a).
Some early cultivars having ovoid fruit are thought to be responsible for the name “egg-plant.” The
berries require a period of 25–40 days to reach harvest maturity. In fully developed fruit, the calyx
remains as accessory tissue. In contrast to other fruits in which growth and ripening are clearly delimited,
Downloaded by [Cristian Matias Ortiz] at 16:52 27 November 2015

FIGURE 21.1 Greenhouse eggplant crop production.

(a)

(b) (c)

FIGURE 21.2 Ontogenic stages of (a) early, (b) late flowering, and (c) early eggplant fruiting.
 Eggplant 481

I II III IV V VI VII VIII

Downloaded by [Cristian Matias Ortiz] at 16:52 27 November 2015

FIGURE 21.3 Temporal sequence of developmental stages of eggplant fruit. Stages VI and VII are commonly selected
for harvest maturity. (Adapted from Zaro, M., et al., Posharvest Biol. Technol. 96, 110, 2014b.)

eggplant expansion continues until advanced ripening stages (Figure 21.3). Remarkable variability in
fruit color (white to green, yellow, purple, black, or striped), shape (ovoid, rounded, elongate, or pyri-
form), and size (15–1500 g) is found among cultivars (Nothmann, 1986). The seeds are white or yellow
and may keep their viability for 4–6 years (Sekara et al., 2007). The edible portion includes the pulp
placental tissue and seeds and in some preparations the peel.
Different classifications have used to group eggplant varieties. Bailey’s (1947) identified three varietal
groups: var. esculentum which comprises the commercially common forms with intermediate size, var.
serpentinum including varieties with very long fruit, and var. depressum grouping genotypes with small
fruit. Other attributes used for classification purposes are the pericarp color, the presence of spines in
the calyx, and the fruit length covered by the calyx. Purple eggplants are more popular in Western mar-
kets. From a commercial perspective, Cantwell and Suslow (2013) subdivided the most common varietal
groups marketed in the United States:

• American: Oval or globular in shape, firm, with dark purple skin, and green calyx.
• Japanese: Oblong, thin, light or dark purple colored skin and very perishable fruit.
• Chinese: Oblong, thin and light purple colored varieties.
• White: Small fruit, oval or globular in shape, with thin and light skin.
• Mini-Japanese: small, spherical striated, or purple.

Eggplant is a warm-season crop that requires 60–85 days for cycle completion. The plant needs a 10–12 h
photoperiod and performs best at relatively high temperatures (the optimum being around 23°C–26°C)
(Sekara et al., 2007). Thus, the crop is grown during the summer season. Eggplants are very sensitive to
cool weather and do not perform well when exposed to low temperature. In cool seasons flowering, fer-
tility, and fruit set are severely affected (Nothmann and Koller, 1975). At 10°C–12°C growth is arrested
and flowering and fructification are markedly compromised.
Well-drained sandy loam, loam, or clay loam soils having a good supply of organic matter and pH of
6.0–6.5 are best for growing eggplants. Plant spacing varies from 45 to 60 cm between plants, and 60
to 100 cm between rows depending on the cultivar and cultural practices. Since yields and fruit quality
are reduced in 2 year plants, eggplants are normally managed as a single season crop (Nothmann, 1986).
 482 Handbook of Vegetable Preservation and Processing

21.3 Composition
Though the level of bioactive components may depend on the cultivar (Nothmann, 1986; Zaro, 2014),
fruit proximate composition remains fairly constant across genotypes. Water is by far the most abundant
components with more than 90% of the total fruit weight (Table 21.1). Fiber is particularly abundant (3%)
compared to other foods and even to other vegetable sources. Proteins and lipids are present at very low lev-
els. The major sugars are glucose and fructose which range between 0.8% and 1.5%. Sucrose and maltose
are present but in low concentration (Rodriguez et al., 1999). Organic acids found at relatively low levels
(ca. 0.1%) and are more abundant in the outer pulp (near to the peel) as opposed to sugars which are more
prevalent in the inner flesh (Zaro et al., 2014a). As for other vegetables, eggplant has low energy density (25
and 19 cal per 100 g of raw and cooked fruit, respectively). The fruit has moderate levels of most vitamins
and minerals but are relatively rich in potassium. The berries are low in sodium and have no cholesterol.
Similarly to other Solanaceous species, eggplants were at once believed to be poisonous due to the
presence of steroidal glycoalkaloids. Recent studies have indicated that low intakes of some glycoal-
Downloaded by [Cristian Matias Ortiz] at 16:52 27 November 2015

kaloids may exert some potentially beneficial effects such as the inhibition of some types of cancerous
cells and the formation of complexes with cholesterol (Mennella et al., 2010; Sánchez-Mata et al., 2010).
Solasonine and solamargine, the main eggplants alkaloids are normally present at nontoxic concentra-
tions (Mennella et al., 2010), but may confer bitter taste (Sánchez-Mata et al., 2010).
In the last years, eggplants have received higher interest due to their high levels of bioactive com-
pounds. In a study evaluating the antioxidant capacity of different fresh vegetables, eggplants ranked
within the top 10 (Cao et al., 1996). Eggplant extracts inhibited inflammation and radical-mediated
pathogenesis, carcinogenesis, and atherosclerosis (Han et al., 2003; Matsubara et al., 2005). High egg-
plant intake exerted hepatoprotective (Akanitapichat et al., 2010) and hypolipidemic effects also reduced
plasma glucose levels in rats (Sudheesh et al., 1997; Derivi et al., 2002).
Eggplant berries are not particularly rich in ascorbic acid (400–700 mg kg DW−1) (Zaro, 2014) or
carotenoids (40–100 mg kg DW−1) (El-Qudah, 2009). The health-promoting effects have been associated
with phenolic compounds which are particularly abundant (0.5%–1.5% DW) both in the peel and flesh.
Hydroxycinnamic acid derivatives, and mainly free chlorogenic acid (ChA, 5-O-caffeoylquinic acid) is
the major phenolic in eggplant (Whitaker and Stommel, 2003; Concellón et al., 2012). ChA is high at
early developmental stages (20 g kg DW−1) and decreases by 50% at commercial harvest maturity (80%
full size) (Zaro et al., 2014b). Other forms (3-O-, 4-O-, and 5-O-cis isomers) of caffeoylquinic acid, 3,5-
and 4,5-dicaffeoylquinic acid, amide, and acetyl ester conjugates have been identified (Whitaker and
Stommel, 2003; Prohens et al., 2007). ChA shows an uneven distribution within the fruit, being more
abundant in the inner pulp than in the outer flesh (near to the peel) where is mainly associated with fruit
fibers and vasculature (Figure 21.4) (Zaro et al., 2014a).

TABLE 21.1
Eggplant Nutritional Composition (per 100 g of Fresh and Raw Fruit)
Proximates Minerals (mg) Vitamins Lipids
Water (g) 92.30 Ca 9.00 Vitamin C (mg) 2.20 Saturated (g) 0.03
Energy (kcal) 25.00 Fe 0.23 Thiamin (mg) 0.04 Monounsaturated (g) 0.02
Protein (g) 0.98 Mg 14.00 Riboflavin (mg) 0.04 Polyunsaturated (g) 0.08
Total lipid (g) 0.18 P 24.00 Niacin (mg) 0.65 Cholesterol (mg) 0.00
Carbohydrate (g) 5.88 K 229.00 Vitamin B6 (mg) 0.08
Fiber (g) 3.00 Na 2.00 Folate (µg) 22.00
Total sugar (g) 3.53 Zn 0.16 Vitamin A (µg) 1.00
Vitamin E (µg) 0.30
Vitamin K (µg) 3.50
Source: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service. 2013. USDA National Nutrient Database
for Standard Reference, Release 26. Nutrient Data Laboratory Home Page, http://www.ars.usda.gov/ba/
bhnrc/ndl. Accessed July 2014.
 Eggplant 483

(a) (b)

vb
p
c
s

FIGURE 21.4 Histolocalization of phenolic antioxidants (chlorogenic acid) with 2-aminoethyl diphenylborinate detected
by greenish fluorescence when excited under UV light (Mondolot et al., 2006). The specific fluorescence of chlorogenic
acid in eggplant showed lower intensity in the outer pulp (near the peel) (a), but is highly concentrated in peel of white fruit
Downloaded by [Cristian Matias Ortiz] at 16:52 27 November 2015

and pulp core, seeds, and vascular tissues of white and purple fruits (b). Note: p, peel; vb, vascular bundle; s, seed; c, core.
Scale bar: 2 mm.

The violet hues of dark genotypes are imparted mainly by delphinidin type anthocyanins (Matsuzoe
et al., 1999). Based on the major delphinidin derivatives, dark eggplants have been subdivided in
Nasunin type fruit, in which delphinidin-3-(p-coumaroylrutinoside)-5-glucoside predominates and
Tulipanin varieties, in which delphinidin-3-rutinoside is prevalent (Azuma et al., 2008). Anthocyanins
contribute to fruit antioxidant capacity, but their participation in total fruit radical scavenging proper-
ties is much lower than that of ChA. Different to other anthocyanin-accumulating fruit, in which the
pigments increase throughout development, eggplant anthocyanins may reach their maximal con-
centration at early ontogenic stages (Figure 21.3). Other flavonoids, such as the flavonol glycosides
quercetin-3-glucoside, quercetin-3-rhamnoside, and myricetin-3-galactoside, have been identified
­
(Singh et al., 2009).

21.4 Harvest Operations, Postharvest Biology, and Technology

21.4.1 Quality Attributes and Harvest Operations
The fruit should be glossy, free of surface scalds, and wounds and have an intact and dark green calyx
(Molinar et al., 1996). High-quality eggplants must have good sanitary conditions, be firm and free of
damage and off-flavors. The flesh should be white or creamy and with no browning. The seed coats
should not be fully developed. Eggplants are harvested when still physiologically immature (Gajewski
and Arasimowicz, 2004). Fruit is usually picked manually and mainly based on size. Late harvests are
undesirable since they will lead to seedy and bitter fruit. Given the rapid fruit growth during the summer
season pickings are usually required every 3–5 days. In the last years, there has been increased interest in
the commercialization of “baby” eggplants. Miniature eggplants have high visual appeal and are richer
in antioxidants (Zaro et al., 2014b). However, higher prices are required to compensate the yield losses
resulting from anticipated harvests.

21.4.2 Postharvest Physiology

Eggplant is a nonclimacteric fruit with a moderate respiration rate (RR) (30 mL CO2 kg−1 h−1 at 12.5°C,
for fruit at intermediate developmental stages) (Cantwell and Suslow, 2013). “Baby” fruit has twofold to
threefold higher RR and are consequently highly perishable (Rodriguez et al., 2001; Zaro et al., 2014b).
Ethylene production is also moderate (0.1–0.7 μL kg−1 h−1 at 12.5°C) (Concellón et al., 2005; Cantwell
and Suslow, 2013). Although the fruit is not very sensitive to ethylene, the hormone can accelerate calyx
senescence and abscission and increase the activity of the phenolic-oxidizing enzyme polyphenol oxi-
dase (PPO) (Massolo et al., 2011; Cantwell and Suslow, 2013).
 484 Handbook of Vegetable Preservation and Processing

21.4.3 Major Causes of Postharvest Deterioration

1. Dehydration: Water loss is one of the most prevalent causes of postharvest deterioration when
fruits are not stored under proper temperature and relative humidity (RH). Eggplant show
appreciable dehydration symptoms with weight losses over 5% (Zaro, 2014). Water loss reduces
the peel turgor pressure and decreasing fruit gloss (Figure 21.5a). Japanese eggplants lose water
more rapidly than American-type fruit. Though water can be lost from the entire surface, the
calyx was identified as the main route for water vapor flux (Díaz-Pérez, 1998). Particular atten-
tion in water loss prevention may be taken with “baby” eggplants due their higher surface to
volume ratio and relative calyx area.
2. Postharvest diseases: Fruit decay may be a major cause of quality loss. Phomopsis rots develop
as depressed circular spots with light-brown blotches. The lesions may subsequently coalesce
and evolve into soft rots. The infection frequently originates below the calyx, but may occur
throughout the fruit’s surface (Salunkhe and Desai, 1984). Alternaria tenuis attack may
Downloaded by [Cristian Matias Ortiz] at 16:52 27 November 2015

be prevalent in chilling-injured fruit. The lesions evolve as circular depressions with black

(a) (b)

(c) (d)

FIGURE 21.5 Main postharvest causes of eggplant deterioration: (a) calyx and pericarp dehydration, (b) calyx decay,
(c) pulp browning, and (d) chilling injury.
 Eggplant 485

mycelia, which may penetrate the flesh (Salunkhe and Desai, 1984). Anthracnose caused by
Colletotrichum melongenae is characterized by circular dark brown spots and watery soft rots
may be caused by Erwinia carotovora. Other opportunistic pathogens can contribute to rapid
calyx necrosis (Figure 21.5b).
3. Browning: Enzymatic browning is a main cause of eggplant deterioration during processing
(Murcia et al., 2009). PPOs and peroxidases (PODs) are the primary enzymes involved in
eggplant browning. Both enzymes oxidize phenolic compounds to quinones, which finally are
polymerized to giving brown-colored pigments (Mishra et al., 2012b, 2013). Browning reduces
the attractiveness for consumers and decreases the level of phenolic antioxidants (Figure 21.5c).
Tissue browning could be affected by a number of factors including the enzyme levels, tissue
pH, substrate availability, temperature, O2, and H2O2 levels (for PPO and POD, respectively).
Prohens et al. (2007) indicated that the content of phenolic compounds correlated with the
degree of browning. However, for whole eggplants tissue integrity is the limiting factor for this
undesirable reaction (Massolo et al., 2011; Zaro, 2014). Flesh browning is a major cause of qual-
Downloaded by [Cristian Matias Ortiz] at 16:52 27 November 2015

ity loss in whole fruit stored under chilling conditions (Concellón et al., 2007), but not under
proper temperature management (Concellón et al., 2012; Zaro, 2014).

21.4.4 Postharvest Handling

1. Temperature and relative humidity: Rapid cooling after harvest is essential for optimal
postharvest performance (Cantwell and Suslow, 2013). The fruit is highly sensitive to chill-
ing injury (CI) and final cooling and storage temperatures should not be below 7°C–10°C
(Nothmann, 1986; Concellón et al., 2007; Cantwell and Suslow, 2013). Chilling symptoms
include surface pitting and scalds (Figure 21.5d), internal browning, and increased suscepti-
bility to pathogens (Concellón et al., 2007). Storage at chilling temperatures also exacerbates
ethylene production (Rodriguez et al., 2001). CI severity depends on the genotype, tempera-
ture, or exposure time (Kader, 2002). Japanese eggplants are more susceptible to CI than
American varieties and damage symptoms could develop after 6–8 days at 5°C (Cantwell
and Suslow, 2013). In some cases, the area below the calyx shows the first manifestations
of CI (Concellón et al., 2007). In contrast to other fruits in which higher CI sensitivity is
found at early stages, full-sized fruit showed higher CI damages than “baby” eggplants (Zaro
et al., 2014b). Under optimal temperatures, the storage potential for fresh eggplants could
range between 14 and 21 days. The RH in storage areas is also critical to prevent deteriora-
tion. Storage at 80%–84% RH at 20°C would decrease calyx freshness and reduce surface
gloss in 2 days (Jha and Matsuoka, 2002). The recommended RH in eggplant storage areas
ranges between 85% and 90%. Moistened paper, waxed cartons, or polyethylene bags may
also contribute to decrease water loss. CI symptoms were reduced with the use of nanometric
humidifiers, indicating a cross-talk between postharvest temperature and water stress (Hung
et al., 2011).
2. Modified atmospheres: Controlled (CA) or modified (MA) atmospheres do not show high
improvements in eggplant, though some benefits have been reported. Reducing the level of O2
(3%–5%) and increasing CO2 (3%) delayed deterioration for a few days (Kaynas et al., 1995). In
some cases, the MA storage was also reported to delay CI symptoms development (Fallik et al.,
1995; Rodriguez et al., 2001).
3. Other treatments: Though ethylene is not crucial in the control of eggplant ripening, the inhibi-
tion of its action by 1-methylcyclopropene (1-MCP) treatments was shown to reduce deteriora-
tion (Massolo et al., 2011). Avoiding exposure to ethylene from injured or rotten fruit as from
other external sources during transport or storage may retard quality losses.

Calyx deterioration is one of the first factors contributing to quality loss in stored eggplant. Dips with fun-
gicides and plant growth regulator (Temkin-Gorodeiski et al., 1993), essential oils, (Fallik and Grinberg,
1992), or hydrogen peroxide may effectively retard calyx senescence (Fallik et al., 1994).
 486 Handbook of Vegetable Preservation and Processing

Postharvest mild heat treatments (HT) have been used to reduce decay and chilling injury in a num-
ber of fresh fruits and vegetables (Lurie, 1998). Rodriguez et al. (2001) reported that hot air treatments
(35°C, 1 h) delayed CI and extended the postharvest of purple eggplants stored at 3°C. Concellón (2003)
found that a combination of air HT (40°C, 2 h) and MA (11% O2 and 2% CO2) retarded CI development.
Karasahin et al. (2005) indicated that eggplants subjected to a combined heat (40°C, 3 min in water) and
ultraviolet-C (UV-C) irradiation (3.6 kJ m−2) treatment maintained quality for 20 days at 10°C. However,
in some cultivars UV-C radiation may induce calyx browning.

21.5 Processing
Eggplants may be subjected to a number of preliminary steps (washing, cutting, slicing, blanching, salt-
ing, treatments with antioxidant, or firming agents) (Table 21.2), processing operations (drying, freezing,
and pickling) (Table 21.3), or cooking (Table 21.4) methods.
Downloaded by [Cristian Matias Ortiz] at 16:52 27 November 2015

21.5.1 Preliminary Treatments

Eggplants may be initially cleaned by dry methods to remove dust and coarse surface residues. Fruit
must be then washed with potable water by immersion or shower methods. Chlorine (100–200 ppm
NaClO, pH 6.5–7.5) could be added to prevent cross-contamination in dump washing tanks.
After calyx removal and depending on the final product, the fruit is then peeled or sliced,
blanched, salted, or treated with antioxidant or firming agents. Sharp and thin blades are mandatory
during cutting operations to minimize cell disruption, nutrient leakage, and PPO-mediated brown-
ing (Mishra et al., 2012a). The fruit should be processed immediately upon cutting. However, if is

TABLE 21.2
Main Pre-Treatments Reported for Eggplant Processing
References Variety Treatment Experimental
Mishra et al. Kalpatharu Cutting Cut into cubes (3 g) using a sharp blade or a
(2012a) conventional knife, dipped in water, stored at 26°C,
10°C, or 4°C.
Zaro (2014) Lucia (purple) Cutting Cut into slices (8 mm) and treated:
Cloud Nine (white) Salting a. Delayed processing (60 min)
Blanching b. Salting for 90 min
c. Blanching in water (100°C, 1.5 min)
Barbagallo Hybrid F1 “Birgah” Cutting Peeled, cut into cubes (2.5 cm), dipped in Ca citrate or
et al. (2012) Antioxidant and Ca ascorbate solutions (0.4% of Ca, 60°C, 1 min)
firming
Ghidelli et al. Telma Cutting Peeled, cut (50 × 35 × 15 mm pieces), dipped in
(2013) Antioxidant antioxidant solutions for 3 min, and stored at 5°C for
Antimicrobial 7–9 days.
Firming Additives tested: ascorbic acid, citric acid, peracetic
acid, calcium chloride, cysteine, hexametaphosphate,
and 4-hexylresorcinol.
Hu et al. NR Cutting and ethanol Peeled, cut into cubes (15 mm), exposed to ethanol
(2010) treatment vapor (5 mL kg−1 5 h at 20°C), and stored at 10°C.
Banjongsinsiri Classic Vacuum infusion of Cut into slices (8 × 10 mm), dipped in ascorbic acid,
et al. (2004) calcium and/or PME and treated:
Vacuum infusion of CaCl2 and/or PME:
a. Vacuum infusion at 68 kPa for 15 min at 30°C
b. Pulsed vacuum at 85 kPa for 5 min at 30°C
Temperature gradient without vacuum (30°C–4°C),
stored at 4°C.
Note: NR, not reported.
 Eggplant 487

TABLE 21.3
Main Processing Methods Reported for Eggplant Fruit
References Variety Treatment Experimental
Akpinar and NR Drying Cut into slices (6 × 30 mm) and drying in a convective-type-
Bicer (2005) cyclone dryer at 55°C, 65°C, or 75°C (1–1.5 ms−1 air
velocity).
Doymaz (2011) NR Drying Cut into slices (15 mm) and dried at 50°C, 60°C, 70°C, or 80°C
(2 m s−1 air velocity) with or without blanching (3 min, 70°C).
Doymaz and NR Drying Cut into slices (5 or 10 mm) and dried at 50°C, 60°C, 70°C, or
Göl (2011) 80°C (2 m s−1 air velocity) with or without blanching (3 min,
70°C).
Brasiello et al. Longo Drying Peeled, cut into slices (30 × 6 mm), and drying at 40°C, 50°C,
(2013) 60°C, or 70°C.
Ertekin and NR Drying Cut into slices (0.635, 1.27, and 2.54 cm), dipped into boiling
Downloaded by [Cristian Matias Ortiz] at 16:52 27 November 2015

Yaldiz (2004) water (5 min), and drying at 30°C, 40°C, 50°C, 60°C, and
70°C (0.5, 1, or 2 m s−1 air velocity).
Zaro (2014) Lucía Drying Cut into slices (8 mm) and subjected to:
(purple) Freezing a. Convective air-drying (50°C or 70°C, 2.5 m s−1 air
Cloud Nine velocity)
(white) b. Vacuum drying (70°C, 5 kPa).
c. Solar drying (50°C).
d. Slow-freezing (−20°C, 3 h).
e. Fast-freezing (−20°C, 1.5 h).
Santacatalina Black Drying Cut into cubes (10 mm) and subjected to:
et al. (2011) Enorma Freeze–drying a. Drying (50°C, 2 m s−1 air velocity)
b. Freeze–drying (−14°C. 2 m s−1 air velocity, 10% HR)
c. Freeze–drying (−45°C and 10–3 mbar)
Zhang et al. NR Infrared drying Cut into slices (2, 3.2, 5, 6.8, or 8 mm) and subjected to
(2012) infrared drying at 40°C, 46°C, 55°C, 64°C or 70°C.
Aydogdu et al. NR Microwave-IR Cut into slices (5 mm) and treated combining:
(2013) drying and Osmotic drying with NaCl 10 or 20% w/w (50°C, 2 h)
osmotic Microwave (M) and infrared (IR) drying applied in an M–IR
dehydration combination oven
Puig et al. Black Ultrasound Peeled, cut into slices (24 × 20 mm), and drying at 40°C (air
(2012) Enorma assisted drying 1 m s−1) combined with ultrasound applied at two different
electric power levels, 45 or 90 W, to the piezoelectric
composite transducer (21.7 kHz)
García-Pérez Black Ultrasound Cut into cylinders (20 × 24 mm) and drying at 40°C (1 m s−1 air
et al. (2011) Enorma assisted drying velocity) with ultrasound (0, 6, 12, 19, 25, 31, and 37 kW m−3)
driven by a piezoelectric composite transducer (21.8 kHz)
García-Pérez Black Ultrasound- Cut into cubes (10 mm), freezing at −20°C and treated:
et al. (2012) Enorma assisted a. Air-drying (AIR) (−14°C, 2 m s−1 air velocity, 7% HR)
low-temp. drying b. Ultrasonically (US) assisted drying: AIR + US
(19.5 kW m−3, 45 W, 2.3 L of drying chamber)
Wu et al. NR Vacuum drying Cut into rectangular pieces (45 × 25 × 20 mm) and drying at
(2007) 30°C, 40°C, or 50°C and 2.5, 5, and 10 kPa or atmospheric
pressure.
Wu et al. NR Vacuum drying Cut (45 × 25 × 20 mm) and subjected to:
(2009) Freezing a. Vacuum drying (30°C, 2.5 kPa)
b. Air and cryogenic freezing
Otero et al. NR Freezing Whole fruit.
(1998) a. Freezing (−20°C) in a still-air freezer
b. Freezing (−40°C) in an air-blast freezer (5.5 m s−1 air
velocity)
c. High-pressure-assisted freezing (−20°C, 200 MPa)
Note: NR, not reported.
 488 Handbook of Vegetable Preservation and Processing

TABLE 21.4
Main Cooking Methods Reported for Eggplant Fruit
References Variety Treatment Experimental
Takamura et al. NR Boiling Cut into small pieces.
(2002) Microwaving a. Cooked in boiling water for 5 min
b. Microwaved a plastic cap (500 W, 5 min)
Pellegrini et al. NR Boiling Cut into slices. For all treatments, the minimum cooking
(2009) Frying time to reach an adequate palatability and taste was used
a. Boiled
b. Pan-fried using olive oil
c. Deep-frying in peanut oil (170°C).
Chumyam et al. Four purple Boiling Whole fruit.
(2013) varieties Steaming a. Cooked in boiling water for 5, 10 or 15 min
Microwaving b. Steam cooked (atm pressure) for 5, 10 or 15 min
Downloaded by [Cristian Matias Ortiz] at 16:52 27 November 2015

c. Microwaved with a plastic cap (700 W for 5, 10 or

15 min)
Lo Scalzo et al. Black Bell Grilling Cut into slices (10 mm).
(2010) Boiling a. Grilled (190°C–210°C, 4–5 min on either side)
b. Boiled (100°C, 10 min)
Das et al. (2011) NR Grilling Grilled (190°C–210°C, 4–5 min) and then freeze–dried
(frozen in an air blast tunnel at −50°C and lyophilized until
constant weight).
Zaro (2014) Lucía (purple) Microwaving Cut into slices (8 mm thick).
Cloud Nine Baking a. Microwaved (350 W, 10 min)
(white) Grilling b. Baked (140°C for 40 min)
Steaming c. Grilled (175°C, 14 min)
High press. cooking d. Steamed atm. Pressure (100°C, 10 min)
Boiling e. Pressure cooker (120°C, 2 min)
f. Boiled (100°C, 8 min)
Jiménez-Monreal NR Boiling Cut in small pieces and:
et al. (2009) Microwaving a. Boiled (100°C, 16 min)
Press. cooking b. Microwaved (1500 W, 3.5 min)
Grilling c. Pressure cooked (120°C, 4 min)
Frying d. Grilled (200°C, 10 min)
Baking e. Fried in refined olive oil (169°C, 10 min)
f. Baked (200°C, 38 min)
Note: NR, not reported.

required the fruit may be stored at 0°C, since no CI will develop in short periods. Delays of 60 min
at room temperature could markedly reduce fruit appearance and cause significant antioxidants
losses (20%–50%) (Zaro, 2014).

1. Blanching: Eggplant blanching is primarily intended to inactivate browning enzymes but will
soften the fruit tissues and remove air from the fruit tissues. PPO inactivation of both white and
purple eggplant slices (8 mm thick) was achieved by immersion in boiling water for 1.5 min.
White eggplant was particularly susceptible to postcooking browning caused by the formation
of dark complexes (Zaro, 2014). The problem may be reduced by adding chelating agents or
antioxidants during cooking. Barbagallo et al. (2012) used water-containing antioxidants (cal-
cium ascorbate, 0.4%) for blanching treatments.
2. Salting, antioxidant, and firming treatments: For some preparations, cut eggplants are immersed
in dry salt or brine. This may be useful to partially remove water and to reduce fruit bitterness.
By reducing O2 partial pressure immersion in brine may reduce browning. A 1 h salting treat-
ment may lead to extensive leakage of phenolic antioxidants (10%–50%) (Zaro, 2014).
 Eggplant 489

As for other vegetables dips in ascorbic acid (or its less expensive isomer erythorbic acid) and citric
acid are among the most common pretreatment used to minimize browning. Sulfites could be also used
and may have a long lasting effect, but their use is being growingly questioned. Immersion in solutions
containing 1% cysteine prevented browning of eggplant cubes for 9 days at 5°C (Ghidelli et al., 2013).
Pretreatments with ethanol vapor eggplant cubes also reduced enzymatic browning (Hu et al., 2010).
Firming treatments such as dips and infusion with calcium salts have been evaluated. Pretreatments with
pectin methylesterase (PME) may generate further sites for the formation of calcium bridges reinforcing
the cell wall (Banjongsinsiri et al., 2004).

21.5.2 Drying
Drying is one of the most widely used forms of preservation methods used in eggplant (Table 21.3).
However, it markedly reduced fruit antioxidant capacity (Zaro, 2014). A number of studies have focused
in the selection of drying conditions for eggplants (Akpinar and Bicer, 2005; Doymaz, 2011; Doymaz
Downloaded by [Cristian Matias Ortiz] at 16:52 27 November 2015

and Göl, 2011). By scanning electron microscopy (SEM) Brasiello et al. (2013) observed that fruit dried
at 60°C had better microstructure than those treated at both 50°C and 70°C. Ertekin and Yaldiz (2004)
found higher rehydration capacity in fruit dried at 50°C. While, vacuum drying causes same shrinkage of
the tissue (Wu et al., 2007) also yielded fruit with high rehydration capacity (Santacatalina et al., 2011).
Other less conventional drying methods, such as infrared and microwave drying, have been successfully
tested in eggplant (Zhang et al., 2012; Aydogdu et al., 2013). Ultrasound-assisted drying was effective to
reduce total drying times (García-Pérez et al., 2011, 2012; Puig et al., 2012).

21.5.3 Freezing and Pickling

Eggplants are perfectly suited for freezing treatments (Table 21.3). As for other vegetables, the fruit is
sorted, washed, sliced, and blanched in antioxidant solutions and subsequently frozen as fast as possible
(Wu et al., 2009). By reducing intracellular water and minimizing the formation of large ice crystals and
drip losses after thawing, rapid freezing would result in highest grade products (Zaro et al., 2014a). High-
pressure freezing minimized fruit structural damage (Otero et al., 1998).
In some countries, pickling is a widely used method for eggplant preservation. After washing, slic-
ing, and salting the fruit are usually subjected to a short cooking step in acetic acid solutions in which
different spices are added. The hot product may be then canned and subjected to a short pasteurization
treatment.

21.5.4 Cooking
Eggplants can be cooked and prepared in many different ways. Traditional eggplant dishes may include
fried, boiled, grilled, microwaved, baked, stewed, pureed, and pickled fruit (Table 21.4). In addition to
serving as a meat substitute in dishes such as Italian eggplant parmesan, eggplant is used in traditional
ethnic dishes: such as Greek moussaka and ratatouille French and in Middle Eastern appetizers such as
baba ghanoush, a popular dip, and various spreads. In general, people believe that cooking vegetables
leads to a loss in phytonutrients, but several studies have demonstrated that cooking is not always a det-
rimental process. Boiling and microwaving generally resulted in an increment of antioxidant capacity
in some vegetables, included eggplant (Takamura et al., 2002; Jiménez-Monreal et al., 2009; Pellegrini
et al., 2009, Chumyam et al., 2013). Zaro (2014) found similar results cooking slices of purple and white
eggplant in a moist environment (boiling, steaming, and high pressure cooking) or microwaving. While
baking, in general, decreases the antioxidants compounds they are not affected or in some cases would
be increased by grilling (Lo Scalzo et al., 2010; Zaro, 2014). Probably, the tissue softening and disag-
gregation increase extraction of the active phytonutrients with antioxidant action. In the same way, con-
sume of raw eggplant has cardioprotective ability and grilling it did not affected this healthy ability (Das
et al., 2011). Deep-frying eggplant is another cooking alternative that preserve their nutritional properties
(Jiménez-Monreal et al., 2009; Pellegrini et al., 2009).
 490 Handbook of Vegetable Preservation and Processing

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors thank the CONICET (PIP-0353; PIP-0288) and the Agencia Nacional de Promoción
Científica y Tecnológica (PICT 2009-0059; PICT 2012-2803) for financial support.

REFERENCES
Akanitapichat, P., Phraibung, K., Nuchklang, K., Prompitakkul, S. 2010. Antioxidant and hepatoprotective
activities of five eggplant varieties. Food Chem. Toxicol. 48(10): 3017–3021.
Akpinar, E., Bicer, Y. 2005. Modelling of the drying of eggplants in thin-layers. Int. J. Food Sci. Technol. 40:
273–281.
Aydogdu, A., Sumnu, G., Sahin, S. 2013. Infrared assisted microwave drying of eggplants. Int. Proc. Chem.
Biol. Environ. Eng. http://www.ipcbee.com/vol50/002-ICFEB2013-B003.pdf. Accessed July 2014.
Azuma, K., Ohyama, A., Ippoushi, K., Ichiyanagi, T., Takeuchi, A., Saito, T., Fukuoka, H. 2008. Structures and
antioxidant activity of anthocyanins in many accessions of eggplant and its related species. J. Agric. Food
Downloaded by [Cristian Matias Ortiz] at 16:52 27 November 2015

Chem. 56(21): 10154–10159.

Bailey, L. 1947. The Standard Cyclopedia of Horticulture. Macmillan, New York.
Banjongsinsiri, P., Shields, J., Wicker, L. 2004. Vacuum infusion of plant or fungal pectinmethylesterase and
calcium affects the texture and structure of eggplant. J. Agric. Food Chem. 52: 8214–8223.
Barbagallo, R., Chisari, M., Caputa, G. 2012. Effects of calcium citrate and ascorbate as inhibitors of browning
and softening in minimally processed ‘Birgah’ eggplants. Postharvest Biol. Technol. 73: 107–114.
Brasiello, A., Adiletta, G., Russo, P., Crescitelli, S., Albanese, D., Di Matteo, M. 2013. Mathematical modelling
of eggplant drying: Shrinkage effect. J. Food Eng. 114: 99–105.
Cantwell, M., Suslow, T. 2013. Eggplant: Recommendations for Maintaining Postharvest Quality. Department
of Plant Sciences, University of California, Davis, CA. http://postharvest.ucdavis.edu/pfvegetable/
Eggplant/. Accessed July 2014.
Cao, G., Sofic, E., Prior, R. 1996. Antioxidant capacity of tea and common vegetables. J. Agric. Food Chem.
44(11): 3426–3431.
Chumyam, A., Whangchai, K., Jungklang, J., Faiyue, B., Saengnil, K. 2013. Effects of heat treatments on anti-
oxidant capacity and total phenolic content of four cultivars of purple skin eggplants. Sci. Asia 39: 246.
Concellón, A. 2003. Daño por frío en frutos no climatéricos. Doctoral thesis. Faculty of Exact Science, National
University of La Plata, La Plata, Argentina. p. 202. http://sedici.unlp.edu.ar. Accessed July 2014.
Concellón, A., Añón, M., Chaves, A. 2005. Effect of chilling on ethylene production in eggplant fruit. Food
Chem. 92(1): 63–69.
Concellón, A., Añón, M., Chaves, A. 2007. Effect of low temperature storage on physical and physiological
characteristics of eggplant fruit (Solanum melongena L.). LWT: Food Sci. Technol. 40(3): 389–396.
Concellón, A., Zaro, M., Chaves, A., Vicente, A. 2012. Changes in quality and phenolic antioxidants in dark
purple American eggplant (Solanum melongena L. cv. Lucía) as affected by storage at 0°C and 10°C.
Postharvest Biol. Technol. 66: 35–41.
Das, S., Raychaudhuri, U., Falchi, M., Bertelli, A., Braga, P., Das, D. 2011. Cardioprotective properties of raw
and cooked eggplant (Solanum melongena L.). Food Funct. 2: 395–399.
Daunay, M. 2008. Eggplant. In: Handbook of Plant Breeding: Vegetables II, Prohens, J., Nuez, F. (eds.).
Springer, New York. pp. 163–220.
Daunay, M., Lester, R., Ano, G. 2001a. Cultivated eggplants. In: Tropical Plant Breeding, Charrier, A., Jacquot,
M., Hamon, S., Nicholas, D. (eds.). Oxford University Press, Oxford, U.K. pp. 200–225.
Daunay, M., Lester, R., Gebhardt, C., Hennart, J., Jahn, M. 2001b. Genetic resources of eggplant (Solanum
melongena L.) and allied species: A new challenge for molecular geneticists and eggplant breeders.
In: Solanaceae V: Advances in taxonomy and utilization, van den Berg, R.G., Barendse, G.W., van der
Weerden, G.M., Mariani, C. (eds.). Nijmegen University Press, Nijmegen, the Netherlands. pp. 251–274.
Derivi, S., Mendez, M., Francisconi, A., Silva, C., Castro, A., Luz, D. 2002. Hypoglycemic effect of eggplant
(Solanum melongena, L.) in rats. Ciênc. Tecnol. Aliment. 22(2): 164–169.
Díaz-Pérez, J. 1998. Transpiration rates in eggplant fruit as affected by fruit and calyx size. Postharvest Biol.
Technol. 13(1): 45–49.
Doymaz, I. 2011. Drying of eggplant slices in thin layers at different air temperatures. J. Food Process. Preserv.
35: 280–289.
 Eggplant 491

Doymaz, I., Göl, E. 2011. Convective drying characteristics of eggplant slices. J. Food Process. Eng. 34:
1234–1252.
El-Qudah, J. 2009. Identification and quantification of major carotenoids in some vegetables. Am. J. Appl. Sci.
6: 492.
Ertekin, C., Yaldiz, O. 2004. Drying of eggplant and selection of a suitable thin layer drying model. J. Food
Eng. 63: 349–359.
Fallik, E., Aharoni, Y., Grinberg, S., Copel, A., Klein, J. 1994. Postharvest hydrogen peroxide treatment inhibits
decay in eggplant and sweet red pepper. Crop. Prot. 13: 451–454.
Fallik, E., Grinberg, S. 1992. Hinokitiol: A natural substance that controls postharvest diseases in eggplant and
pepper fruits. Postharvest Biol. Technol. 2: 137–144.
Fallik, E., Naomi, T., Shoshana, G., Davidson, H. 1995. Prolonged low temperature storage of eggplants in
polyethylene bags. Postharvest Biol. Technol. 5: 83–89.
FAOSTAT. 2014. Country rank in the world, by commodity; eggplants (aubergines). http://faostat.fao.org/
site/339/default.aspx. Accessed July 2014.
Gajewski, M., Arasimowicz, D. 2004. Sensory quality of eggplant fruits (Solanum melongena L.) as affected
Downloaded by [Cristian Matias Ortiz] at 16:52 27 November 2015

by cultivar and maturity stage. Pol. J. Food Nutr. Sci. 13/54(3): 249–254.
García-Pérez, J., Carcel, J., Riera, E., Rosselló, C., Mulet, A. 2012. Intensification of low-temperature drying
by using ultrasound. Dry Technol. 30: 1199–1208.
García-Pérez, J., Ozuna, C., Ortuño, C., Cárcel, J., Mulet, A. 2011. Modeling ultrasonically assisted convective
drying of eggplant. Dry Technol. 29: 1499–1509.
Ghidelli, C., Mateos, M., Rojas-Argudo, C., Pérez-Gago, M. 2013. Effect of antioxidants on enzymatic brown-
ing of eggplant extract and fresh-cut tissue: Control of enzymatic browning of cut eggplants. J. Food
Process. Preserv. 38: 1501–1510.
Han, S., Tae, J., Kim, J., Kim, D., Seo, G., Yun, K., Lee, Y. 2003. The aqueous extract of Solanum melongena
inhibits PAR2 agonist-induced inflammation. Clinica Chimica Acta 328(1): 39–44.
Hu, W., Jiang, A., Tian, M., Liu, C., Wang, Y. 2010. Effect of ethanol treatment on physiological and quality
attributes of fresh-cut eggplant. J. Sci. Food Agric. 90: 1323–1326.
Hung, D., Tong, S., Tanaka, F., Yasunaga, E., Hamanaka, D., Hiruma, N., Uchino, T. 2011. Controlling the
weight loss of fresh produce during postharvest storage under a nano‐size mist environment. J. Food
Eng. 106(4): 325–330.
Jha, S., Matsuoka, T. 2002. Surface stiffness and density of eggplant during storage. J. Food Eng. 54(1): 23–26.
Jiménez-Monreal, A., García-Diz, L., Martínez-Tomé, M., Mariscal, M., Murcia, M. 2009. Influence of cook-
ing methods on antioxidant activity of vegetables. J. Food Sci. 74: H97–H103.
Kader, A. 2002. Postharvest Technology of Horticultural Crops, 3rd edn. University of California. Davis, CA.
Karasahin, I., Pekmezci, M., Erkan, M. 2005. Combined hot water and UV-C treatments reduces postharvest
decay and maintains quality of eggplants. Frutic, 5: 12–16.
Kaynas, K., Özelkök, S., Sümeli, N., Abak, K. 1995. Controlled and modified atmosphere storage of eggplant
(Solanum melongena L.) fruits. International Symposium on Solanacea for Fresh Market, Malaga, Spain,
vol. 412, pp. 143–151.
Lo Scalzo, R., Fibiani, M., Mennella, G., Rotino, G., Dal Sasso, M., Culici, M., Spallino, A., Braga, P. 2010.
Thermal treatment of eggplant (Solanum melongena L.) increases the antioxidant content and the inhibi-
tory effect on human neutrophil burst. J. Agric. Food Chem. 58: 3371–3379.
Lurie, S. 1998. Postharvest heat treatments: Review. Postharvest Biol. Technol. 14: 257–269.
Massolo, J., Concellón, A., Chaves, A., Vicente, A. 2011. 1-Methylcyclopropene (1-MCP) delays senescence
maintains quality and reduces browning of non-climacteric eggplant (Solanum melongena L.) fruit.
Postharvest Biol. Technol. 59(1): 10–15.
Matsubara, K., Kaneyuki, T., Miyake, T., Mori, M. 2005. Antiangiogenic activity of nasunin, an antioxidant
anthocyanin, in eggplant peels. J. Agric. Food Chem. 53: 6272–6275.
Matsuzoe, N., Yamaguchi, M., Kawanobu, S., Watanabe, Y., Higgashi, H., Sakata, Y. 1999. Effect of dark treatment
of the eggplant on fruit skin colour and its anthocyanin component. J. Jpn. Soc. Hortic. Sci. 68: 138–145.
Mennella, G., Rotino, G., Fibiani, M., D’alessandro, A., Francese, G., Toppino, L., Cavallanti, F., Acciarri, N.,
Lo Scalzo, R. 2010. Characterization of health-related compounds in eggplant (Solanum melongena L.)
lines derived from introgression of allied species. J. Agric. Food Chem. 58(13): 7597–7603.
Mishra, B., Gautam, S., Sharma, A. 2012a. Browning of fresh-cut eggplant: Impact of cutting and storage.
Postharvest Biol. Technol. 67: 44–51.
 492 Handbook of Vegetable Preservation and Processing

Mishra, B., Gautam, S., Sharma, A. 2012b. Purification and characterization of polyphenol oxidase (PPO) from
eggplant (Solanum melongena). Food Chem. 134: 1855–1861.
Mishra, B., Gautam, S., Sharma, A. 2013. Free phenolics and polyphenol oxidase (PPO): The factors affecting
post‐cut browning in eggplant (Solanum melongena). Food Chem. 139(1): 105–114.
Molinar, R., Trejo, E., Cantwell, M. 1996. The development of chilling injury in three types of eggplants. http://
ucce.ucdavis.edu/files/datastore/234–236.pdf. Accessed July 2014.
Mondolot, L., La Fisca, P., Buatois, B., Talansier, E., De Kochko, A., Campa, C. 2006. Evolution in caf-
feoylquinic acid content and histolocalization during Coffea canephora leaf development. Ann. Bot.
98: 33–40.
Muñoz-Falcón, J., Prohens, J., Vilanova, S., Nuez, F. 2009. Diversity in commercial varieties and landraces
of black eggplants and implications for broadening the breeders’ gene pool. Ann. Appl. Biol. 154(3):
453–465.
Murcia, M., Jiménez, A., Martínez-Tomé, M. 2009. Vegetables antioxidant losses during industrial processing
and refrigerated storage. Food Res. Int. 42: 1046–1052.
Nothmann, J. 1986. Eggplant. In: Handbook of Fruit Set and Development, Monselise, S. (ed.). CRC Press,
Downloaded by [Cristian Matias Ortiz] at 16:52 27 November 2015

Boca Raton, FL. pp. 145–152.

Nothmann, L., Koller, D. 1975. Effects of low-temperature stress on fertility and fruiting of eggplant (Solanum
melongena L.) in a subtropical climate. Exp. Agric. 11: 33–38.
Otero, L., Solas, M., Sanz, P., de Elvira, C., Carrasco, J. 1998. Contrasting effects of high-pressure-assisted
freezing and conventional air-freezing on eggplant tissue microstructure. Z. für Leb. -Forsch. A. 206:
338–342.
Pellegrini, N., Miglio, C., Del Rio, D., Salvatore, S., Serafini, M., Brighenti, F. 2009. Effect of domestic cook-
ing methods on the total antioxidant capacity of vegetables. Int. J. Food Sci. Nutr. 60: 12–22.
Prohens, J., Blanca, J., Nuez, F. 2005. Morphological and molecular variation in a collection of eggplant from
a secondary center of diversity: Implications for conservation and breeding. J. Am. Soc. Hort. Sci. 130:
54–63.
Prohens, J., Rodríguez-Burruezo, A., Raigón, M., Nuez, F. 2007. Total phenolic concentration and browning
susceptibility in a collection of different varietal types and hybrids of eggplant: Implications for breeding
for higher nutritional quality and reduced browning. J. Am. Soc. Hortic. Sci. 132(5): 638–646.
Puig, A., Perez-Munuera, I., Carcel, J., Hernando, I., Garcia-Perez, J. 2012. Moisture loss kinetics and micro-
structural changes in eggplant (Solanum melongena L.) during conventional and ultrasonically assisted
convective drying. Food Bioprod. Process. 90: 624–632.
Rodriguez, S., López, B., Chaves, A. 1999. Changes in polyamines and ethylene during the development and
ripening of eggplant fruits (Solanum melongena). J. Agric. Food Chem. 47: 1431–1434.
Rodriguez, S., López, B., Chaves, A. 2001. Effect of different treatments on the evolution of polyamines during
refrigerated storage of eggplants. J. Agric. Food Chem. 49(10): 4700–4705.
Salunkhe, D., Desai, B. 1984. Eggplants. In: Postharvest Biotechnology of Vegetables, Vol. II. CRC Press, Inc.,
Boca Raton, FL, Chapter 4, p. 42.
Sánchez-Mata, M., Yokoyama, W., Hong, Y., Prohens, J. 2010. Solasonine and solamargine contents of gboma
(Solanum macrocarpon L.) and scarlet (Solanum aethiopicum L.) eggplants. J. Agric. Food Chem. 58(9):
5502–5508.
Santacatalina, J., Ozuna, C., Carcel, J., Garcia-Perez, J., Mulet, A. 2011. Quality assessment of dried eggplant
using different drying methods: Hot air drying, vacuum freeze drying and atmospheric freeze drying.
Proceeding of 11th International Congress on Engineering and Food. Available at http://www.icef11.
org/content/papers/aft/aft870.pdf. Accessed July 2014.
Sekara, A., Cebula, S., Kunicki, E. 2007. Cultivated eggplants—Origin, breeding objectives and genetic
resources, a review. Folia Hortic. 19: 97–114.
Singh, A., Luthria, D., Wilson, T., Vorsa, N., Singh, V., Banuelos, G., Pasakdee, S. 2009. Polyphenols content
and antioxidant capacity of eggplant pulp. Food Chem. 114: 955–961.
Sudheesh, S., Presannakumar, G., Vijayakumur, S., Vijayalakshmi, N. 1997. Hypolipidemic effect of flavonoids
from Solanum melongena. Plant Food Hum Nutr. 51: 321–330.
Takamura, H., Yamaguchi, T., Terao, J., Matoba, T. 2002. Change in radical-scavenging activity of spices
and vegetables during cooking. In: Bioactive Compounds in Foods: Effect of processing and storage,
Lee, T.C., Ho, C.T. (eds.). American Chemical Society, Washington, D.C. pp. 34–43.
 Eggplant 493

Temkin-Gorodeiski, N., Shapito, B., Grinberg, S., Rosenberger, I., Fallik, E. 1993. Postharvest treatments to
control eggplant deterioration during storage. J. Hortic. Sci. 68: 689–693.
U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service. 2013. USDA National Nutrient Database for
Standard Reference, Release 26. Nutrient Data Laboratory Home Page, http://www.ars.usda.gov/ba/
bhnrc/ndl. Accessed July 2014.
Whitaker, B., Stommel, J. 2003. Distribution of hydroxycinnamic acid conjugates in fruit of commercial egg-
plant (Solanum melongena L.) cultivars. J. Agric. Food Chem. 51(11): 3448–3454.
Wu, L., Orikasa, T., Ogawa, Y., Tagawa, A. 2007. Vacuum drying characteristics of eggplants. J. Food Eng. 83:
422–429.
Wu, L., Orikasa, T., Tokuyasu, K., Shiina, T., Tagawa, A. 2009. Applicability of vacuum-dehydrofreezing tech-
nique for the long-term preservation of fresh-cut eggplant: Effects of process conditions on the quality
attributes of the samples. J. Food Eng. 91: 560–565.
Zaro, M. 2014. Análisis de factores que afectan la acumulación, distribución y estabilidad de antioxidantes de
naturaleza fenólica en berenjena (Solanum melongena L.). Doctoral thesis. College of Exact Science.
National University of La Plata, La Plata, Argentine. 220pp.
Downloaded by [Cristian Matias Ortiz] at 16:52 27 November 2015

Zaro, M., Chaves, A., Vicente, A., Concellón, A. 2014a. Distribution, stability and fate of phenolic compounds
of white and purple eggplants (Solanum melongena L.). Postharvest Biol. Technol. 92: 70–78.
Zaro, M., Keunchkarian, S., Chaves, A., Vicente, A., Concellón, A. 2014b. Changes in bioactive compounds
and response to postharvest storage conditions in purple eggplants as affected by fruit developmental
stage. Posharvest Biol. Technol. 96: 110–117.
Zhang, L., Wang, X., Yu, L., Zhang, H. 2012. Drying characteristics and color changes of infrared drying egg-
plant. Trans. Chin. Soc. Agric. Eng. 28: 291–296.
 Downloaded by [Cristian Matias Ortiz] at 16:52 27 November 2015

View publication stats