CHAPTER ONE

1.0 INTRODUCTION

The term taboo comes from Tongan which refers to sacred place reserved

for gods, kings, priests and chiefs.

The word was borrowed into English by chaptain James Cook published in 1977 (

Ljung, 2011).

Every taboo performs a number of social and moral functions which are

greater than importance to the lives Of the inhabitants of the society. It contributes

to the already laid-down legacies on how to raise the standard of moralities in the

society and also to arrive at the deserved goals and this can be seen in Douglas,

(1996).

1. Language and culture are inseparable. This relationship relates to the enter-

play between language, thought and culture. People thinking crystallize into

culture which is express by language.

However since every society is made up of different groups, culture and language.

Cultural relativity thus entails profound semantic differences between languages

leading to varying cognitive. This submission includes meaning differences arising

1
from differences in culture and the issue of determination which is the influence of

language on thoughts (James 1990).

2. Sociologist defined culture as the values, beliefs, behavior and material

objects that constitute a people’s way of life. Culture includes what we

think, how we act, and what we own. But as our social heritage, culture is

also a bridge to the past as well as a guide to the future.

Loner (1994), suggest that culture is the mass of behavior that human beings in any

society learn from their elders and pass onto younger generations.

Persell (1987) refers to culture as the accumulation of customs, values and artifacts

shared by people.

1.1 Background of the study.

Language is a method of human communication either spoken or written consisting

of the use of words in a structur

al and conventional way in many African societies, the ethnics and moral values

are contained in taboos which are morally concerned with the linguistics items

(Brook 1968). Language is human ability to acquire and use complex system of

communication. Language is used as avenue of expressing culture avenues. In

other words, culture is invariably a significant concept to consider in this work.

2
The culture of any giving society due to its peculiar customs and believes which

are commonly expressed in the usage of taboo.

According to Farb (1974) the term taboo is said to have been borrowed from

Tangan a language of Polynesia and was also believed to have been introduced into

English in the late eighteenth (18111) century by Captain James Cook. Taboo can

also be recognized as one of the ways in which the society shows its disapproval of

certain kind of behavior in which we supernatural reasons or because their said

behavior is seen to violet a moral code.

These are various manifestations of taboos as posted by Frazer (1911) which could

be divided into four respective divisions:

1. Tabooed acts: this act of placing taboo on eating or drinking certain types

food and on matter pertaining to social interaction among people.

2. Tabooed person: the tabooed placed on women during menstruation period.

3. Tabooed things: considering certain things or objects like blood such

weapons are taboo.

4. Tabooed words: placing taboo on common words it can be seen from

grouping, that there is the conditions of both behavior and linguistics (leach,

1964).

3
A taboo is vehement prohibition of an action based on the belief that such behavior

is either too sacred or too accused for ordinary individuals to undertake, under

threat or supernatural punishment. Such prohibitions are present in virtually all

societies. The word has been somewhat expanded in the social sciences as strong

prohibitions relating to any of human activities of custom that are sacred or

forbidden based on moral judgment and religious beliefs. For instance, in liv land it

is a taboo for a married woman to go after man in the community. If she does she

will die a disgraceful death. Breaking a taboo is usually considered objectionable

by a society. In general common taboos involve restriction or ritual regulations of

killing and hunting, sexual relationships, (primary incest, necrophilia,

miscegenation, bestiality and masturbation), reproduction (abortion, infanticide)

deceased and the graves as well as food.

The word “taboo” gained popularity with some scholars looking for ways to apply

it where other English words had previously been applied. For example, Smith

(1929) LLsed “taboo” occasionally in relation to Israel’s.

1.2 Geographical Location Of Tiv Land

The Tiv people are mainly located in Benue state with a population of over two

million according to the 2006 census figures. The ethnic group which is the largest

in Benue state and distantly followed in population by the idoma people is about

4
the fifth largest in Nigeria. The land occupy stretches out on broad side of river

Benue and covers an area of about 30000 square kilometer and most of it lay 2440

meters above the sea level. In Nigeria, the Tiv are found in large number in Taraba,

Nassarawa and Crossriver state according to Akiga (1972). The Tiv land has a

common boarder in the east with Jukun and Chamber of Taraba state. To the west

of Tiv land are the Idoma people who are Tiv neighbors in Benue state. To the

North, the tiv people share a common boundary with Lagos, the Okoros and other

ethnic groups in the present Nassarawa state to the South they have as neighbors.

The Tiv headquarters in Benue State is Gboko and Makurdi is the state capital

which lay or is located near river Benue. The distance from Gboko ( Tiv land

headquarter) to Makurdi is about 250 kilometer according to Akiga (1972). The

Tor Tiv Palace is located in Gboko some distance to Makurdi (Benue State

Capital). The headquarters of Tiv land (Gboko) is the central area of Benue State.

Tiv people only have fourteen (14) local governments, in Benue, while Idoma have

Nine (9) local governments. All the local governments are headed by a chief called

TER (Tor). According to the 2006 population census, Tiv are said to be over two

million people both at home and Diaspora. One could estimate that they can be

around three million. As eallier stated, they are found in Taraba, Nasarawa, and

Cross- river States.

5
1.1.2 Socio-cconomic Activities of the Tiv People.

There are several Socio-cultural institutions in Tiv land both before and after the

emergence of the British from the east of Nigeria 1906 (Yina, 1982) these include;

marriage ceremony, circumcision, naming ceremony, birthrite, deathrite to mention

but a few. Agriculture had been the major economic activity of the Tiv people.

Hunting, weaving, blacksrnithing are few of the socio-economic activities of the

people.

1.3 Linguistics Classification Of Tiv Language

Tiv language is classified under Tiv-bantu (subgroup) of the bantiod branch of the

Benue —Congo subdivision of Niger-Congo. Tiv people speak one and same

language even though there are slight variations on intonation in some groups

found all over Tiv land. The Tiv nonetheless, clearly understand one another

without difficulty. What needs to be done is the present circumstance is the

development of the language in order to improve upon its present narrow nature

according to (1974).

In terms of genetic classification Greenberg (1963) considered Bantoid as a

linguistics term for a subgroup of the family, Benue-Congo of the Niger-Congo

major language grouping (Greenberg 1963), Bantiod comprises some Bantiod, that

6
is bantu like language in narrower sense, as well as the whole of the bantu

language families in Africa.

Greenberg (1963) classified the Tiv language under the Niger-Congo thus:

Atlantic Congo, Volta- Congo, Benue -Congo, Bantiod, Southern and Tivoid under

this you have Tiv language as the last under the genetic node.

7
 Fig 1.1: African family tree diagram
African language

Afro-Asiatic (New) Nilo-Sanaran Khoisan

Niger-Congo

Minda Atlantic Congo Kordafanian

Volta-Congo

Kru (new)Kwa (new) Benue-congo north volt-congo

Ogiri Akpes Ukan Edoid Nupoid ijoid C/River platoid bantoid

Yoruboid Akokoid

Tiv Birare Bantu Ndoro Mambira Bute Bantu

(Adapted from Williamson 1989:21)

8
1.4 The Dialects of the Tiv People

According Gbor (1965) dialect is a variety of language specifically, often a spoken

variety that is characteristics of a particular area, community or group, often with

relatively minor differences in vocabulary, style, spelling and pronunciation.

The dialect of Tiv language is based on the genology of the man and his sons, who

inter-settle in different places in Tiv Land. This entails, the Tiv sons grew and

expended to obtained different places. The sons are “Ikurav”, “Nongov” “Masev”,

“Ipusu”, “Shitile”, “Ukum”, “Tongov”, “Turan” and “Ikparev”. The difference in

variation is not much when compared to other languages. There is high level

intelligibility among speakers. The Tiv spoken by a Masev or Nongov man might

be collogiual heavily accented and tonal, he will be understood by all other Tiv

speakers but no standard variation has been identified and put in place.

1.5 Statement of the Problem

The aim of this study is to examine Taboos in Tiv land and the objectives are;

i. To expose the researchers to the Taboo in Tiv community

ii. To explain the different types of taboo in Tiv land

iii. To state the effects of taboos on the offenders

9
1.6 Objective of the Study

The study is centrally concerned with socio-linguistics aspect of Taboo language

use. The study will examine specific areas where taboos are placed and try to find

out wheather or not Tiv taboos share something in common with other languages.

1.7 Significance of the Study

The significance of the study is to identify the types of taboos and their effects,

such punishments on those who violate the norms are supposed to make the people

in the society stick to the rules and regulations of the society.

10
 CHAPTER TWO

2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW

This chapter presents the review of related literature on what other people have

said about taboo. Many scholars have written a lot on the issue of taboo and their

knowledge have not been restricted to only one section of the word as can be seen

in their review.

This work based on socio-linguistics approach. It is centered on taboo in Tiv land

different people, both old and young, males and females were interviewed orally

on the various aspects of taboos used by the Tiv people of Benue state.

Model of approach in a research work refers to the simple description of a system,

format or way for explaining how the research is been carried out.

James (1777), state that taboo is a strong social prohibition relating to any area of

human activity or social custom declared as sacred and forbidden. Breaking of the

taboo is usually considered objectionable or abhorrent by society. The term was

bolTow from Tongan language and appears in many Polynesian cultures. In those

cultures a Tabu (Tapu or Kapu) often has specific religious associations.

According to James (1777) some taboo activities or customs are prohibited under

law and transgressions may lead to severe penalties. Breaking of other taboos may

have social implications, such embarrassment, shame, and rudeness.

11
Taboo often remains in effect after the original reason behind them has expired.

Study of taboo by anthropologists has lead to deeper understanding of the

development of different societies and similarity among cultures spread throughout

the world. Even if the actual taboos are not universal, the concept of prohibiting

particular acts is an indication that humankind as a whole aspires for goodness.

Hones (1927) claim that taboo is a vehement prohibition of an action based on the

belief that such behavior is either too sacred or too accursed for ordinary

punishment such prohibitions are present in virtually all society. The world has

been somewhat expanded in the social sciences to strong prohibition relating to

any area of human activity or custom that is sacred or forbidden based on moral

judgment and religious believes. “Breaking a taboo” is usually considered

objectionable by society in general not merely a subset of a culture. Frazer

(1926) compiled the comprehensive documentation of cultural belief and practices

around the world in his 1890 publication. The Bough and Harris (1962) a leading

figure in cultural materialism, proposed explanations of taboo as a consequences of

the ecologic and economic conditions of the society. The idea of a universal taboo

is questionable, but some such as cannibalism, incest taboos, and genocide occur in

the majority of societies.

Taboos can include; dietary restrictions, restriction on sexual activities and

relationships, restriction of bodily functions, restrictions on the state such,

12
circumcision exposure of body parts, nudity and restrictions on the use of offensive

language. Taboo often extends to cover discussion of taboo topics. This can result

in taboo deformation (euphemism) or replacement taboo words.

Freud in (1928) provided analysis of taboo behavior strong unconscious motivation

driving such prohibition. Freud (1928) postulated as a link between forbidden

behavior and the sanctification of object to certain kingship groups, Freud also

stated that the only two “universal” taboos and that incest and patricide, which

formed the eventual basis of modern society.

Anthony (1972) says linguistics taboo can be defined as the avoidance of speech

community or particular words for various special reasons. He believes that words

may be avoided for reasons connected with religion, superstition, personal respects

or society attitudes towards bodily functions or other matters. In another

situation involving taboo, one tends to avoid pronouncing certain names as a sign

respect and substitute them with euphemism.

Trudgil (1 983) agree with some eelier scholars that all language contains these

features of taboos and some prescribe or lie-down laws and legal actions that can

be taken when such law or rules are broken. He added that such case abound in

some societies were legal reinforcement for rules associated with taboo could lead

to public shame.

13
Harris (1962) state that a taboo is a prohibition on human activity declared as a

sacred and forbidden or dangerous or unclean either physically or spiritually.

Breaking a taboo may attract serious consequences ranging from imprisonment to

social ostracisation. The idea of a universal taboo in questionable, but some taboos,

such as cannibalism incest and genocide, occur in majority of society.

Taboo as seen by Gbenga (2005) is a etymologically as simply meaning a

prohibition or forbidden act or starting the wrongness or rightness of a way of life

or certain actions among others. From this definition, a taboo could be social or

religious one (Yina 2002) further explain that taboos are things forbidden,

consecrated and unclean, especially in the field of religion.

Waugh (1980) see’s taboos as a way of which a society expresses its disapproval

of certain kinds of behavior belief to be harmful to its members, either for

supernatural reasons, or because such as behavior is belief to violate code.

Akuha (1990) says taboos are common characteristics of African traditional

religion in general and Tiv religion in particular to him in Tiv language taboo is

known as “TSWER” and the name implies forbidden, that which is to be avoided

or restricted. He asserted that in Tiv society, a place an act, object or persons can

be regarded as a taboo which more often than, is enforced with supernatural

sanctions. Taboo reflects a society’s culture and has systems.

14
(Paul, 1991) refers to taboo as a word which is uttered by people in a certain place

and time can be taboo, but not taboo in other places and time people know that

something is taboo through socialization process, including taboo language people

learn about what word people “should” and “should not” talk in society depending

on the norms which exist at their place.

Jones, (1982) defined taboo as a suitable way of demonstrating the existence

of a special relationship that could be different from the ordinary and it is a good

reflection of the values and beliefs of a given society. Taboo is specific to a culture

and a language hut they often overlap, especially in western cultures.

15
 CHAPTER THREE

3.0 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

The term research has been defined as a procedure by which an attempt to found

systematically with a support of demonstrable facts, the answer to a question or

solution to a problem. Research is defined as a scientific approach towards

founding out facts of through a laid down procedure. This is because, research is

more than a caroused, looking into a material, and it has a set of ordered activities

meet to facilitate a more reliable discovery.

A good research has, therefore, the following characteristics;

i. Formulating research question /hypothesis as well as theoretical frame work.

ii. Data collection.

iii. Coding an analysis of data

3.1 Sources of Data

Data for this study has been sourced from primary and secondary sources of data

collection.

3.0.1 Primary Source

The primary is based on oral interview and it has to do with conversation between

the researcher and informants to elicit information.

16
3.0.2 Secondary Sources

Secondary source are essentially written materials already exiting such as, text

books and other linguistics materials.

3.1 Areas Covered by the Research

During the conduct of interview four villages were covered by the researcher, they

are Gwer- west, zaki-biam, Gboko and Konshisha.

These villages were selected by the researcher because they constitute the most

important area where native speakers of Tiv reside.

3.2 Population Sample

It is often not possible to get responses of the whole population of the research

area. This therefore, makes it necessary to take a sample of the population the of

the research area. In view of this random sampling is hereby adopted. It is a

method in which a part of the population is selected to represent the whole. This

phenomenon is represented on the table (1) below.

17
 Table 1; Sample and Informant selection

Village Age range Informant male Informant female Total Number

of respondents

Gwer-west 40 – 80 5 5 10

Zaki-biam 40 – 80 5 5 10

Gboko 40 – 80 5 5 10

Konshisha 40 – 80 5 5 10

Total number of 20 20 40

informant

It can be observed from the above that the total number of (40) informants were

selected from various villages and their age range between 40 to 80years.

It is believed that this age group has a good mastery of culture of any language.

The people selected include male and female, 5from each village who are drawn

from different occupation background, such as, farmer (the predominant

occupation of the people) teachers, fisher, house wives who are native speaker of

the language. All of the informants selected for this research work are native

speakers of Tiv.

18
 CHAPTER FOUR

4.0 DATA PRESENTATION ANALYSIS

A taboo is a vehement prohibition an action based on the belief that such

behavior is either scared or accursed for ordinary individual to undertake,

under- threat of supernatural punishment.

Taboo and cultural heritage of people are closely placed in the sense that

whenever there is culture these will be a language and whenever there is

language there has to be the “dos” and “don’ts”. It is this aspect of don’t in

the language that can be classified as taboo and so much has been written

about it as revealed in the literature review.

These misfortunes can ordinarily be regarded as accident or bad luck but

the belief in taboos there are regarded as punishment for violating some

taboos.

This chapter therefore, deals with presentation and analysis of the data.

4.0.1 Data presentation

The data collected for research are hereby presented in the table below:

Table 1; list of Tiv taboo words

19
S/N Tiv taboo words English

1 Awambe Menstruation

2 Nomsuor Man

3 Kwase Woman

4 Ter Father

5 Ngo Mother

6 Angban u nomsu Brother

7 Angban Kwase Sister

8 Tse Or Old man

9 Ngo Kwase Old woman

10 Iyo Snake

11 Iyua Dog

12 Wan Son

13 Wan u Kwase Daughter

14 Ikyuu Vagina

15 Mnyandem Urine

16 Kwagh ersen Sweep

17 Nam Wegh Hand shake

18 Kwase U Ya Pregnant woman

19 Nguhaa Leg

20
20 Chivir Respect

21 Uku u Or Dead

22 Ahina Twin

23 Kwase u yan Food

24 Or ganden Elder

25 Kwagh kpaan Sexual intercourse

26 Mbayav Children

27 Ishi Face

28 Ijua Penis

29 Angev Illness

30 Mngeren shi jor Well water

31 Oryuan Handicap

32 Inumber Wrestling

33 Kon u yange u Forbidden fruits

34 I ti yough Name

35 Aondo God

36 Ishun Greeting

37 Kpaa Sex

21
 Versi Marriage

The data presented is based taboos of actions.

4.0.2 Data Analysis

Under data we are going to utilize the following sub-themes.

i. Menstrual taboo

ii. Incest taboo

iii. Naming taboo

iv. Norms

v. Social stigma

vi. Food and drink taboo

vii. Unclean animal

viii. Taboo against calling the name of the dead

Table 2a: menstrual taboo

S/N Taboo’s word English Content/context

1 Za a wanbe Menstruation She is not suppose to have sex with

her husband

2 Myandem Urine A woman is not suppose to stand erect

22
 to urinate

3 Ikyuu Vagina It is not suppose to be called publicly

Table 2b: incest taboo

S/N Taboo’s word English Content/context

1 Angban u nomsu Brother He is not to marry a woman within the

family

2 Angban u Kwase Sister She is not to marry a man within the

family

3 Wan u nomsu/wan Son/ They are not to have sex within their

u Kwase daughter selves and parents

Table 2c: Naming Taboo

S/N Taboo’s word English Content/context

1 Orvesen Elder It is not right to give them anything

with left hand

2 Ter/Ngo Father/mother They are not to be called by their

names

3 Mbayev Children They are not to call any elderly

23
 person by name

Table 2d: social stigma

S/N Taboo’s word English Content/context

1 Oryuan Handicap They are not to be given kingship

2 Avee anan Handshake Children are not allowed to shake

hands with elders

3 Kwagh ersen Sweep People are not allowed to sweep and

throw away refuses swept at night

Table 2e: Food and drinks Taboo

S/N Taboo’s word English Content/context

1 Kon u yange u yo Forbidden tree One is not allowed to fruit from a

forbidden tree

2 Nyam Meat It is believed that children will steal

if given meat

Table 2f: Taboo on Animals

24
S/N Taboo’s word English Content/context

1 Iywa Dog It is forbidden to eat Dog

2 Ikyaren Iyo Green snake It isa taboo to kill the green snake

because it serve as a bridge for them to

cross a river

Table 2g: Taboo Against Mourning and Calling the name of the Dead

S/N Taboo’s word English Content/context

1 Ahina Twin It is believed that if one of the twin die

and is mourned, the other will also die

2 Or Kpan Dead man It is believed that the dead hear and

human life may be harmed by the dead

Table 2h: Taboo of Norms

S/N Taboo’s word English Content/context

1 Kwase u ya Pregnant It is forbidden for one to walk across a

woman pregnant woman because she could

deliver a child replica of that person

Menstrual Taboo

25
This is a social taboo concern with menstruation. In Tiv culture if a woman is on

menstruation she is not supposed to sleep or have sexual relationship or intercourse

with her husband. It is also a taboo to have sexual intercourse during mourning of

the dead. Mourning the dead, the spirit of the dead is believed to around its

community, friends and close relatives for forty days so during this time the

relatives of the deceased is expected to be clean and give the deceased the last

honour and respect.

Incest Taboo

This is a taboo that prohibitss sexual relationship between closely related persons,

for instance, sexual between “Angban u numsu and Angban u Kwase” that is

sexual relationship between brother and sister. In Tiv culture if anyone caught

committing incest taboo, the both will be called to the village square for

questioning after which both will be banished from the village.

Norms

This is a taboo placed on the dos and don’ts of a particular culture of a society, it is

a taboo to work over the legs of pregnant woman. This is a believed that the

pregnant woman could deliver a child being that person’s replica.

Naming Taboo

26
In Tiv culture it is a taboo to called ones father or mother by name. It is also

prohibited to give certain names to an individual. It is believed that the names

follows people and reflects in their way of life. In Tiv culture names are not given

to children randomly, for-instance one do not called his father and mother. It is a

taboo to give anything to an elder using your left hand. An elder in Tiv land

deserved the most respect one can think of and the left hand is regarded to be an

insult in given out something except otherwise,

Social Stigma

Social stigma is the extremes’ disapprover of persons or apperceived and served to

distinguish them from other members of a society to such a person by great

society, who differs from their cultural norms. Social system stigma can result

from the perception of mental illness, handicap, and sexual orientation gender

identity.

Food and Drink Taboo

Food and drinks are always surrounded by social regulations that describe what

may not be ingested under particular social condition. These presentations are

sometimes religious or secular, frequently they are both.

27
Food and drinks considered as a very important factor in any social interaction by

group of people “ for example, in many societies the phenomena

we eat together is used by man to describe his friendly relationship with another

from distant village suggesting that even though they are not neighbors and refrain

from practicing sorcery against one another.

In Tiv land taboo are placed on certain food to help provide their members with a

sense of identity for example in Tiv land, one is not allowed to eat a fruit from

trees that are forbidden (kon u yange u yo). In Tiv land it is also prohibited for a

child in the past to eat meat, egg, and fish. It is believed that the child will steal.

Taboos on Animal

Taboos are also placed on some certain animals like snake. In Tiv land it a taboo to

kill the “Ikyalen”(Green snake). The ikyalen is believed to have helped the Tiv

people when it served as a bridge for them to cross a river during the migration to

their present day Tiv land. It is also forbidden to eat (lywa) dog. In Tiv land, dog is

course to any one that consumes it.

Taboo against Mourning and Calling the Name of the Dead

the dead is separated from cove ones. ? Is a taboo in Tiv land to mention deceased

name anyhow because it is believed that whenever his/her name is called anyhow,

28
he or she can hear and influence human life. And the taboo placed on the dead in

other to save from getting harm.

All these have helped us to see taboo as the main source to correct social

misconduct in our societies. So if human want to live together in unity, peace and

understanding, they must have adequate control over the instruction of taboos in

every area of their lives.

According to Samuel (2004) in Tiv land, all taboos have been instituted by the

ancestors and sanction relationship in the society. According to him, the belief is

that taboos are vital principle upon which Tiv land operates without observing

them, nothing can function properly : In fact, taboo provide moral codes or set of

ethnics which the people are to abide or be punished, ranging from sickness to

death.

Some of these taboos, which are linguistics nature are often broken or said in a

suitable manner, a form of euphemism. In other words, there is possibility of

expressing taboos in other to avoid “talking dirty”.

29
 CHAPTER FIVE

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION

This chapter discusses the summary of the findings and conclusion of the study,

suggesting various ways of approving the study future scholars.

5.0 Summary

This chapter summarizes this work segmented into chapter one, two, three, four

and five of the entire project. Chapter one discusses the historical background of

the Tiv people and their origin traced to south east of Benue state. Their

geographical location, which is supported by map of Nigeria, Benue state and then

showing tribes! State, country sharing common boundary with Tiv people of

central Nigeria. The classification of the Tiv language belonging to the Niger-

Congo phylum is further divided into small number of language branches. The

chapter also discusses the projected population of the Tiv people, social- economic

activities as well as objectives of the study and significance of the study.

Chapter two presents the related literature to our topic of the study, many people

have said so much about taboo and how it affect societies some of them include:

James (1777) said that taboo is a strong social prohibition relating to any area of

human activity or social custom declared as sacred and forbidden. Breaking of the

30
taboo is usually considered objectionable or abhorrent by society.

Chapter three discusses the methodology of conducting this research such as the

various sources use for the collection of data. They are primary and secondary

sources where primary source which is oral interview and it has to do conversion

between the researcher and the informants.

Chapter four deals with presentation and analysis of data collected.

5.1 Conclusion

The study concluded that Taboo among the Tiv people is when a person commit

incest taboo which is the highest offence in the community the incest taboo is a

form of taboo placed on any one found committing the following offences; sexual

relationship between a brother and sister of the same blood, evident a marring

woman sleeping with other man in the community, among several others. Such

offences are not over looked, the offences are given to severe punishment, either to

be banished from the community or to dance naked in the market square.

31
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Dr. torkula A a publisher thesis in UNN

Encyclopedia Americana (1979) (international edition) vol. 26; American co-

operation.

Fax, R. (1967) London purups Grafigkenus Ltd

Frazer S J (1911) (3rd edition) London; Macmillan

Gbande J S (2005) Nsukka educational publisher

Gbor (1974) Mdugh uTiv man Mnyer ver ken Benue, Zarie northern Nigeria

publication company.

Ihudu F Y (2004) (2nd edition) London network service

James (1777) Boston, Houghton muffin company

Malharbe (1975) student London crown agent

Stemer, F (1956) London Cohen and west

Trudgil P (1983) London penguin

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