gap of some 1300 years where little progress in understanding
MINERALOGY
• Mineralogy is the study of minerals.
• Mineralogy is a subject of geology specializing in the
scientific study of chemistry, crystal structure, and
physical (including optical) properties of minerals.
• Specific studies within mineralogy include the
processes of mineral origin and formation,
classification of minerals, their geographical
distribution, as well as their utilization.
Mineralogy is divided into 3 parts:
1) Crystallography – the study of internal and external geometry
of crystals.
2) Chemical Mineralogy – the study of chemical structure and
properties of mineral.
3) Physical Mineralogy – the study of physical properties of
mineral.
Knowledge of mineralogy is necessary for a civil engineer
because physical properties of rocks are dependent upon the
properties and composition of their constituent minerals.
Brief History of Mineralogy
The Greeks produced the first written works on minerals as early
as 300BC. However, like so many other intellectual disciplines
the downfall of both the Greek and Roman empires resulted in a
occurred.
In the mid 1500’s the German physician Agricola wrote several
treatises that focused on minerals and mining lore. His account
summarized a great deal of previous observations that formed
the foundation for the emergence of mineralogy as a science.
Mineral
• is a naturally occurring substance
• is a homogeneous solid
• is a chemical element or compound whose
composition can be representable by a chemical
formula e.g., SiO2
• is inorganic
• has an ordered atomic structure
There are over 4,900 known mineral species; over 4,660 of these
have been approved by the International Mineralogical
Association (IMA).
The silicate minerals compose over 90% of the Earth's crust.
Minerals are distinguished by various chemical and physical
properties.
Minerals are broadly grouped into
1.) The rock forming minerals and
2.) Ore-forming minerals
• In civil engineering practice, it is important to have
knowledge of the important rock- forming types.
 • The ore-forming minerals are to be understood in Axis of Symmetry
detail by the mining, Metallurgical and Mineral
Engineering professionals. • It is defined as an imaginary line in a crystal passing
through its center in such a way that when a crystal
is given a complete rotation along this line, a certain
crystal face comes to occupy the same position at
Individual Crystal Systems and the Axial System least twice.
The seven unique crystal systems, listed in order of decreasing • There are four types of axis of symmetry which
symmetry, are: are: two-fold, three-fold, four-fold, and six-
1. Cubic System, fold symmetries.
2. Hexagonal System,
3. Tetragonal System, Axis of Symmetry
4. Rhombohedral System, Two-Fold (Dyad) Symmetry
5. Orthorhombic System,
6. Monoclinic System, This requires that a crystal must be rotated by an angle of 180°
7. Triclinic System to bring the reference face occupy the same position.
Three-Fold (Triad) Symmetry
Symmetry Elements of Crystal Systems Objects that repeat themselves upon rotation of 1200 are said to
have a 3-fold axis of rotational symmetry (360/120 =3), and they
• Symmetry is understood as a sort of regularity in the will repeat 3 times in a 3600 rotation.
arrangement of faces on the body of a crystal.
• It can be studied with reference to three different Four-Fold (Tetrad) Symmetry
characters, commonly called elements of symmetry. If an object repeats itself after 90o of rotation, it will repeat 4
These are: plane of symmetry, axis of symmetry, times in a 360o rotation.
and center of symmetry.
Six-Fold (Hexad) Symmetry
Plane of Symmetry
If rotation of 60o about an axis causes the object to repeat itself,
Any imaginary plane passing through the center of a crystal in then it has 6-fold axis of rotational symmetry (360/60=6).
such a way that it divides the crystal in two exactly similar halves
is called plane of symmetry.
Center of Symmetry
A crystal is said to possess a center of symmetry if on passing
an imaginary line from some definite face, edge or corner on one
side of the crystal through its center another exactly similar face
or edge or corner is found on the other side at an equal distance
from the center.
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The physical characteristics of minerals include traits which are
used to identify and describe mineral species.
These traits include color, streak, luster, density, hardness,
cleavage, fracture, tenacity, and crystal habits or forms.
Tenacity
The property of tenacity describes the behavior of a mineral
under deformation.
Minerals can be:
• Brittle - Breaks or powders easily.
• Malleable - can be hammered into thin sheets.
• Sectile - can be cut into thin shavings with a knife.
• Ductile - bends easily and does not return to its
original shape.
• Flexible - bends somewhat and does not return to its
original shape.
• Elastic - bends but does return to its original shape.
Hardness
• It is traditionally defined as the level of difficulty
with which a smooth surface of a mineral specimen
may be scratched.
• Determined based on Mohs Hardness Scale.
Cleavage
• A cleavage plane is a plane of structural weakness
along which a mineral is likely to split smoothly.
• Cleavage thus refers to the splitting of a crystal
between two parallel atomic planes
Fracture
If the mineral contains no planes of weakness, it will break along
random directions called fracture. Several different kinds of
fracture patterns are observed.
• Conchoidal fracture - breaks along smooth curved
surfaces.
• Fibrous and splintery - similar to the way wood
breaks.
• Hackly - jagged fractures with sharp edges.
• Uneven or Irregular - rough irregular surfaces
Streak
It is the color produced by a fine powder of the mineral when
scratched on a streak plate. Often it is different than the color of
the mineral in non-powdered form.
Luster
Refers to the general appearance of a mineral surface to reflected
light. Two general types of luster are designated as follows:
• Metallic.
• Non-metallic
Metallic - looks shiny like a metal. Usually opaque and gives
black or dark colored streak.
Non-metallic – Non-metallic lusters are referred to as
▪vitreous - looks glassy - examples: clear quartz, tourmaline.
▪resinous - looks resinous - examples: sphalerite, sulfur.
▪pearly - iridescent pearl-like - example: apophyllite.
▪greasy - appears to be covered with a thin layer of oil -
example: nepheline.
▪silky - looks fibrous. - examples - some gypsum, serpentine,
malachite.
▪adamantine - brilliant luster like diamond.
Color
• Color is sometimes an extremely diagnostic property
of a mineral, for example olivine and epidote are
almost always green in color.
• But, for some minerals it is not at all diagnostic
because minerals can take on a variety of colors.
These minerals are said to be allochromatic. For
example, quartz can be clear, white, black, pink,
blue, or purple.
Specific Gravity
Specific Gravity of a mineral is a comparison or ratio of the
weight of the mineral to the weight of an equal amount of water.
Crystal Form
The internal atomic arrangement of a mineral is manifested
outwardly by development of geometric shapes or crystal
characters.
Importance of Knowledge of Minerals’ Properties to Civil
Engineering
It is important for civil engineers to know the properties of
minerals especially those that form rocks, to enable them to
consider different rocks for any required purpose (e.g., as a
foundation rock, as a road metal, as concrete aggregate, as
building stones, as floorings, or roofing minerals as decorative
material).
Rock-forming mineral, any mineral that forms igneous,
sedimentary, or metamorphic rocks and that typically, or solely,
forms as an intimate part of rock-making processes.
Rocks is assemblies of minerals.
All the minerals constituting the rocks can be classified into two
main types:
1.Essential Minerals: These are the minerals which form more
than 50% of the rocks.
2. Accessory Minerals: These minerals occur in limited
quantities as small crystals.
Quartz
Calcite
• It is found in Magmatic, metamorphic and
sedimentary masses.
• Quartz is a chemical compound consisting of one
part silicon and two parts oxygen (SiO2).
• It has a hardness of seven on the Mohs Scale
• Quartz which is pure and clean is used in optical and
chemical industry and ceramic industry.
• Quartz sand is used in the production of glass.
Feldspar Family
Augite
• Augite is a rock-forming mineral that commonly
occurs in mafic and intermediate igneous rocks.
• Augite is usually green, black, or brown in color with
a translucent to opaque diaphaneity.
• Augite does not have any physical, optical, or
chemical properties that make it especially useful.
Hornblende Mineral Group
Biotite
• Biotite is a name used for a large group of black mica
minerals that are commonly found in igneous and
metamorphic rocks.
• Black mica with perfect cleavage and a vitreous
luster on the cleavage faces.
• Biotite has a small number of commercial uses.
• Calcite is a rock-forming mineral with a chemical
formula of CaCO3.
• The construction industry is the primary consumer of
calcite in the form of limestone and marble.
• Modern construction uses calcite in the form of
limestone and marble to produce cement and
concrete.
• Feldspar is the name given to a group of minerals
distinguished by the presence of alumina and silica
(SiO2) in their chemistry. This group includes
aluminum silicates of soda, potassium, or lime.
• Feldspar is used to make dinnerware and bathroom
and building tiles. In ceramics and glass production,
feldspar is used as a flux.
• Hornblende is a group name used to describe Ferro-
hornblende and Magnesia-hornblende, but the term
 is generally more inclusive for all calcium aluminum
amphiboles.
• It is composed of Complex basic silicate of sodium,
calcium, magnesium, and aluminum. Some members
have potassium, titanium, and fluoride.
• Hornblende is usually an uninteresting gangue
material, especially when it is confused with ore
minerals due to its shiny luster.
Muscovite
• Muscovite mica is a natural resource excavated from
a mica mine. Large slabs of muscovite mica are
found in pegmatite. It can be easily cleaved into thin
flat pieces by a sharp needle or knife.
• Muscovite is usually colorless but may be light gray,
brown, pale green, or rose-red in color.
• It is a good electrical and thermal insulator.
Garnet
• Garnet is not a single mineral, but describes a group
of several closely related minerals.
• When the term "Garnet" is used, it is usually
connotative of the dark red form.
• Red Garnet gemstones (Almandine and Pyrope) are
very affordable and faceted into all types of jewelry,
including necklaces, rings, bracelets, and earrings.
Minerals are crystalline solid substances, meaning the atoms
making up a mineral are arranged in an ordered, three-
dimensional, structure.
The distances and angles between an individual atom and the
neighbors are bonded to are constant.
Minerals form under an enormous range of geologic
conditions. There are probably more ways to form minerals than
there are types of minerals themselves. Minerals can form from
volcanic gases, sediment formation, oxidation, crystallization
from magma, or deposition from a saline fluid, to list a few.
Formation from Hot Material
• A rock is a collection of minerals. Imagine a rock that
becomes so hot it melts. Many minerals start out in
liquids that are hot enough to melt rocks. Magma is
melted rock inside Earth, a molten mixture of
substances that can be hotter than 1,000oC. Magma
cools slowly inside Earth, which gives mineral
crystals time to grow large enough to be seen clearly.
• Granite is rock that forms from slowly cooled
magma, containing the minerals quartz (clear),
plagioclase feldspar (shiny white), potassium
feldspar (pink), and biotite (black).
Formation from Solutions
• Water on Earth, such as the water in the oceans,
contains chemical elements mixed into a solution.
Various processes can cause these elements to
combine to form solid mineral deposits.
Minerals from Salt Water
• When water evaporates, it leaves behind a solid
precipitate of minerals.
• Water can only hold a certain amount of dissolved
minerals and salts. When the amount is too great to
stay dissolved in the water, the particles come
together to form mineral solids, which sink. Halite
easily precipitates out of water, as does calcite.
• Some lakes, such as Mono Lake in California or The
Great Salt Lake in Utah, contain many mineral
precipitates.
Minerals from Hot Underground Water
• Magma heats nearby underground water, which
reacts with the rocks around it to pick up dissolved
particles. As the water flows through open spaces in
the rock and cools, it deposits solid minerals. The
mineral deposits that form when a mineral fills
cracks in rocks are called veins.
• Quartz veins formed in this rock.
• When minerals are deposited in open spaces, large
crystals form
• Amethyst formed when large crystals grew in open
spaces inside the rock. These special rocks are called
geodes.
Minerals can also form in several other ways:
• Precipitation from aqueous solution (i.e., from hot
water flowing underground, from evaporation of a
lake or inland sea, or in some cases, directly from
seawater)
• Precipitation from gaseous emanations (e.g., in
volcanic regions)
• Metamorphism — formation of new minerals
directly from the elements within existing minerals
under conditions of elevated temperature and
pressure.
• Weathering — during which minerals unstable at
Earth’s surface may be altered to other minerals.
• Organic formation — formation of minerals within
shells (primarily calcite) and teeth and bones
(primarily apatite) by organisms (these organically
formed minerals are still called minerals because
they can also form inorganically).
Environments
• The environments of mineral formation geologically
are highly varied; within the earth’s crust, different
temperatures and depths result in varied minerals and
on earth’s surface, low temperature led to
precipitation from saline brine (slightly salty water).
• Endogenetic (hypogene) – Deep seated processes in
the interior of the earth.
• Exogenetic (hypergene) – Surface processes (at or
near the earth’s surface as well as in the atmosphere
and hydrosphere)
• In geologic environments where mineral formation
is taking place, the kinds of minerals that for, depend
on various factors such as:
o Temperature
o Pressure
o the chemical activity of water present
o the mobility and relative abundance of chemical element.
• The mineral formed is defined by two fundamental
properties.
• Crystal Structure – The geometric arrangement of
the ions (atoms) composing the minerals.
• Chemical Composition – The proportions of
different chemical elements contained.
Coal
• Coal is one of the fuels used to cook food. Earlier, it
was used in railway engines to produce steam to run
the engine. It is also used in thermal power plants to
produce electricity. Coal is also used as a fuel in
various industries.
• As coal contains mainly carbon, the slow process of
conversion of dead vegetation into coal is called
carbonization. Since it was formed from the remains
of vegetation, coal is also called a fossil fuel.
• When heated in air, coal burns and produces mainly
carbon dioxide gas. Coal is processed in industry to
get some useful products such as coke, coal tar and
coal gas.
Coke
• It is a tough, porous and black substance. It is an
almost pure form of carbon. Coke is used in the
manufacture of steel and in the extraction of many
metals.
Coal Tar
• It is a black, thick liquid with an unpleasant smell. It
is a mixture of about 200 substances. Products
obtained from coal tar are used as starting materials
for manufacturing various substances used in
everyday life and in industry, like synthetic dyes,
drugs, explosives, perfumes, plastics, paints,
photographic materials, roofing materials, etc.
Petroleum
• Petrol and diesel are obtained from a natural resource
called petroleum. The word petroleum is derived
from petra (rock) and oleum (oil) as it is mined from
between the rocks under Earth.
• Petroleum was formed from organisms living in the
sea. As these organisms died, their bodies settled at
the bottom of the sea and got covered with layers of
sand and clay. Over millions of years, absence of air,
high temperature and high pressure transformed the
dead organisms into petroleum and natural gas.
Origin and Occurrence of Petroleum in India
 • Petroleum has an organic origin and is found in
sedimentary basins, shallow depressions and in the
seas (past and present). Most of the oil reserves in
India are associated with anticlines and fault traps in
the sedimentary rock formations of tertiary times,
about 3 million years ago. Some recent sediment,
less than one million years also show evidence of
incipient oil.
• As already mentioned, oil as well as natural gas in
India occur in sedimentary rocks. About 14.1 lakh sq
km or about 42 per cent of the total area of the
country is covered with sedimentary rocks out of
which about 10 lakh sq km form marine basins of
Mesozoic and Tertiary times.
• India was a very insignificant producer of petroleum
at the time of Independence and remained so till
Mumbai High started production on a large scale. In
fact, off-shore production did not start till the mid-
1970s and the entire production was received from
on-shore oil fields.
• A mineral is defined as a naturally occurring solid,
inorganic, homogeneous substance having definite
chemical composition and regular internal atomic
structure.
The symmetry elements of crystallographic systems are plane
of symmetry, axis of symmetry and center of symmetry.
The main physical properties of minerals are tenacity,
hardness, cleavage, fracture, streak, luster, color, specific gravity
or density and crystal form.
The rock forming minerals are quartz, augite, biotite, calcite,
feldspar family, hornblende mineral group, muscovite and
garnet.

SUMMARY-2
MINERALOGY

• It deals with the study of minerals.

• Minerals are the basic unit from which different
rocks and ores of earth are formed.
• Details of mode of occurrence, formation,
composition, types, association, properties, uses etc.
of mineral are included in mineralogy

Mineral