Women's Studies International Forum 35 (2012) 343–353

Contents lists available at SciVerse ScienceDirect

Women's Studies International Forum

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/wsif

Water and waste management in the Moroccan tourism industry: The case
of three women entrepreneurs
María del Mar Alonso-Almeida
Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, Facultad de Económicas y Administración de Empresas, Módulo E-VIII: Departamento de Organización de Empresas,
28049 Madrid, Spain

a r t i c l e i n f o s y n o p s i s

Available online 20 July 2012
Water is a key resource for the tourism industry, especially in countries lacking in drinking
water and water infrastructures, such as Morocco. This case study analyzes women's degree of
empowerment for making significant decisions regarding water management, and their
contribution to the community through the companies they establish in the tourism sector.
Through the tourism industry, the Moroccan women have managed to enter the labor force in
the formal economy, thus gaining independence and social recognition. The study shows that
women can have a positive role in promoting practices designed to protect the environment in
view of managing the available water resources, thus helping to increase the wealth of the
local community.
© 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Introduction innovative ways (Veuthey & Gerber, 2011). Finally, from a

According to the World Water Assessment Programme
(2009), in developing countries women are habitually respon-
sible for the management of water destined for household use,
while men take the decisions concerning the overall manage-
ment and development of water resources. This situation is
especially difficult in countries with low levels of water
availability such as Morocco. In this type of country, and
particularly in rural areas, women are responsible for collecting
water from different sources such as ditches, drains and
streams. This activity consumes a large amount of time, during
which women could otherwise have been involved in other
activities to generate income. Moreover, previous research
linking environmentalist and feminist strategies has found that
women working in the tourism sector are more sensitive to
environmental issues than their male counterparts for three
main reasons. The first of these, viewed in terms of basic
patterns of human behavior, can be explained by women's
natural temperament and inclinations (Mellor, 1997). Second-
ly, women enjoying “masculine” positions of power in terms of
access to property, credit and education have the opportunity to
use such positions to make economic growth compatible with
environmental conservation, by applying technical advances in
perspective of feminist “liberation theology”, women who play a
key role in the management of natural resources can then
contribute to the empowerment of other women, thus
improving the latter's quality of life (Rocheleau, 1997). For all
these reasons, the empowerment of women in water manage-
ment is a key issue that can provide positive benefits for the
community. Moreover, as Schein (2007, 6) states, “improving
women's participation in leadership roles is part of the struggle
to enhance the rights, freedoms, and opportunities of all women
globally.”
The travel and tourism sector is very important for the
economic welfare of developing countries. As UNWTO (2010,
2) stated, “tourism can make a significant contribution to
address economic climate and poverty imperatives. Tourism
represents up to 45% of the exports of services of developing
countries and it is often one of the few entry possibilities into
the job market”. Consequently, tourism promotes economic
progress by enhancing infrastructures and increasing phys-
ical capital (Lee & Chang, 2008).
However, a debate exists about the impact of the travel
and tourism sector on the environment. On the one hand,
tourism is one of the main sources of wealth for numerous
destinations, particularly in developing countries in Africa

0277-5395/$ – see front matter © 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.wsif.2012.06.002
344 M. del Mar Alonso-Almeida / Women's Studies International Forum 35 (2012) 343–353
(UNWTO, 2011). On the other hand, it is also pointed out that
tourism consumes energy and water, produces waste and
damages the environment. It is clear that, as in the case of other
countries with dry climates in North Africa and elsewhere,
Morocco's increased level of tourist activity, while representing
a continuing source of economic growth, also inevitably places
increasing strain on water supplies, resulting in a problem of
scarcity of water that can be especially acute during the
summer months. Thus, quite apart from more general consid-
erations about the impact of tourism, the lack of water may also
act as a direct barrier to its further development.
Regarding the situation of women, Morocco is one of the
Arab countries in which the role of women in society has most
changed in recent years. Al Maaitah, Al Maaitah, Olaimat, and
Gharaeibeh (2010) affirmed that Morocco has adopted policies
to integrate women into both the labor market and the political
life of the country. In spite of these efforts, the presence of
women in such activities continues to be quite low compared
with that in other developing countries, especially in entrepre-
neurship (Gray & Finley-Hervey, 2005; Metcalfe, 2008). In this
situation, tourism can play a significant role in the achievement
of the Millennium Development Goals (MDG), specifically in
the case of MDG1 (eradication of poverty), MGD 3 (gender
equality) and MGD 7 (environmental sustainability) (see
UNWTO, 2010).
There is, however, a lack of research into the question of
female entrepreneurs' empowerment to take significant
decisions concerning water management in the tourism
industry in developing countries, especially in relation to
countries where such information is very difficult to obtain,
as is the case in Morocco (Eurostat, 2009). For these reasons,
Al Maaitah et al. (2010) called for qualitative studies to be
carried out in order to gain insights into women's experi-
ences in Arab countries in this respect. To our knowledge,
this study is the first to examine the relationship between
female entrepreneurs and water management practices in
the tourist industry in any country. Some previous research
has focused on the relationship between water issues and
gender with regard to agriculture, but to date no such study
has analyzed this relationship in the tourist industry.
With the aim of exploring this relationship, this work will
analyze the challenges faced by three female entrepreneurs in
their businesses in the tourism industry and their contribution
to attaining the above-mentioned MDGs, placing particular
emphasis on water management and an examination of best
practices in water provision in female-managed tourist
businesses.
This paper contributes to previous literature in environ-
mental management and gender-related issues in a number of
ways. First, it provides empirical material for understanding
how women manage a natural resource such as water when it
is a crucial aspect of their commercial activity. Second, it
highlights ways to explain how women who assume an
entrepreneurial role help to promote the empowerment of
other women. Finally, this paper could provide practical advice
about the importance of best water management practices in
the tourism sector.
For these purposes the remainder of the paper is organized
as follows. An overview of the tourist industry in Morocco and
its impact on water consumption is now presented below. The
following section discusses the social and professional situation
of women in Morocco and their current role in terms of
business initiatives and entrepreneurship. The study's ap-
proach to methodology and data analysis are then explained,
including the presentation and analysis of case studies and of
the study's results. Finally, the study's conclusions are pre-
sented, together with a discussion of its limitations and
suggestions for possible future lines of research.
Overview of tourism in Morocco
The Moroccan government is committed to working to
decrease poverty and improve the environment. Tourism is one
of the main instruments through which it aims to achieve these
goals, being the second largest contributor to Morocco's Gross
Domestic Product (GDP) and to the creation of employment in
the country. With this in mind, the Moroccan government
created the Ministry of Tourism for the purpose of speeding up
the development of the tourism sector. As a consequence,
Morocco has experienced a significant growth in its number of
tourist arrivals, which has more than doubled in the last
decade, increasing from 4,333,900 in 1999 to 9,213,700 in 2010
(Observatoire du turisme, 2010).
Furthermore, UNWTO (2011) forecasts that by 2020, the
number of tourist arrivals in the African continent will total
77 million, accounting for 5% of the total market share.
Table 1 provides a breakdown of tourist arrivals in
Morocco by nationality. The largest single group is repre-
sented by Moroccan citizens living abroad, followed by
Europeans, particularly the French and the Spanish. As can
be seen in Table 1, Moroccan citizens living abroad represent
50% of the total tourist arrivals in Morocco. Their number
increased constantly during the period 2001–2008, while
during the same period the numbers of French tourists
increased by almost 50%. France and Morocco have a
common history because a large part of Moroccan territory
was a French protectorate during the period up to 1956 and
the two countries have always maintained very strong
commercial and social links.
Moreover, the tourist industry's capacity increased by 57.66%
between 2001 and 2008, due to the Moroccan government's
prioritization of the sector (see Table 2). Nevertheless, the
occupancy rate in hotels has remained relatively constant at just
below 50%. The occupancy rate is the average occupancy of
rooms reported by hotels during a given period (over the period
of a year in this case). In spite of this rise in capacity the
occupancy rate actually decreased in 2008, most probably as a
result of the global financial crisis, since the vast majority of
tourists visiting Morocco come from Europe (see Table 1). These
figures could therefore lead us to anticipate an increase in both
the number of tourists and the occupancy rate in future years.
The overall growth in tourism has had a positive influence
on society in terms of poverty reduction, social inclusion,
education, empowerment of women and improved water
consumption patterns, among other criteria (UNWTO, 2010).
Water consumption in Morocco
Today, water scarcity is affecting the entire Maghreb area
of North Africa, which includes Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia,
Libya and Mauritania. Water scarcity has been defined by
noting that “when an individual does not have access to safe
 M. del Mar Alonso-Almeida / Women's Studies International Forum 35 (2012) 343–353 345

Table 1
Tourist arrivals by nationality (2001–2008).
Source: Tourism of Morocco (2011).

2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008

MNRAa 2,130,328 2,230,993 2,537,396 2,769,132 2,787,825 2,986,372 3,376,719 3,666,784

France 840,230 877,465 916,147 1,167,088 1,337,204 1,481,610 1,605,503 1,707,055
Spain 200,519 201,258 231,156 317,119 367,811 467,956 540,186 595,279
Other European 539,981 515,855 443,463 510,192 584,597 707,386 822,918 790,118
Other countries 668,932 627,689 633,109 713,182 765,940 915,009 1,062,291 1,119,403
Total 4,379,990 4,453,260 4,761,271 5,476,713 5,843,377 6,558,333 7,407,617 7,878,639
a
MNRA: Moroccan Nationals Resident Abroad.

and affordable water to satisfy her or his needs for drinking,
washing or their livelihoods we call that person water
insecure. When a large number of people in an area are
water insecure for a significant period of time, then we can
call that area water scarce” (Rijsberman, 2006, 6). Morocco's
main problem is the so-called economic water scarcity. In
other words, in addition to water scarcity there is a lack of
infrastructures to make water resources available to the
entire population (Rijsberman, 2006).
According to Ait Kadi (2004), Morocco has made some
efforts to maximize the capture of the country's surface water
resources and to provide for their optimal use for the
purposes of irrigation in agriculture, the provision of potable
water supplies, industrial consumption and energy genera-
tion during the last three decades. But water management
has been only considered as a national priority during the last
decade. During this period, the country has invested signifi-
cantly in the essential infrastructures required to control
surface water flows, and also in a number of wastewater
treatment plants for recycling water (Choukr-Allah, 2011). The
results of these efforts in terms of drinkable water are uneven.
Thus, Euromonitor reports that 100% of the urban population
has had access to supplies of improved-quality water since
2006, while the rural population with access to an improved
water source has remained at a level of 58% since 1990
(Euromonitor, 2011), mainly due to the depopulation of rural
areas. Despite these important achievements, Morocco faces a
number of constraints concerning the availability of water
resources and a rapid deterioration in water quality. Ait Kadi
(2004) asserts that water availability is 20billion cubic meters
(BCM) per year, consisting of 16 BCM of surface water and
4 BCM of groundwater. In the Moroccan context, “surface
water” is understood to be the water collected by the storage
in dams of water originating from precipitation, while
“groundwater” refers to water that is extracted from deep or
shallow inventoried aquifers.
Agriculture, however, consumes 92% of Morocco's fresh
water resources (Doukkali, 2005, quoted by the World Bank,
1995). The main problem is that water is unequally
distributed. The south of the country has already suffered
from a severe lack of water, given that rainfall varies from
1800 mm per year in the north to less than 200 mm per year
in the south. Thus, in addition to the fact that the supply of
water in dry areas is low, demand for it from the tourism
sector is increasing (Doukkali, 2005).
Moreover, several chronic problems affect water quality.
In particular, the sanitation infrastructure is inadequate;
there is a significant level of water loss in the distribution
systems (between 30% and 50%), and only a limited fraction
of the country's potable water is available to the rural
population. as already mentioned above.
The country's supplies of potable water are stored in a
network of eight river basins. When required, inter-basin
water transfers are undertaken, with the result is that the
surpluses in certain basins cover the deficits in others. Thanks
to this mechanism of inter-basin transfers a regional water
balance is achieved. The main problems have been posed by
the management of the basins and the need to develop a
strategic water plan. To summarize the observations made by
Doukkali (2005), the Moroccan Government, as a first step to
developing an Integrated Water Resources Management
(IWRM) program, passed the Water Law of 1995 so as to
integrate the allocation and management of all water resources
through a single, but decentralized, system of River Basin
Agencies (RBAs), with one agency for each basin. These RBAs
have responsibility for the overall water supply, water quality
and maintenance facilities for each basin. On the one hand they
monitor and regulate water use and quality. On the other hand,
they plan and organize flood controls and provisions for
emergencies in their basin. Moreover, they are also responsible
for developing a Water Master Plan for each basin once every
five years, which includes the strategies for water supply,
exploitation and allocation within the basin with a view to
ensuring that all necessary modifications and improvements are
made so as to adapt to changing conditions.
This Law also led to a significant change in the water
administration system, in that water issues were transferred
to the Ministry of Environment in order to signal a national
commitment to water quality. The Law also promoted public
and private partnerships, resulting in the granting of operating

Table 2
Capacity and room occupancy rate in Morocco (2001–2008).
Source: Tourism of Morocco (2011).

2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008

Hotel capacity (in beds) 97,001 102,097 109,615 119,248 124,270 133,230 143,269 152,936
Room occupancy rate 48 42 39 43 47 49 48 45
346 M. del Mar Alonso-Almeida / Women's Studies International Forum 35 (2012) 343–353
contracts to foreign private water companies in the largest cities.
Thus, water quality improvement and environmental manage-
ment techniques were implemented through foreign invest-
ment and the introduction of international expertise of a kind
that was sorely lacking in Morocco at the time. As a result, the
Law has accomplished its main goals and the overall perfor-
mance of both urban water supplies and national irrigation
systems is increasingly effective. In short, “Morocco has now a
solid institutional foundation for promoting an economically
responsive, user-oriented and allocation-based water sector”
(Doukkali, 2005, 87). These efforts to improve overall water
access, thanks to the effects of the introduction of the above law,
may have contributed to improving women's living conditions in
the cities by freeing them from responsibilities related to water
collection and giving them more time for self-development.
With regard to tourism, Eurostat (2009) has stated that
the Mediterranean region is one of the world's top mass
tourism destinations. Therefore, tourism-related activities
engender two types of environmental impact. While some
environmental impacts are linked to the movement of
tourists around the country, other effects are related to the
totality of tourist and leisure facilities created to meet the
tourists' needs.
The increase in tourist activities puts pressure on water
resources through the presence of the tourists and of the golf
courses, swimming pools and other aquatic facilities they use.
Although the level of water consumption in the tourism
industry is relatively low compared to other sectors such as
agriculture, the expected trend is for a rapid increase in such
consumption in accordance with the growth in tourist traffic
(Eurostat, 2009; UNWTO, 2011).
Levels of water consumption by category of accommoda-
tion in Morocco are shown in Table 3.
Water consumption in hotels is divided into six main
categories of use: for guests' rooms, kitchens, laundry, air
conditioning, swimming pools, and gardens. Trung and
Kumar (2005) found that in the Vietnamese hotel industry
the highest consumption of water is for guests' rooms,
followed by outdoor activities and, finally, the kitchens. The
situation in Vietnam with regard to water consumption in the
hospitality sector is similar to that in Morocco. Choukr-Allah
(2011) stated that the potential for the treatment of
wastewater for reuse is still underexploited in Morocco. The
most frequently used technology for water recycling is a sand
filter system. In the north of Morocco water reuse involving
this system is used in both golf courses and sanitary
installations. These figures give an idea of the importance of
managing this resource carefully.
Table 3
Levels of water consumption by category of accommodation in Morocco.
Source: Own elaboration. Data source: Eurostat (2009).
Tourist company Water consumption standards
Luxury 5-star hotel 600 l/bed-night
5-star hotel/riad 500 l/bed-night
4-star hotel or equivalent 400 l/bed-night
3-star hotel or equivalent 300 l/bed-night
(18-hole golf course) (3500 m3-day)
The situation of women in Morocco
The International Research Centre (2010), 108) noted that
“Morocco is a lower-middle-income country with a popula-
tion of 31 million and 2009 GDP per capita of about US$4700.
It has embraced the principle of a market-based economy
and has been implementing economic liberalization policies
since the 1980s”, including some related to women's
empowerment.
Surprisingly, a dichotomy has formed in society regarding
the role of women. On the one hand, among Arab countries,
Morocco has one of the highest percentages of women in
paid employment, and the second-highest percentage of
female university students and of women exercising power
at the executive level of government. On the other hand, it
has the highest percentage of illiterate women, while fewer
than 5% of the country's municipal councilors are women
(International Research Centre, 2010; Metcalfe, 2008; United
Nations, 2010).
According to Metcalfe (2008), in general female partici-
pation in the workforce tends to be higher in countries with
abundant labor and relatively few resources like Morocco.
The situation of women within the Moroccan workforce is
summarized in Table 4.
As can be seen in Table 4, women have a high rate of
employment in agriculture, the most important sector of
economic activity in the country, followed in second place by
the service sector. The majority of women work in subsis-
tence agriculture, where their commercial activity is limited
to selling their surplus production (Dana & Dana, 2008). As
the International Research Centre affirms, economic growth
in Morocco is heavily dependent on the agricultural sector,
which is highly influenced by the amount of annual rainfall
(International Research Centre, 2010). The situation is thus
potentially negative for the continued enhancement of
women's participation in economic activity.
Moreover, as some authors have explained, in Morocco
the widespread expectation is still that women should stay at
home. They are dominated and considered to be of lower
status than men. In rural areas women's activity is limited to
domestic and reproductive roles and to agricultural work.
These cultural barriers inhibit entrepreneurship (Goby &
Erogul, 2011; Gray & Finley-Hervey, 2005; Itani, Sidani, &
Baalbaki, 2011; Metcalfe, 2008).
Female entrepreneurship in Morocco
An analysis of the data relating to employment status (see
Table 4) shows that only 0.6% of women are employers and
9.8% are self-employed. Both are very low rates in compar-
ison with the proportion of men involved in entrepreneurial
activity, which is over 33%.
To illustrate the above comments, according to the
International Research Centre (2010), 5.8 million adults in
Morocco are involved in entrepreneurial activities, and fewer
than 0.6 million of these are women. These lower levels of
entrepreneurial activity among women are influenced by
cultural aspects which lead to women being largely excluded
from the public and economic sphere. According to Al
Maaitah et al. (2010), Arab women suffer from a thick wall
that prevents them from entering a public sphere that is
 M. del Mar Alonso-Almeida / Women's Studies International Forum 35 (2012) 343–353 347

Table 4 reason for this is that tourist industry subsectors such as

Employment situation of women in Morocco. hospitality or restaurants involve accommodation, cooking
Source: own elaboration. Data source: United Nations (2010).
and cleaning, activities that are considered as domestic work,
Adult (15+) labor force participation 1990 Women 24 and, therefore, appropriate for women (Faulkenberry,
rate (%) Men 80 Coggeshall, Backman, & Backman, 2000; Kattara, 2005).
2010 Women 25
Tourism has thus provided a good opportunity for women
Men 82
Adult (15+) unemployment rate 2006–2007 (%) Women 10 to enter the formal economy. This sector presents a variety of
Men 10 opportunities for women, given that working in tourism is
Distribution of the employed population Women Agriculture 61 perceived as an extension of domestic work, and for that
by economic sector 2004–2007 (%) Industry 15
reason is acceptable in countries in which outside work for
Services 24
Men Agriculture 37
women is not as a general rule considered favorably, or in
Industry 22 which women have few employment options, or even none
Services 41 at all. Following this line of reasoning, Dhaliwal (1998) found
Distribution of the employed population Women Employees 33.4 that many women in developing countries choose entrepre-
by status of employment Employers 0.6
neurial activities that are an extension of their roles as wives
2004–2007 (%) Own 9.8
account in order to avoid cultural problems.
workers
Contributing 55.3 Data collection and methodology of study
family
workers
Men Employees 46.8
Case studies have frequently been used in the relevant
Employers 3.3 literature to explain various specific aspects of the adoption
Own 29.9 and implementation of environmental practices (Casadesús,
account Marimon, & Alonso-Almeida, 2010; Fresner & Engelhardt,
workers
2004; Ghisellini & Thurston, 2005), and the practice of female
Contributing 17
family entrepreneurship in general (Dana & Dana, 2008; Gray &
workers Finley-Hervey, 2005; Ndemo & Maina, 2007). Case studies
Share of women legislators, senior officials and managers 13 provide insights into a management situation when the area
2004–2008 (%) of research is new, the research has little control over events
Share of women office clerks 2004–2008 (%) 24
Share of women in parliament 2009 (%) Lower or 11
or it is difficult to study the situation outside its natural
single house setting (Yin, 1994), as in the present case.
Upper house 1 In the present study, ten extensive interviews were con-
Share of women among ministers 2009 (%) 19 ducted with hotel managers in Tetouan in northern Morocco
during the summer of 2010 (specifically in July and August).
Priority was given to cases involving women entrepreneurs with
dominated by men. Women are thus involved in “informal” a view to obtaining an in-depth analysis of their approach to
economic employment, particularly in agriculture, where water management, while hotel managers with other profiles,
their activity has limited visibility. As a consequence, women such as male managers, employed managers or managers
are not seen to form part of economic life. When some working for hotel chains, were excluded because they were not
women try to follow a different path, they may face rejection owners of the hotels concerned, and therefore did not take this
from society (Gray & Finley-Hervey, 2005). Thus, the family is type of decisions. We thus finally focused on three companies
the biggest barrier to women's advancement in the Arab which were managed and owned by women.
countries (Itani et al., 2011; McElwee & Al-Riyami, 2003). Two main sources of information were used: i) primary
This situation continues even when Moroccan women go to sources (used for direct observation through a combination
live in developed countries (Essers, 2007). of in-depth personal interviews and informal visits); and ii)
Apart from cultural barriers, a number of factors suggest secondary sources (such as bibliographical analyses, press
that the business environment does not seem to be very articles, reports and websites).
favorable for women in Morocco. On the one hand, women This area of Morocco was studied because of its growth
suffer from a lack of economic independence and difficulties thanks to its tourism activities and because of its economic links
in obtaining access to financial resources (Muravyev, with Spain, since it was a Spanish protectorate for 44 years.
Talavera, & Schäfer, 2009). This lack of financial resources Since the author is Spanish, it was therefore easier for her to
makes them dependent on their families and restricts their conduct her research and to establish a rapport with the
capacity to make independent decisions (Ndemo & Maina, interviewees thanks to the residual Spanish influence in this
2007). On the other hand, there are persistent bureaucratic territory.
barriers, as the Ease of Doing Business 2010 Index noted A structured survey was conducted on a one-to-one basis.
(World Bank, 2009). The interviews were carried out in Spanish and French, and
Previous research in Arab countries (Ndemo & Maina, lasted for between 60 and 90 min.
2007) found that women who start up businesses usually do Adapting an interview previously developed in another
so in the service sector. Tourism constitutes a good area of language requires validation through the application of a
activity in which women can open up a business in order to specific procedure. Not only the basic linguistic issues, but
gain independence and obtain a salary (Itani et al., 2011; also technical and conceptual ones need to be taken into
Javadian & Singh, 2012; McKenzie Gentry, 2007). The main consideration when undertaking the translation (Ferrer et al.,
348 M. del Mar Alonso-Almeida / Women's Studies International Forum 35 (2012) 343–353
1996). These requirements were met by the authors in the
following manner. First, the interviews were sent to women
managers in the original languages so as to guarantee that
the topics and responses had been transcribed correctly.
Second, the interviews were translated by the author into
English (the first version) and, finally, this translated version
was then revised by colleagues who translated them back
into Spanish and French and compared them with the
original versions written in both languages (Lee, Lim, &
Pathak, 2011).
They focused on the main drivers under investigation as
motivations for their ventures, the application of water
management in their businesses, and the extent of their
social contribution (especially in relation to other women).
All the interviews were transcribed word for word, and the
information acquired was subsequently coded by topic.
Case studies
In the following three case studies, the profiles of three
women entrepreneurs are developed. These women are
representative of the middle and upper-middle class social
strata in Morocco and have the profiles of women entrepre-
neurs, as identified previously by Gray and Finley-Hervey
(2005) and by Weeks (2009). All of them have a university
degree. Two of the women are hotel owners, and the other is
a restaurant owner. The number of employees they have
working for them ranges from seven to sixteen. Their
companies have been active for between two and eight
years, and they all operate in the formal economy. The two
hotels are located in the vicinity of the city of Tetouan, and
the restaurant is located in a rural area outside the city.
Case 1 riad hotel AAA
The first case study concerns a riad, a traditional type of
Moroccan hotel, usually located in the medinas (the old
districts of the cities). The riad hotel in question has five
rooms and one of the most famous restaurants in the city,
and is housed in a historic palace. Its woman owner is
41 years old, married and has an arts degree. When she
purchased and opened the hotel she was single. She had
worked previously as a teacher and confided: “(I) wanted to
have something for myself.”
Her project was financed using her own savings, because
“it is very difficult to find financial support from local banks”.
She added the following comment: “The bureaucracy is very
hard and we took a long time to have all licenses ready”. The
hotel was opened in 2002 and it has ten employees, four men
and six women.
The hotel targets business clients with a commercial
strategy of offering good quality at an affordable price. More
than 75% of the customers are foreigners, mainly Spanish and
French. 30% of the hotel's revenue is earned from accommo-
dation, and 70% from food and drink.
With regard to the hotel's advanced, environmentally
respectful practices, she explained that “the redecoration of
the palace lasted more than one year and (we) took the
opportunity to introduce some environmental practices and
tools in the kitchen and in the guestrooms. For example we
have neither gardens nor green areas nor swimming pool, the
main water consumption areas in a hotel. We ourselves clean
the sheets and tablecloths and dry them on the terrace. In the
guestrooms, water-saving sanitary equipment has been
installed and housekeepers are responsible for checking for
leaks when travelers leave the rooms. Our customers are
mainly European guests and they are very aware about
environmental care, although this is unusual in the accom-
modation sector in Morocco. These types of environmental
practices are only implemented in the highest category
hotels”.
Regarding the hotel's decoration she explained: “Plants
are used for decoration instead of fresh flowers, and drip
irrigation systems have been installed to save water.” With
regard to the workforce she explained that “we try to employ
women, but sometimes it is difficult because when they are
married their husbands want them to stay at home”.
The preparation of food is the main source of revenue in this
hotel, and is therefore the main cause of water consumption and
waste generation. Water is a scarce and expensive commodity
in Morocco. Hence, education in water consumption is
necessary. To achieve this goal, this female owner trains her
employees in environmental matters. Some best practices (in
terms of the specific requirements of the kitchen) have been
written down to ensure they are followed by all employees. By
taking these measures the hotel has saved a considerable
amount of money and its water consumption is currently below
the average for the hotel's category, according to the manager.
The hotel buys all the food for the restaurant in the local market
from local farmers, “from other women preferably”.
Case 2 boutique hotel BBB
The second case study concerns a hotel near Tetouan, in
marina coastal area, which focuses on a client profile of
high-level businesspersons. The hotel has seven rooms and
one suite, and is staffed by 16 women employees, including
the manager.
The female business owner is 38 years old, single and has
a degree in law. The hotel was opened one year ago. Its owner
is a well-known female lawyer who is working for equal
opportunities and women's rights. The hotel was created to
help other women to obtain work outside the home. She used
her savings and external financing to buy and decorate the
hotel. “My father is happy that I help to improve economic
health in our country,” she commented, adding: “The idea is
to open another boutique hotel in the short-term with the
profits, and following the same strategy.” She stated: “I am
happy because I can help other women to achieve objectives
in their lives to feel more valuable”.
The owner studied in Europe, and she has maintained her
business contacts. She hired a European construction company
to redesign the hotel, installing the latest environmental
innovations for the reduction of energy use and water
consumption. With regard to water management, each guest-
room's bathroom has a faucet timer and a water-saving W.C.
Also, water use and towel reuse instructions are posted on the
door. The manager commented: “The ownership favored these
practices because 85% of our customers are foreigners and they
are familiar to them. … Our customers demand environmental
care and we cannot disappoint them. … Moreover, these
instructions enable quick and practical learning, and facilitate
 M. del Mar Alonso-Almeida / Women's Studies International Forum 35 (2012) 343–353
the training of our new and temporary employees.” She
continued: “Our main customers are mainly European, they
want to feel like they are in Europe and sometimes it is difficult
in Morocco”.
In the case of the gardens, she explained: “We water the
gardens at night with timed spray irrigation. In areas such as
the inner courtyard or roof terrace we have a mist spray
installed. This system pulverizes the water with high
pressure in drops of 10 microns. These drops remain for a
while in suspension before they evaporate into the air,
thereby reducing the temperature to 12 degrees without a
significant increase of humidity. Thus, water consumption is
quite low.” The manager asserted that “systems like these are
not very usual in Morocco. We are helping our employees to
understand the importance of using water wisely and
effectively.” Moreover, the manager noted: “Environmental
regulations do not exist in Morocco yet, but water is very
important in this business and country and it is necessary to
make people aware of the water shortage.”
Case 3 restaurant in a rural area
The third case concerns a restaurant in a rural area near
Tetouan. This restaurant specializes in Mediterranean and
modern Moroccan cuisine. The restaurant has a capacity for
60 people. It was opened five years ago and has seven
employees (two men and five women), including the woman
business owner herself.
The restaurant is a family business; to all external
appearances, it is managed by a woman, but the father is
the head of the family at home and is asked for his opinion,
“as a signal of respect”. The family are agricultural land-
owners and they have been working the land for more than
fifty years, or three generations. For more than twenty years
the women of the family worked the land, and the vegetables
and fruit from their land that were left over after supplying
the family's needs were subsequently sold by them at
Tetouan market, to restaurants and at the roadside. This
was the origin of the present-day restaurant.
This situation was negative for the women members of
the family, however, because this work was considered as
part of their domestic tasks and they thus obtained from it
neither a formal salary nor any degree of social recognition.
As they did not always sell all their remaining fruit, the
mother started to cook and to sell meals in the market and in
the street. This was the origin of the present-day restaurant.
Having first started to serve meals in an informal way, once
they had a certain level of savings they opened a restaurant,
with the mother as manager. As the women explained, “we
wanted to improve our economic situation and with the
increase of foreign investments and companies in this area
we saw the opportunity to open our own business. Our social
situation has changed we are not only small farmers, we are a
business family. Now we give employment to six people. It is
a source of pride for us”. She further added: “We know all the
farmers in the area, and where we can buy the best meat and
fish for our restaurant”.
Regarding water management practices, the restaurant
strictly restricts the use of potable water to cooking purposes
only. It has a well, and water from this is used to clean
table-linen and dishcloths. The restaurant also has a number
of water tanks to collect rainfall.
349
According to the woman manager, “Most of our clients are
executives of foreign companies who are looking for a good
meal to celebrate success in their businesses. Other cus-
tomers are foreigners with high purchasing power who come
to enjoy quality cuisine while on their holidays. We cannot
lower the quality of our service due to lack of water.” In
relation to the restaurant's water consumption, she com-
mented: “Our water consumption is high but we are seeking
solutions to reduce it because the kitchen is a big consumer”.
She added: “We are always concerned about economizing
our water consumption. For this reason, we are thinking
about acquiring a new low water consumption dishwater.”
Discussion of case studies
All the cases examined show that the women concerned are
aware of water management. In line with previous research,
these women consider water as a key resource and try to make
their business sustainable by optimizing its use (Veuthey &
Gerber, 2011). Moreover they have used their businesses as
vehicles for the empowerment of other women. Therefore it can
be confirmed that the women studied are contributing to
economic growth and water management in Moroccan society
as a means of reducing poverty, of giving opportunities to other
women and of helping the local community through the tourism
industry.
With regard to the role of women in entrepreneurship, Gray
and Gray (2007) asserted that women in Morocco can be
described as a minority in a society dominated by men, and that
it is not therefore usually expected that they will be able to
contribute much to commercial and industrial activity. This
situation continues when women are outside Morocco, so that
the family acts a barrier that obliges women to remain in the
private sphere (Essers, 2007). Given, however, that this situation
is changing (Goby & Erogul, 2011; Gray & Gray, 2007), and that
women are now entering the workforce at all levels in other
Arab countries (Al-Dajani, 2010; Goby & Erogul, 2011), it is to be
expected that this trend will continue to develop in the near
future, even if only slowly, and the cases studied are examples of
this tendency. Nevertheless, social changes – regarding both
women themselves and their role within the family – and
government support are both clearly needed.
The cases presented are relevant because these women
are operating in the formal economy, and are therefore
contributing to creating wealth both for the country and for
other women, by engaging them in formalized employment,
thus reducing the risk of falling back into poverty (Blanchet,
2010; Chen, Datt, & Ravallion, 1994; Chen & Ravallion, 2004).
Sadly, they are a minority (Gray & Gray, 2007), and their
situation is uncommon in Morocco in terms of both their
personal and their financial status. These findings suggest that
more Moroccan women need to be engaged in the formal
economy, given that the rate of women working within their
families without any external visibility is very high, at 55.3%.
This situation involves a greater possibility that women will fall
back into poverty, given that such a risk is higher in the informal
economy (Al-Dajani, 2010). The government should work as a
facilitator, and encourage a labor environment that is friendly to
women (Itani et al., 2011; Javadian & Singh, 2012). Women
entrepreneurs are succeeding in achieving a number of goals,
such as improving their degree of economic independence
350 M. del Mar Alonso-Almeida / Women's Studies International Forum 35 (2012) 343–353
(Goby & Erogul, 2011; Madrid & Lovell, 2007; Ndemo & Maina,
2007), but this is not enough. The gender gap continues to be
very wide, and some challenges need to be tackled urgently,
such as the need to combat the stereotypical image of women
that is perpetuated by cultural factors, to address the problem
of women's low level of self-confidence, and to create women's
organizations and establish women empowerment programs
so as to help other women (Al Maaitah et al., 2010).
Regarding the importance of the tourism sector for
developing countries, it has clearly become a regular source
of opportunities for women to enter the formal economy. For
example in Belize, McKenzie Gentry (2007) pointed out that
women have found a wide range of employment opportuni-
ties in tourism.
It can therefore be concluded that tourism could contribute
to increasing the wealth of the local community overall, and of
women in particular. Following this argument, it can be asserted
that tourism is a good tool for helping to eradicate poverty, for
advancing towards gender equality and for achieving environ-
mental sustainability in accordance with the MDGs (Gray &
Finley-Hervey, 2005; McKenzie Gentry, 2007). In Arab countries
today, however, social status plays a significant role in
determining career course and success in economic life. This
means that the women examined in our case studies are not the
majority, but rather the exception, as is shown by the available
statistical data (see the Ease of Doing Business 2010 Index).
Nevertheless, they could serve as examples to other women and
service companies.
The companies studied above have developed a number
of water management measures, and some of them are even
very advanced by the standards of their country and of other
developing countries. For instance, in the hospitality sector in
Vietnam water consumption measures have been taken in
certain hotels, but in general they are not widely used (Trung
& Kumar, 2005).
A number of studies have found that other characteristics of
a hotel, e.g. whether or not it is part of a chain, its level of
international activity or its category, could constitute the main
reasons for complying with environmental management
(Alonso-Almeida & Rodriguez-Antón, 2011; Rodriguez-Antón,
Alonso-Almeida, Celemín, & Rubio, 2012).
This seems to be the situation in the hotels studied. Their
guests are mainly European, and their female owners want to
build an image of modernity with a service similar to that
found in Europe, but combined with Moroccan culture. These
results suggest that if more foreign tourists travel to Morocco,
more hotels will improve their environmental management
in the medium term.
From a managerial perspective it is necessary to dissem-
inate best practices in the accommodation and restaurant
industry. Trung and Kumar (2005) considered that hotels
should introduce a number of inexpensive water and waste
management measures. In the case of water, certain measures
could be introduced, such as adjusting the level of the float in
the water in the lavatory cistern, placing water saving notices
in guestroom bathrooms and toilets, and regularly monitoring
water usage in the kitchens, guestrooms and in relation to
outdoor activities. Furthermore, Moroccan tourist companies
should develop a corporate social responsibility plan to
increase their competitiveness by reassuring their customers
that the company is committed to the environment, to the
national culture of their country and to human rights (UNWTO,
2010).
Finally, this research confirms that such working women
are not only motivated by self achievement or by a desire for
independence and to earn more money (Sadi & Al-Ghazali,
2010; Woldie & Adersua, 2004), but that in addition they “are
motivated by the social contribution their business can make
to society” (Orhan & Scott, 2001, 237).
Conclusion
To sum up, this work has tried to shed light on the key
role that women in tourism companies can play, particularly
in terms of poverty reduction, the empowerment of women,
achieving effective water management and contributing to
the overall well-being of the community in tourism destina-
tions. In addition, a number of recommendations are made
concerning possible political initiatives and feminist or other
strategies to help improve women's social and economic
position in such contexts.
First, given that tourism seems to be an aid to the country's
development, the international agencies should develop a more
active role and place more emphasis on the changes needed to
achieve the MDGs. As UNWTO (2010) noted, the collaboration
between the public and private sectors and other independent
associations can provide funding and knowledge to improve
both the skills of the workforce and customers' wellbeing. In the
case of tourism, all the key players should be involved, namely
national and local government, community representatives, the
accommodation sector, airlines, tour operators and any other
appropriate participants such as international agencies like
UNWTO, or other non-governmental organizations. For exam-
ple, UNWTO is currently involved in 90 projects in 31 countries.
Morocco should use its location in the Maghreb area and its
foreign relations to improve its competitive position by attract-
ing investment to develop infrastructures and to obtain a greater
level of commitment from internationally active hotel chains
and airlines. Both could generate income and employment for
the community, and particularly for women.
Second, the cases studied have shown that women can be
“agents of change rather than […] passive vessels of develop-
ment assistance” (Jennissen & Lundy, 2001, 183). Therefore, the
Moroccan government should strengthen its efforts to democ-
ratize the country with regard to women's rights and equal
opportunities (Huq & Moyeen, 2011). It should improve access
to organized markets, formal credit institutions and training
facilities (Goby & Erogul, 2011; International Research Centre,
2010; Landig, 2011). But first of all, the Moroccan government
should produce a plan to decrease the illiteracy rate among
women, as a first step toward giving them their economic
independence. This is particularly important in rural areas,
where more primary and secondary schools should be created.
As the International Research Centre (2010), 116) stated, “there
is still a gender gap in the level of confidence women have in
their abilities to start a business. To strengthen the role of
women in entrepreneurial activities, dedicated efforts to
promote entrepreneurship and impart the required knowledge
and skills should be considered”.
Third, the government should strengthen the regulatory
environmental framework to protect natural resources, and
water in particular. Given that water is a vital resource for life
 M. del Mar Alonso-Almeida / Women's Studies International Forum 35 (2012) 343–353
and prosperity, it is a priority to continue investing in water
technologies. In this respect, another action needs to be taken
urgently: to provide access to improved water supply facilities
for the rural population. The proportion of the rural population
currently enjoying such access is 58%, a figure which has not
improved in the last 20years. This situation is damaging for
women, given that they are made responsible for supplying this
resource, a task that prevents them from seeking involvement in
other activities to improve their lives. Consequently, the
Government should develop a training program at all educa-
tional levels to sensitize young people to the importance of
safeguarding water supplies. For the adult population, special
advertising campaigns about water and the best practices for its
use could also be created for educational purposes. These types
of educational campaigns are very popular in Europe for
ensuring the widespread dissemination of information concern-
ing particular regulations or recommendations.
Fourth, women and their families should make some
changes in their personal and group behavior. In most Arab
countries the tradition of arranged marriages at an early age is
still maintained. In this situation women have few opportunities
to receive an education, have large numbers of children and do
not normally work outside the home (Henry, 2011).
Women need to increase their own self-confidence and
personal effectiveness in order to progress and to overcome
the challenges that they face (Itani et al., 2011; Javadian &
Singh, 2012). In this respect, there is a social need to break
the traditional gender paradigms based on different social
functions and family responsibilities designated by sex
(World Bank, 2004). Thus, women should seek paths to
redefine and expand their opportunities (Jabre, Underwood,
& Goodsmith, 1997). Women should seek family support to
study, and to be allowed to marry men that they have chosen
themselves or who support their ideas. When such a
situation is not possible and family tensions arise, women
should seek to achieve their goals – whether in education or
in terms of employment – and at the same time to ensure a
balance with other family members by gaining their respect,
something which the success of a number of women
entrepreneurs in Arab countries has shown to be possible
(Jabre et al., 1997).
Another path for women could be to become involved
with external associations which keep women informed
about their rights and help them with regard to critical issues
such as reproductive methods, child care, education, work
and networking with other women (Goby & Erogul, 2011;
Jabre et al., 1997; Landig, 2011).
Regarding the family-related aspects of such proposed
changes, Landig asserted that “men must be made aware of
women's rights and appreciate women's worth in the social,
economic, and political sphere” (Landig, 2011, 216). Today
many Arab men recognize the need for both the husband and
the wife to earn a salary in order for a couple to improve their
standard of living. Thus, married men should support and
encourage women's initiatives to work outside the home and
ignore gossip from their family and their neighbors (Jabre et
al., 1997). The challenge is to combine and balance work
outside the family with family responsibilities by respecting
social rules so as to avoid arousing antagonistic attitudes
(Itani et al., 2011; World Bank, 2004). A big step forward is for
husbands to become involved in their children's education
351
and in household duties with a view to removing social
barriers to women's progress.
Fifth, feminist theories state that men and women are
essentially equal, but that women work at a disadvantage due
to a lack of assistance, of financial resources or of access to
power networks, and because the prevailing culture favors
masculine stereotypes (Morris, Miyasaki, Watters, & Coombes,
2006). However, not only are there differences between
individuals, but also differences in terms of social structure,
economic power, class structure and political loyalties (Orser,
Riding, & Manley, 2006). Therefore, the more women are able
to obtain a certain level of education and of personal resources,
the greater will be their potential to wield a larger influence
both at home and outside the home, and thus to break down
gender stereotypes (Landig, 2011). In general, women entre-
preneurs in Arab countries may not desire a rapid radical
change in social structures. On the contrary, they may prefer to
respect the existing social rules and traditions, while working
towards a modern interpretation that will facilitate their
careers and their visibility as economic agents (Itani et al.,
2011). Thus, the most difficult challenge in Morocco will be to
achieve the recognition of the multiple roles that women can
play as individuals, wives, workers and citizens (World Bank,
2004).
From an eco-feminist perspective this exploratory work
confirms that women entrepreneurs can act to make
economic growth compatible with environmental conserva-
tion, by applying technical advances in innovative ways, and
that they can contribute to improving their families' lives and
to the empowerment of other women. Beyond economic
issues, the responsible use of scant natural resources such as
water in Morocco has a crucial significance, given that, as
with the provision of any other product or service, the use of
different approaches will inevitably produce different results
(Perkins & Kuiper, 2005). It therefore seems clear that an
increased participation of women in the labor force would
increase the effects of every investment in women's potential
throughout the economy, resulting in higher levels of per
capita income and faster economic growth.
Finally, a number of limitations have been identified in
relation to this study, and additional lines of research are
suggested below in the following section.
This study is limited by the fact that it is difficult to obtain
the data or information required in Morocco. Efforts have
been made to mitigate these shortcomings by accessing other
sources of data. Given this situation, exploratory case studies
are the best method of studying social events. Another
limitation may arise from the fact that the interviews were
carried out in a single specific area, so that the findings may
be difficult to extrapolate to other areas. Nonetheless, as the
area can be regarded as being representative of the country
studied and of the sector concerned, this may provide an
indication of the situation in the country as a whole. Finally,
data collection via interviews is yet another limitation,
inasmuch as this method may introduce subjectivity or bias,
but these objections could be diluted by the quantity of
interviews held. It is therefore proposed to increase the
number of interviews conducted for future research.
Finally, more research is needed to understand the role of
women in environmental care and management in general,
and particularly in water management. The proposals for the
352 M. del Mar Alonso-Almeida / Women's Studies International Forum 35 (2012) 343–353
future lines of research to be explored in this regard include
an increased number of interviews in both the same and
other areas of Morocco, an analysis of the differences in
environmental management depending on the sector con-
cerned, particularly in the case of those sectors with a high
level of women's participation such as agriculture, and the
impact of water management policies on the well-being of
the country's population as a whole.
Acknowledgments
The author would like to thank Professor Kerstin Bremser
for reading this work and offering valuable comments. The
author would also like to express her gratitude to the two
anonymous reviewers of this text.
References
Ait Kadi, Mohamed (2004). From water scarcity to water security in the
Maghreb Region: The Moroccan case. In Antonio Markina (Ed.),
Environmental challenges in the Mediterranean 2000–2050. NATO Science
Series. IV Earth and Environmental Sciences, 37. (pp. 175–186).
Al Maaitah, Rowaida, Al Maaitah, Hadeel, Olaimat, Hmoud, & Gharaeibeh,
Muntaha (2010). Arab women and political development. Journal of
International Women's Studies, 12(3), 7–26.
Al-Dajani, Haya (2010). Diversity and inequality among women in employ-
ment in the Arab Middle East region: A new research agenda. In Mustafa
F. Ozbilqin, & Jawad Syed (Eds.), Diversity management in Asia: A research
companion. UK: Glos: Edward Elgar Publishing Limited.
Alonso-Almeida, María del Mar, & Rodriguez-Antón, José Miguel (2011).
Organizational behaviour and strategies in the adoption of certified
management systems. An analysis of the Spanish hotel industry. Journal
of Cleaner Production, 19(1), 1455–1463.
Blanchet, Thérèse (2010). Migration to the bars of Bombay: Women, village
religion and sustainability. Women's Studies International Forum, 33(4),
345–353.
Casadesús, Marti, Marimon, Frederic, & Alonso-Almeida, María del Mar
(2010). The future of standardised quality management in tourism:
Evidence from the Spanish tourist sector. Services Industries Journal,
30(14), 2457–2474.
Chen, Shaohua, Datt, Gaurav, & Ravallion, Martin (1994). Poverty increasing in
the developing world? Review Income Wealth, 47(3), 283–300.
Chen, Shaohua, & Ravallion, Martin (2004). How have the world's poorest
fared since the early 1980s? World Bank Research Observer, 19, 141–169.
Choukr-Allah, Redouane (2011). Innovative wastewater treatments and
reuse technologies adapted to southern Mediterranean countries. In
Damiá Barcelo, & Mira Petrovic (Eds.), Waste water treatment and reuse
in the Mediterranean region. The handbook of environmental chemistry.
Berlin–Heidelberg: Springer-Verlag.
Dana, Leo Paul, & Dana, Theresa E. (2008). Ethnicity and entrepreneurship in
Morocco: A photo-ethnographic study. International Journal of Business
Global, 2(3), 209–226.
Dhaliwal, Spinder (1998). Silent contributors — Asian female entrepreneurs and
women in business. Women's Studies International Forum, 21(5), 463–474.
Doukkali, Mohammed Rachid (2005). Water institutional reforms in Morocco.
Water Policy, 7, 71–88.
Essers, Caroline (2007). Entrepreneurship on the public–private divide:
Businesswomen of Turkish and Moroccan descent playing family ties.
Paper presented at Reconnecting diversity to critical organization and gender
studies critical management studies conference, Manchester, July 11–13, 2007
Available on: http://www.mngt.waikato.ac.nz/ejrot/cmsconference/2007/
proceedings/reconnectingdiversity/essers.pdf. (Accessed in April, 10, 2012)
Euromonitor (2011). Morocco macro data. Euromonitor data base Accessed
in February, 23, 2011.
Eurostat (2009). MEDSTAT II: “Water and tourism” pilot study 2009 edition.
Eurostat methodologies and working papers. Available in http://ec.
europa.eu/eurostat. Accessed in March, 28, 2011
Faulkenberry, Lisa V., Coggeshall, John M., Backman, Kenneth, & Backman,
Sheila (2000). A culture of servitude: The impact of tourism and
development on South Carolina's coast. Human Organization, 59, 86–95.
Ferrer, M., Alonso, J., Prieto, L., Plaza, V., Monso, E., Marrades, R., et al. (1996).
Validity and reliability of the St George's Respiratory Questionnaire after
adaptation to a different language and culture: The Spanish example.
European Respiratory Journal, 9, 1160–1166.
Fresner, J., & Engelhardt, G. (2004). Experiences with integrated manage-
ment systems for two small companies in Austria. Journal of Cleaner
Production, 12(6), 623–631.
Ghisellini, Alessia, & Thurston, Deborah L. (2005). Decisions traps in ISO 14000
implementation processes: Case study results from Illinois certified
companies. Journal of Cleaner Production., 13(8), 763–777.
Goby, Valerie Priscilla, & Erogul, Murat Sakir (2011). Female entrepreneur-
ship in the United Arab Emirates: Legislative encouragements and
cultural constraints. Women's Studies International Forum, 34, 329–334.
Gray, Kenneth R., & Finley-Hervey, Joycelyn (2005). Women and entrepre-
neurship in Morocco: Debunking stereotypes and discerning strategies.
International Entrepreneurship and Management Journal, 1, 203–217.
Gray, Kennet R., & Gray, Doris H. (2007). Women entrepreneurs in Morocco:
Vanguards of change in the Muslim world. In Mirjana Radovic (Ed.), The
perspective of women's entrepreneurship in the age of globalization. United
States: Information Age Publishing Inc.
Henry, Hami M. (2011). Egyptian women and empowerment: A cultural
perspective. Women's Studies International Forum, 34, 251–259.
Huq, Afreen, & Moyeen, Abdul (2011). Gender integration in enterprise
development programmes. Women's Studies International Forum, 34(4),
320–328.
International Research Centre (2010). Global entrepreneurship monitor:
GEM-MENA regional report 2009 (Middle East & North Africa). December
2010.
Itani, Hanifa, Sidani, Yusuf M., & Baalbaki, Imad (2011). United Arab Emirates
female entrepreneurs: Motivations and frustrations. Equality, Diversity
and Inclusion: An International Journal, 30(5), 409–424.
Jabre, Bushra, Underwood, Carol, & Goodsmith Lauren (1997). Arab women
speak out: Profiles of self-empowerment. Johns Hopkins School of
Public Health, Center for Communication Programs, Baltimore, Mary-
land and the Center of Arab Women for Training and Research, Tunis,
Tunisia, November.
Javadian, Golshan, & Singh, Robert P. (2012). Examining successful Iranian
women entrepreneurs: An exploratory study. Gender in Management: An
International Journal, 27(3), 148–164.
Jennissen, Therese, & Lundy, Colleen (2001). Women in Cuba and the move
to a private market economy. Women's Studies International Forum,
24(2), 181–198.
Kattara, Hanan (2005). Career challenges for female managers in Egyptian
hotels. International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management,
17(3), 238–251.
Landig, Jennifer M. (2011). Bringing women to the table: European Union
funding for women's empowerment projects in Turkey. Women's Studies
International Forum, 34, 206–219.
Lee, Chien-Chiang, & Chang, Chun-Ping (2008). Tourism development and
economic growth: A closer look at panels. Tourism Management, 29,
180–192.
Lee, Sang M., Lim, Seong-bae, & Pathak, Raghuvar D. (2011). Culture and
entrepreneurial orientation: A multi-country study. International Entre-
preneurship and Management Journal, 7(1), 1–15.
Madrid, Gilma, & Lovell, Terry (2007). Working with flowers in Colombia:
The ‘lucky chance’? Women's Studies International Forum, 30(3), 217–227.
McElwee, Gerard, & Al-Riyami, Rahma (2003). Women entrepreneurs in
Oman; some barriers to success. Career Development International, 8(7),
339–346.
McKenzie Gentry, Kristine (2007). Belizean women and tourism work:
Opportunity or impediment? Annals Tourism Research, 34(2), 477–496.
Mellor, Mary (1997). Women, nature and the social construction of the
“economic man”. Ecological Economics, 20, 129–140.
Metcalfe, Beverly Dawn (2008). Women, management and globalization in
the Middle East. Journal of Business Ethics, 83, 85–100.
Morris, Michael H., Miyasaki, Nola N., Watters, Craig E., & Coombes, Susan M.
(2006). The dilemma of growth: Understanding venture size choices of
women entrepreneur. Journal of Small Business Management, 44(2),
221–244.
Muravyev, Alexander, Talavera, Oleksandr, & Schäfer, Dorothea (2009). Entre-
preneurs' gender and financial constraints: Evidence from international data.
Journal of Comparative Economics, 37, 270–286.
Ndemo, Bitange, & Maina, Fides Wanjiku (2007). Women entrepreneurs and
strategic decision making. Management Decision, 45(1), 118–130.
Observatoire du turisme (2010). Lettre trimestrielle de l'Observatoire du
Tourisme,18 — décembre 2010 (pp. 1–16).
Orhan, Muriel, & Scott, Don (2001). Why women enter into entrepreneur-
ship: An explorative model. Women Management Review, 16(5),
232–247.
Orser, Barbara J., Riding, Allan L., & Manley, Kathryn (2006). Women entrepre-
neurs and financial capital. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 30(5),
643–645.
Perkins, Ellie., & Kuiper, Edith (2005). Exploration: Feminist ecological
economics. Feminism Ecologics, 11, 107–150.
 M. del Mar Alonso-Almeida / Women's Studies International Forum 35 (2012) 343–353
Rijsberman, Frank R. (2006). Water scarcity: Fact or fiction? Agricultural
Water Management, 80, 5–22.
Rocheleau, Dianne (1997). Women, men and trees: Gender, power and property
in forest and agrarian landscape. World Development, 25, 1351–1371.
Rodriguez-Antón, José Miguel, Alonso-Almeida, María del Mar, Celemín,
Marisol, & Rubio, Luis (2012). Use of different sustainability manage-
ment systems in the hospitality industry. The case of Spanish hotels.
Journal of Cleaner Production, 22(1), 76–84.
Sadi, Muhammad Asad, & Al-Ghazali, Basheer Mohammad (2010). Doing
business with impudence: A focus on women entrepreneurship in Saudi
Arabia. African Journal of Business Management, 4(1), 1–011.
Schein, Virginia E. (2007). Women in management: Reflections and
projections. Women in Management Review, 22(1), 6–18.
Trung, Do Nam, & Kumar, S. (2005). Resource use waste management in
Vietnam hotel industry. Journal of Cleaner Production, 13(2), 109–116.
United Nations (2010). The world's women 2010. New York: Trends and
Statistics. United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs.
UNWTO (2010). Tourism and millennium development goals. Available in
http://www.unwto.org/tourism&mdgsezine/ Accessed on March 8,
2011
UNWTO (2011). International Tourism 2010: Multi-speed recovery. Available in
http://85.62.13.114/media/news/en/press_det.php?id=7331&idioma=E in
www.untwo.org. Accessed in March,11, 2011.
353
Veuthey, Sandra, & Gerber, Julien-François (2011). Logging conflicts in
Southern Cameroon: A feminist ecological economics perspective.
Ecological Economics, 70, 70–177.
Weeks, Julie R. (2009). Women business owners in the Middle East and
North Africa: A five-country research study. International Journal of
Gender Entrepreneurship, 1(1), 77–85.
Woldie, Atsede, & Adersua, Adebimpe (2004). Female entrepreneurs in a
transitional economy: Businesswomen in Nigeria. International Journal Social
Economics, 31(1/2), 78–93.
World Bank (1995). Water sector in Morocco. Report No: 12649-MOR.
Washington, DC.
World Bank (2004). MENA development report. Gender and development in
the Middle East and North Africa. Women in the public sphere.
Washington, D.C.: Publication of The World Bank and the International
Finance Corporation.
World Bank (2009). Doing business 2010 Morocco comparing regulation in
183 economies. Washington D.C: A copublication of The World Bank and
the International Finance Corporation.
World Water Assessment Programme (2009). The United Nations world
water development report 3: Water in a changing world. Paris: UNESCO,
and London: Earthscan.
Yin, Robert K. (1994). Case study research (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA:
Sage.