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Black hole algorithm: A comprehensive survey

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Applied Intelligence
https://doi.org/10.1007/s10489-021-02980-5

Black hole algorithm: A comprehensive survey

Laith Abualigah1,2 · Mohamed Abd Elaziz3,4,5,6 · Putra Sumari2 · Ahmad M. Khasawneh1 ·
Mohammad Alshinwan1 · Seyedali Mirjalili7,8 · Mohammad Shehab9 · Hayfa Y. Abuaddous1 · Amir H. Gandomi10

Accepted: 3 November 2021

© The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer Science+Business Media, LLC, part of Springer Nature 2021

Abstract
This paper provides an in-depth literature review of the Black Hole Algorithm (BHA) which is considered as a recent
metaheuristic. BHA has been proven to be very efficient in different applications. There has been several modifications
and variants of this algorithm in the literature, so this work reviews various variants of the BHA. The applications of BHA
in engineering problems, clustering, task scheduling, image processing, etc. have been thoroughly reviewed as well. This
review article sheds lights on the pros and cons of this algorithm and enables finding a right variant of this algorithm for a
certain application area. The paper concludes with an in-depth future direction.

Keywords Black hole algorithm · Optimization algorithms · Meta-heuristics · Real-word problems · Optimization
problems · Algorithm · Optimization

1 Introduction has prompted and motivated researchers to introduce

Optimization is a rule that determines the best decision
variables to achieve the minimum or maximum value of
the given objective function [1–3]. Optimization techniques
work by examining the search space for finding the opti-
mal solution to the present problem [4]. The optimization
process begins the endeavors of improvements subject to
the objective function, constraints, and parameters [5, 6].
By executing the optimization procedure with the underly-
ing objective function, a minimization will guide towards
getting the optimum value for desired decision values.
Besides, there are various single and multi-objective opti-
mization problems with different solutions to address opti-
mization problems [7, 8]. Some solutions have constraints
according to the appropriateness of the given problems and
wanted solutions [9–14].
The complexity of optimization problems is growing
exponentially [15, 16]. Many complicated real-world opti-
mization problems are presented with challenging struc-
ture to be solved by gradient-free optimization (classi-
cal algorithms) [17]. The weakness of classical optimiza-
tion algorithms in addressing hard optimization problems
 Laith Abualigah
Aligah.2020@gmail.com
Extended author information available on the last page of the article.
or improve nature-inspired optimization algorithms [18].
Moreover, growing computational complexity has encour-
aged researchers to pioneer new novel nature-inspired opti-
mization algorithms and made it necessary. The devel-
opment of AI techniques has brought soft computing
approaches not only for the scientific population yet also for
the general society [19].
Over the past decades, several researchers have been
motivated, by the demand for solving complex optimization
problems, to introduce new optimization algorithms by
different inspirations [20, 21]. Evolutionary and swarming
are the most popular of these optimization algorithms.
These algorithms including a wide range of methods such
as Evolution strategies (ES) [22], evolution programming
[23], differential evolution (DE) [24], genetic algorithms
(GA) [25], black hole algorithm [26], multi-verse optimizer
algorithm [27], salp swarm algorithm [28], ant Lion
Optimizer [29], moth-flame optimization algorithm [30],
krill herd algorithm [31], particle swarm optimization [32],
and Arithmetic Optimization Algorithm (AOA) [33].
In the same context, Hatamlou in [26] introduced a new
metaheuristic optimization method inspired by the black
hole phenomenon, namely, the black hole algorithm (BHA).
In general, BHA is similar to other population algorithms
which means, the first step in the optimization process is to
start with a set of random solutions (i.e., initial population)
and the underlying objective function that is used to evaluate
the decision values. The best solution so far is elected as

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Fig. 1 The number of published
versions of the Black Hole
Algorithm
the black hole in each iteration, which next begins attracting
other candidate solutions toward it, called stars. If the other
candidate solutions reach near to the best-obtained solution,
it will be consumed by the best solution. In the first paper,
the effectiveness of the black hole algorithm is tested on
several NP-hard problems (i.e., data clustering datasets).
The results proved that the suggested black hole algorithm
beat other competitor optimization algorithms for several
test cases.
The primary purpose of this survey paper is to give
a global summary of the main procedure of the Black
Hole Algorithm and its sources. The variants of the
Black Hole Algorithm are presented as groups of basic,
modified, binary, hybrid, and multi-objective versions.
The applications that have employed the Black Hole
Algorithm are presented as groups of benchmark functions,
machine learning applications, clustering applications,
scheduling applications, image applications, engineering
applications, parameter estimation applications, aircraft
applications, software engineering applications, network
applications, wireless sensor network applications, and
other applications. As well, the results of the Black
Hole Algorithm for solving the classical benchmark test
functions are provided and compared its results with other
optimization algorithms published in the literature to show
for the researchers its general ability in solving this kind of
problems. Finally, discussions and theoretical analysis are
provided to show the most applications which have used
this algorithm, and its main advantages and disadvantages.
Some plots are presented to show a clear picture of the
publication’s growth of this algorithm in regards to years,
versions, and other applications [34–36].
Figure 1 shows the number of published versions of
the Black Hole Algorithm. It is clear from this figure that
the most published papers over versions of the Black Hole
Algorithm are modified versions. It followed by binary,
hybrid, and multi-objective versions. In Fig. 2, the number
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L. Abualigah et al.
of published applications, that have used the Black Hole
Algorithm, is given. It is clear from Fig. 2 that the most
published papers that employed the Black Hole Algorithm
were on engineering applications. It followed by clustering
applications, scheduling applications, benchmark functions,
machine learning, network applications, image processing,
parameter estimation, aircraft applications, wireless sensor
network, and software engineering.
Finally, the number of published papers that have used
the Black Hole algorithm among the years since it was
proposed until the second quarter of 2020 are given in
Fig. 3. The most number of published papers were in 2016,
followed by 2017, 2015, 2019, 2020, 2018, 2014, and 2013.
It is clear that the amount of interest in this algorithm still
growing and it can be used further for other applications and
in different modifications.
The rest structure of this review paper is organized
as follows. Section 2 presents the main procedure of the
Black Hole Algorithm. Section 3 summarizes the variants
and modifications of the Black Hole Algorithm. Section 4
gives an overview of the applications of the Black Hole
Algorithm. In Section 5, the results of the conventional
Black Hole Algorithm are presented and compared with
other similar algorithms. Section 6 shows the discussion
and theoretical analysis for the versions and application
of the Black Hole Algorithm with its main advantage and
disadvantages. Finally, the conclusion and some potential
future work directions are given in Section 7.
2 Black hole algorithm: An overview
In this section, the mathematical formulation of the Black
Hole Algorithm (BHA) is introduced [26]. It is a population-
based metaheuristic that mimics the black hole phenomena
behavior of pulling in nearby stars. BHA, similar to
other MH, starts by generating initial position for a set
Black hole algorithm...

Fig. 2 The number of published

applications that have used the
Black Hole Algorithm

of starts/solutions inside the search domain. Followed by
determining the best fitness value which corresponding to
the best fitness value. The next process is to update the
position of the stars by moving them towards the black hole
(i.e., best star) and replacing those stars that have position
in specified neighbour of the black hole by new generated
stars. The details of BHA are discuss as follows:
The first generation of stars is constructed inside the
search space bounded by lower value LB and upper value
U B. This formulated using the following equation:
Xi = LB + rand × (U B − LB), i = 1, 2, ..., N (1)
Thereafter the fitness value (f it) of each star is computed
and the best star is allocated as black hole (XBH ).
Followed [26], the stars (Xi ) around black hole XBH will
be absorbed by it and this formulated as:
Xi (t + 1) = Xi (t) + rand × (XBH − Xi (t)), i = 1, 2, ..., N
(2)
where t represents the current iteration and rand ∈ [0, 1] is
random number.
Moreover, during moving the start (Xi , i = 1, ..., N)
in the direction of the black hole, there is a possibility

Fig. 3 The number of published

papers that have used the Black
Hole algorithm among the years
since it was proposed until the
second quarter of 2020

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of crossing the event horizon 1 . So, those stars Xi will
be sucked by XBH and new stars will be generated. This
process is defined according to the radius of the event
horizon
f itBH
R = N (3)
i=1 f iti
In the case of the distance between stars and XBH is less
than R then these stars died and new stars are created
randomly in the search domain. The steps of BHA are given
in Algorithm 1.
Generally, exploration and exploitation are the main search
methods used in any optimization algorithm. Each tool
specializes in a different search process to reach the best
and optimal solution through several methods. Expanded
research performs a large-scale exploration process in the
process of updating the current solutions. In contrast, a
narrow search conducts a limited investigation to improve
the existing solutions to get better results.
3 Variants of black hole algorithm
In this section, Black Hole algorithm variables are presented
in detail to show the modifications and applications they
have been used in. An overview of these studies is given
in Table 1. The following subsections are divided into five
main sections as follows.
3.1 Basic versions of the black hole algorithm
Black Hole optimization algorithm (BHA) has received
extensive attention from many scholars. Since it has
1 Event Horizon: It is a spherical shape constructed around the black
hole
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L. Abualigah et al.
been underlined as a solution for various field problems,
including civil engineering, artificial intelligence, software
engineering, wireless sensor network, image processing,
and image processing and data clustering.
Ibrahim et al. in [55] anticipated the growth of BHA
application in more areas, namely routing in Very Large
Scale Integration (VSLI), and DNA sequence design. BHA
surpasses GA, ACO, and PSO algorithms since it is faster
than they are and better in finding a solution for solving the
traveling salesman problem (TSP) [56]. Kumar et al. in [39]
unveiled that BHA can provide a model for solving wireless
sensor network optimization problems since it is free from
parameter tuning issues like GA. Moreover, it has a simple
structure with minimal computational complexity; besides,
it offers a preeminent solution and fast convergence.
Feature selection can be perceived as an optimization
problem. The experimental results in [26] showed that
BHA outperforms the other traditional heuristic algorithms
like BB–BC, GSA, PSO, and K-means in solving NP-hard
problems such as data clustering. On the other hand, some
limitations of the original BHA in terms of exploration
(global search) and exploitation (local search) abilities have
been reported along with the slow rate of convergence so
many iterations are needed to achieve the effect [36]; thus,
some modifications need to be done to improve the BHA’s
performance mainly in global search in big problem spaces.
3.2 Modified versions of the black hole algorithm
Chaotic Inertia Weight Black Hole Algorithm (CIWBH)
was proposed by [38] to improve the global search of BHA.
Chaos methods are added to the basic version of BHA
to improve its performance further. Better performance
outcomes than original BHA and other metaheuristic
algorithms, GSA and PSO, were obtained.
The black hole algorithm has been applied to the
aircraft design. For example, Gao et al. [40] have been
proposed the black hole algorithm and Spencer method to
examine the stability of elevated embankment slope of an
airport. The study shows that the proposed approach very
efficient to measure the slope stability [40]. In addition,
to determine the critical slip surface of soil slope, a
combination of Spencer approach and the Morgenstern-
Price algorithm with Black Hole algorithm used. To
verify the performance of the presented algorithm, a set
of numerical experiments has been conducted. The result
shows significant performance in determining the critical
slip surface [54].
In term of improving the process of grinding production,
the BH algorithm used with the extreme learning machine
(ELM) sensors and several activations approach. The ELM
neural network method used to study the different seven
activation functions. To optimize the result of ELM the
Black hole algorithm...

Table 1 Overview of the versions of the Black Hole Algorithm

Proposed Variant Problem Year Reference

BHA Basic Feature selection 2013 [26]

HBHA Hybrid scheduling 2014 [37]
MTLBO–BH Hybrid Optimal operating cost 2014 [37]
CIWBH Modified Test functions 2015 [38]
BHA Basic Wireless sensor network 2015 [39]
MBHA Modified aircraft 2016 [40]
MBHA Modified Test functions 2016 [41]
MBHA Modified Test functions 2016 [42]
BBHA Binary Characterizing irregular customers 2016 [43]
BBHA Binary Set Covering Problem 2016 [44]
BBH Binary Set Covering Problem 2016 [45]
GSBHA Hybrid Test functions 2016 [46]
BOBHA Multi-objective Assignment issue and facility location 2017 [47]
BOBHA Multi-objective Automotive manufacturers 2017 [48]
AMOBH Multi-objective Density assessment problems 2017 [49]
BBHA Binary Set coverage problems 2017 [50]
BBHA Binary Set coverage problems 2017 [50]
HBHA Hybrid Test functions 2017 [51]
BBHA Binary Feature selection 2017 [52]
BHLS Modified Test functions 2017 [53]
MBHA Modified Soil slope 2017 [54]
BHA Basic DNA sequence design 2018 [55]
BHA Basic Traveling salesman problem 2018 [56]
HBHA Hybrid Test functions 2018 [57]
BBHA Hybrid Gene selection 2019 [58]
MBHA Modified Machine learning 2020 [59]
MOBHA Multi-objective Motor performance optimization 2020 [60]

BH algorithm with a combination of golden sine operator
and Levy flight operator a proposed called GSLBH. The
simulation result shows high performance for the grinding
process [59].
To solve and simplify the numerical optimization
problems, Mohammed, S. K., et al. propose a modified
BH algorithm. The local search implemented with BH
algorithm to extract the nearby solution around the optimal
solution named (BHLS) [53]. Another approach based on
BH algorithm proposed by Olivares, Rodrigo, et al. [41]
to evaluate selection functions to self-adaptive Constraint
optimization. In this work [41], the effect and significance
of 16 various constructed functions are considered. The
proposed method seeks to enhance search tree exploration
speed by changing the enumeration approach in real time.
The proposed method got better results compared to other
methods.
In [42] employ the BH algorithm to solve the potential
problems caused by the trapping impact. The trapping
passed, and particles near to the black hole are taken with
a new token range if they surpass the smallest way to the
black hole. Further, the modified approach generated in the
exploration space chosen in an arbitrary way to evade the
potential changes of trapping impact.
3.3 Binary versions of the black hole algorithm
Biological data is composed of redundant and meaningless
characteristics. These characteristics can lead to algorithms
modelling misleading and the problem of overfitting.
Without a method of selection features, it is challenging
for current models to identify the trends on data accurately.
The aim of the selected feature is to select a small
number of appropriate or important features to optimize the
classification efficiency. Current methods features selection
suffer from issues such as being trapped in local optima and
becoming computationally expensive. Thus, an effective
global search technique is required to solve these issues.
Black Hole Algorithm (BHA) is an effective and recent
global search technique, influenced by black hole behaviour

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that is being used to solve many optimization issues.
However, BHA’s ability for feature selection has not yet
been investigated.
In [52], Pashaei et al. have designed and implemented
a Binary version of the Black Hole Algorithm named
BBHA for solving the problem of feature selection in the
area of biological data. The BBHA is an enhancement
of existing BHA by a suitable binarization. In addition,
this analysis compared the performance of six state-of-
the-art decision tree classifiers (Random Forest (RF),
Bagging, C5.0, C4.5, Boosted C5.0, and CART) to utilize
the best one as an evaluator of the proposed scheme.
The performance of the proposed scheme is evaluated on
eight accessible biological datasets and is compared with
Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO), Genetic Algorithm
(GA), Simulated Annealing (SA), and Correlation-based
Feature Selection (CFS) in terms of accuracy, sensitivity,
specificity, Matthews Correlation Coefficient (MCC) and
Region Under the Receiver Operating Function (ROCC).
To validate the BBHA’s applicability and generality, it
integrated with the classifier Naive Bayes (NB) and applied
to the text and image domains on additional datasets.
The set coverage issue requires minimal cost component
family from given subgroups, which both cover the whole
set. Garcı́a et al. [50] introduce a multi-dynamic binary
black hole algorithm to solve the problem of set coverage.
The proposed technique has the distinctive feature of
proposing a generic dynamic binarization approach to
handle the properties of discovery and exploitation. In
addition, using on Apache Spark the distributed framework,
implementation of the algorithm has been explored.
In [43], a parallel between the issue of Brazil’s
commercial losses and the task of characterizing irregular
customers have been introduced through a recent meta-
heuristic optimization technique called the Black Hole
Algorithm. The experimental configuration is carried out
over two different data sets (commercial and industrial)
supported by a Brazilian electrical utility and demonstrated
the significance of selecting the most important features in
the characterization of theft.
The Set Covering Problem (SCP) is one of the most
common problems of combinatorial optimization, and it has
numerous applications in various engineering, science and
other disciplines. It attempted to explore a set of solutions
with the lowest possible cost to address the needs specified
in the constraints. In this study, a current Binary Black Holes
(BBH)-inspired binary algorithm have been used to solve
multiple instances of the issue with the known benchmarks
obtained from the OR-library [44]. The approach described
emulates the behaviour of these celestial bodies that use
various operators, such as rotation and collapse, to provide
effective solutions. It also introduced some enhancements
in several operators, as well as added others that were also
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L. Abualigah et al.
influenced by physical behaviour in black holes to improve
the discovery to optimum values during the search.
In many sectors, there are several problems that can be
addressed with combinatorial optimization. In this context,
the Set Covering Problem is one of the common of them,
being utilized in multiple factions of engineering and
science, enabling to identify a set of solutions that address
the needs found in the constraints with the lowest possible
cost [44]. Rubio et al. [45] suggested an OR-Library-
inspired binary black holes (BBH) algorithm for resolving
known instances of SPC. It also reproduces black holes
behaviour, using different operators to offer better solutions.
The proposed method got better results compared to other
methods.
3.4 Hybrid versions of the black hole algorithm
Recently, a challenging issue facing the electrical power
system operator would be how to handle the power
generating units optimally across a one-day scheduling
horizon with all the realistic equity, inequalities and
complex constraints in mind. Such restrictions include
a balance of load plus transmission losses, valve-point
impact, restricted operating areas, multi-fuel options,
line flow limitations, operating reserve and minimum
on/off times. The proposed structure first provides a
realistic model for the scheduling of short-term thermal
generation (STGS) in this respect. It does have a high-
dimensional, elevated-constraints, non-convex, non-smooth
and non-linear existence and needs to be solved with
an effective algorithm. A new strategy to optimization,
known as gradient-based modified teaching – learning-
based optimization along with black hole (MTLBO–BH)
algorithm, was then suggested to find the optimal operating
cost [37]. Despite the superior features of the MTLBO and
BH algorithms, still suffer from the issue of local optima
trapping. Additionally, this work presented the efficient
combination of MTLBO and BH and a novel self-adaptive
wavelet mutation operator for organizing the new robust
technique. Although the MTLBO–BH method has many
features, some issues remain pleasant to address. One of
these issues is the more robust solution generated which
can be overcome by the classical gradient-based technique.
Lastly, the output of the proposed method is being tested on
various thermal power systems.
Gene selection is a useful technique for processing
data in cancer classification, but it is a challenging task
because of the extensive search space. The goal of this
study is, therefore, to design a hybrid meta-heuristic Binary
Black Hole Algorithm (BBHA) and Binary Particle Swarm
Optimization (BPSO) model (4-2) that focuses on gene
selection. In [58], the BBHA is integrated into the BPSO
(4-2) scheme to make the BPSO (4-2) efficient and to
Black hole algorithm...
accelerate the BPSO (4-2) algorithm’s exploration and
exploitation to optimize the overall performance further.
This model was compatible with the Recursive Random
Forest (RF-RFE) pre-filtering technique. Sparse Partial
Least Squares Discriminant Analysis (SPLSDA); the k-
nearest neighbour and Naive Bayes are the classifications
evaluated in the proposed framework. The performance of
the system proposed was tested on two metrics and three
clinical microarrays. The findings and statistics demonstrate
the BPSO (4-2)-BBHA’s higher performance compared to
the BBHA, the BPSO (4-2) and various state-of-the-art
techniques in terms of avoiding local minima, convergence
rate, accuracy and selected gene number. The results
also reveal that established biologically and statistically
relevant genes from the clinical datasets can be successfully
identified by the BPSO (4-2)-BBHA model.
Mohammed et al. [46] used a novel hybrid population-
based method to investigate the solution of optimization
problems. A combination of the Black Hole Algorithm
(BHA) and the Gravitational Search Algorithm (GSA)
is suggested for the Gravitational Search – Black Hole
Algorithm (GSBHA). The key concept is to use GSA
to improve standard BHA. Standard real-parameter test
functions of CEC 2014 are used to compare the hybrid
algorithm with both standard BHA and GSA algorithms in
the development of the best solution. The findings show
better efficiency of the hybrid method and better capability
to escape with faster convergence from local optimums than
the regular BHA and GSA.
Black Hole Algorithm (BHA) is a relativity theory-based
optimization algorithm based on the black hole discovery.
Previously, BHA introduced white hole operator, which
is based on the opposite of black hole. In [57], a local
with a white hole operator is applied to the BHA. A
new enumeration strategies online control system based on
recent metaheuristics inspired by nature: bat algorithm and
black hole optimization has been presented by [51]. The
bat algorithm imitates the location capabilities of bats using
echoes to distinguish the objects in their surrounding areas
while optimizing the black hole inspires their behaviour on
the gravitational pull of black holes in space. Through using
various enumeration methods and well-known benchmarks,
different experiments have been performed, where the
proposed solutions significantly outperform existing online
control work.
3.5 Multi-objective versions of the black hole
algorithm
In this paper [47], a new optimization model based on
the BH introduces to find solutions for the supply chain
of consignment-store-based. Two factors are taken into
account in this approach to solve the assignment issue and
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facility location. Then, the enhanced BH dealing with the
multi-objective supply chain. The result shows that the
proposed method improves the performance, reliability, and
flexibility of the supply chain.
[48] proposed another approach for enhancing the
supply chain process to automotive manufacturers based
on milk runs and supermarkets. The optimization takes
the assignment and facility location to improve the
manufacturing processes. The presented approach explores
the best location of barriers, and find out the optimal
assignment of barriers and machines to reduce the material
handling expenses with consider to order capacity of devices
and resources.
A multiobjective individual density assessment approach
with the BH algorithm named (AMOBH) introduced by Wu,
Chong, et al. Cell density approach has the features of low
complexity of computational and variety of Pareto frontier,
and keep the balance of concentration. In this approach, the
Pareto frontier moved to a different objective space. Then,
The Shannon entropy used to determine the evolutionary
strategies and status. Finally, to estimate the robustness of
solutions by combining the cell density with dominance
strength evaluation [49].
Rao, Jing, et al. propose a multi-objective framework
based on the BH algorithm for motor performance
optimization. In this work, the local with the momentum
gradient technique is used; on the other hand, the
global search is used with the random search approach.
Furthermore, to make the optimization effect global, a new
file management method is used [60]. The proposed method
got better results compared to other methods.
4 Applications of black hole algorithm
In this section, Black Hole algorithm applications are
presented in detail to show the applications that have used
the Black Hole algorithm. An overview of these studies is
given in Table 2. The following subsections are divided into
twelve main sections as follows.
4.1 Benchmark functions
Gupta et al. [76] compared between both of the Black Hole
Algorithm (BHA) and Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO)
to prove that the BHA is not better than PSO as the author
of BHA claim. Thus, 25 benchmark functions have been
employed, where they divided into 20 are multimodal, and 5
are unimodal problems. The experiment results showed that
the BHA outperformed the PSO. However, the preference
of the other functions was to PSO.
Xie et al. [94] focused on BHA by highlighting
its mechanisms of searching (i.e., balancing between
 L. Abualigah et al.

Table 2 Overview of the applications of the Black Hole Algorithm

Proposed Variant Application Year Reference

BKmeans Hybrid Clustering applications 2014 [61]

BHA Basic Engineering applications 2014 [62]
BHA Basic Aircraft applications 2014 [63]
BHA Basic Aircraft applications 2014 [64]
BHA Basic Software engineering 2015 [65]
BHA Basic Test functions 2015 [66]
BHA Basic Machine learning 2015 [67]
BHA Modified Clustering applications 2015 [68]
BHA Basic Image applications 2015 [69]
BH-DEO Hybrid Engineering applications 2015 [70]
BHA Basic Engineering applications 2015 [71]
BHA Basic Test functions 2015 [72]
BHA Basic Engineering applications 2015 [73]
BHA Basic Wireless sensor network 2015 [74]
BHA Basic Scheduling applications 2016 [75]
BHA Basic Test functions 2016 [76]
WH-BH Hybrid Test functions 2016 [77]
BHA Basic Test functions 2016 [78]
BHA Basic Machine learning 2016 [79]
MOBHA Multi-objective Scheduling applications 2016 [80]
BHA Basic Image applications 2016 [81]
BHA Basic Software engineering 2016 [82]
BHA Basic Network applications 2016 [83]
BHA Basic Wireless sensor network 2016 [84]
BHA Basic Scheduling applications 2017 [85]
BHA Basic Scheduling applications 2017 [86]
BBPSO Modified Engineering applications 2017 [87]
BHA Basic Parameter estimation 2017 [88]
BHA Basic Network applications 2017 [89]
HBHA Hybrid Clustering applications 2018 [90]
BHA Basic Scheduling applications 2018 [91]
BHA Basic Parameter estimation 2018 [92]
LBH Modified Clustering applications 2019 [93]
GSLBH Modified Test functions 2019 [94]
BHA Basic Machine learning 2019 [95]
BHA Basic Machine learning 2019 [96]
BHACO Modified Scheduling applications 2019 [97]
BH-CDOA Hybrid Engineering applications 2019 [98]
BHA-means Hybrid Clustering applications 2020 [99]
BHA Basic Scheduling applications 2020 [100]
BHA Basic Image applications 2020 [101]
BHA Baisc Engineering applications 2020 [102]

exploration and exploitation). For example, the exploration the final enhanced version of BH, called GSLBH. Finally,
has been enhanced using the Levy flight operator. In 17 benchmark functions were employed to evaluate the
contrast, the golden sine (G-S) operator has been utilized performance of GSLBH. The results illustrated that the
to improve the exploitation. It is worth to mention that GSLBH achieved the highest accuracy and best convergence

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Black hole algorithm...
rate comparing with Golden Sine Algorithm (Gold-SA),
Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO), Firefly Algorithm
(FA), and Whale Optimization Algorithm (WAO).
Mohammed et al. [77] proposed a new algorithm that
depends on the law of gravity (i.e., white holes and hole-
black hole attract stars), namely, WH-BH. The initial
population in the WH-BH contain a set of candidate
solutions; the fitness function is calculated for each solution.
The white whole is responsible for determining the worst
solution, while the black whole determines the best solution.
where 30 benchmark functions from the CEC2014 test
functions are used.
Aliman et al. [66] conducted comparisons between
the most common optimization algorithms; Gravitational
Search Algorithm (GSA), PSO, and BHA algorithms.
Twenty-two benchmark functions form the CEC2014
benchmark dataset has been utilized to evaluate the
performance of all the above algorithms. It’s worth
mentioning that the set of benchmark functions divided
into four unimodal functions, 7 multimodal functions, and
six hybrid functions. The experiments repeated twice times
to understand the behavior of the selected algorithms and
achieve a more concrete conclusion.
In [72], various optimization algorithms have been solved
using BHA. The nineteen benchmark test functions are
used to evaluate the performance of the BHA. The used
benchmark functions divided into seven unimodal test
functions, five multimodal test functions, and seven fixed
dimension test functions. The experiment results showed
that the performance of BHA outperformed the PSO and
GA.
Wang et al. [78] improved the ability of BHA in
the exploration search and increased the diversity using
Euclidean distance. To evaluate the performance of the
proposed algorithm, a set of benchmark functions are
utilized and conducted a comparison with PSO, ABC, DE,
and basic BHA. The results illustrated that the proposed
algorithm achieved the best results compare with other
algorithms.
4.2 Machine learning applications
4.2.1 Classification
BHA can help in detecting and predicting the right
knowledge for feature selection rather than examining all
the features in a database. So, it can enhance knowledge
discovery in terms of speed and accuracy [95, 103–105].
A novel approach was undertaken to classify medical
data by [67] for feature selection purposes—this approach
based on combining BHA with a decision tree (C4.5).
The results were compared to seven eminent classification
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methods such as CART, LDA and C5.0 decision tree.
The experimental results using Matthews’ Correlation
Coefficient (MCC) and Accuracy for model evaluation
indicated better results compared to other classification
methods, especially in predicting for unbalanced and large
datasets. Another research has recommended the use of
BHA to train Convolutional Neural Networks (CNNs) [96].
The new-trained algorithm can be used to classify cancer
disease data. This can be achieved by avoiding local minima
entrapment to improve performance.
4.2.2 Clustering
Data clustering is a typical unsupervised learning technique
of data mining, where data are grouped into highly cohesive
clusters, which are loosely coupled in terms of similarity.
Partition clustering algorithm like k-means is primarily used
for document clustering since it can help in identifying
textual patterns in documents amongst thousands of such
textual features. Nevertheless, many shortcomings have
been found regarding initial seed dependency and trapping
into the optimal local solution. To avoid such kind of
problems and give optimal results, [90] have suggested
the implementation of BHA using k-mean as embedding.
Their experimental results, which were evaluated on Purity
and Silhouette Index, revealed that the hybrid utilization of
BHA and k-means overtakes the hybridization of GA and
K-means algorithm and gives the most optimal or near to
optimal solution.
Li et al. in [68] have embedded BHA in the membrane
structure (P system) in which promising results and higher
optimum value were obtained comparing to other classical
algorithms such as PSO, GSA and k-means. Abdulwahab
et al. in [93] have proposed an innovative data clustering
technique, which introduces the levy flight into BH
algorithm (LBH). The experimental results showed more
effectiveness and robustness in data clustering comparing to
other algorithms such as Big Bang Big Crunch, ABC, PSO,
GWO, GSA, BA and Bat algorithm.
Another recent study [99] used the same BHA-means
combination and found better performance results compared
to GSA, BHA and k-means. Bisecting k-Means (BKmeans)
which is a variation of K-means, is one of the most well-
known partitional clusters algorithm used in many different
application areas, where the dataset is being partitioned into
k clusters. However, only when the initial partitions are
close to the final solution, the Bisecting k-means algorithm
produces better performance results since the performance
vastly depends on the initial state as well as reach to
the local optimal solution. Thus, many papers have sug-
gested the use of the binary combination of BHA and
BKmeans to overcome such problems. In their study [61],

such combination was proposed, and they obtained outper-
forming results than using traditional bisecting k-means,
BHA and PSO.
4.3 Scheduling applications
The task scheduling issue in the Cloud computing
environment encourages many researchers to introduce
optimization algorithms to solve this issue and make the
Cloud system more scalable and execute tasks faster. The
goal of task scheduling is to reduce task compilation time
and enhance resource utilization. To solve this issue [97],
uses the BH and Ant Colony Optimization (ACO) algorithm
to reduce the execution time and makespan, and improve
the task scheduling performance. In addition, Ebadifard
et al. [85] introduce a framework for the cloud resource
scheduling approach based on multi-objective scheduling
BH algorithm and Pareto optimizer method.
Besides, a combination of BH and the Analytic hierarchy
process (AHP) decision-making model, used by [91] and [100]
to solve the multi-objective workflow tasks scheduling on
cloud virtual machines. The AHP algorithm used to transform
the single-objective BH to the multi-objective relationship.
In terms of enhancing the job scheduling on the parallel
machines by improving the weighted flow time and
maximum tardiness, several formulations proposed by [86].
The BH used to optimize the scheduling tasks based
on idle time and makespan of two machine flow shops.
Besides, in the setup times and processing time of tasks
formalized in fuzzy values form. A multi-objective BH
presented with a combination of Genetic algorithm and
weighted objectives. The result shows an out-performance
comparing with other approaches [80].
The BH algorithm used to solve the Set Covering prob-
lem, which is an optimization issue in the manufacturing
applications, for instance, the equipment line balancing,
production planning. The BH improved with the inclusion
of a transformer function and discretization schemes to deal
with the binary nature of the issue [75].
A number of issues have been reported regarding cloud
computing, such as dynamic resource scaling and power
consumption. It is thus affecting the operational cost and
efficiency of the cloud system. The efficiency of a cloud
can be upgraded, and the cost can be significantly reduced
by using a workload prediction model. Kumar et al. in [79]
have achieved improvements in the workload prediction
model when using a neural network and BHA.
4.4 Image applications
Yaghoobi et al. [69] utilized BHA to improve image gray-
level, which consider as an essential technique in image
processing. The authors aim to take advantage of BHA to
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L. Abualigah et al.
determine the optimal parameters of images to increase the
quality of results. The experiments result illustrated that the
performance of the BHA outperformed the PSO, GA, CS,
and HE. It should be noticed that the output of this work
converted the entered image to an improved image with
clear embossed.
Dhanachandra et al. [101] introduced a hybridization
algorithm that combines between BHA and clustering
methods for image segmentation. The clustering method
responsible for enhancing the performance by recursive
density expectation method of surrounding pixels. While
BHA used to find two couple of segments, completely-
matched, the results showed that the hybridizing algorithm
achieved better results compared with other algorithms.
A generalized constitutional law is applied in [81]
for an elastic-plastic constitutive model. Employing this
general constitutive law, the model identification image is
formulated into a variable back analysis problem that is a
traditional and sophisticated optimization. In this paper, a
black hole method is adopted to optimize the effectiveness
of the traditional optimization technique. A new back
analysis approach for model detection of rocks surrounding
underground roadways in the coal mine is suggested,
integrating the generalized constitutive rule for an elastic-
plastic constitutive model with black hole method. The
elastic-plastic constitutive models for two underground
roadways at the Huainan coal mine were back-calculated
using this new approach. The findings are compared
to those of the standard genetic algorithm, the fast-
genetic algorithm, and the immune-continuous ant-colony
algorithm suggested in the previous study. The results
demonstrate that the proposed design back analysis method
can dramatically increase the calculation performance and
the computation impact and is a handy tool for final analysis
of the rock model in coal mine surrounding underground
roadways.
4.5 Engineering applications
Yepes et al. [102] used one of the recent optimization
algorithms, namely, the Black Hole Algorithm (BHA), for
the sustainable design of counterfort retaining walls. The
authors took advantage of BHA to reduce the CO2 and
cost emissions in earth-retaining walls. As well as enhance
the emissions are related to the environmental impact of
construction. The experiment results illustrate that BHA
achieved better results compare with other algorithms by
reducing CO2 emissions.
Sharma et al. [87] enhanced the static voltage stability
to find the optimal load shedding using BAH. The main
objective of the work is to get rid of the load mandatory,
which leads to reviving the stabilization of point of
operation. Thus, BAH has been used to aid in achieving the
Black hole algorithm...
work’s goal. The results illustrated the efficiency of BAH
comparing with Bare Bones PSO (BBPSO).
Ren et al. [70] have been proposed hybrid BHA with
Differential Evolution (DE), called BH-DEO to solve the
high dimensional electromagnetic optimization problems.
The authors combined these algorithms to benefit the
advantages of DE in convergence rate. As well as BH
to enhance flexibility and diversity. BH-DEO has been
compared with other algorithms in the literature to evaluate
its performance.
Rodrigues et al. [71] used BHA to solve non-technical
losses characterization. The work aims to conduct a parallel
through the non-technical losses problem and the mission of
patchy consumers’ characterization. Two specific datasets
have been utilized by the Brazilian electric power company
in the experiment to evaluate the performance of BHA as
well as show the best features that related to non-technical
losses identification.
Kazamkar et al. [98] utilized Black Hole-Collective
Decision Optimization (BH-CDOA) and Euclidean Dis-
tance to optimize the integrated Heat and Power Economic
Dispatch (CHPED). The authors aim to solve the compli-
cated inequality chains which lead to a satisfactory process
of CHP units and their capacity limits. Four units system
(2-units of cogeneration, 1-unit of electricity, and 1-unit of
heat generation) form the industrial area have been used to
evaluate the performance of BH-CDOA.
Hasan et al. [62] used BHA to find the optimal power
flow problem. The authors looked to decrease fuel costs,
voltage deviation and also enhance the stability of the
voltage, which considered as an objective function. There
are two operations; starts sucking and star absorption have
been used in experiments. The results showed that the BHA
outperformed the other algorithms in the literature using
IEEE 57-Bus systems and IEEE 30-Bus.
Ghaffarzadeh and Heydari [73] utilized BHA to deter-
mine the optimal design of digital overcurrent relays. The
major objective of this work is minimizing the coordination
of relays. In other words, the authors try to combination con-
suming time of overall main relays for error current of near
to all relays to achieve the lowest value. The standard 33-
bus radial distribution system has been used to evaluate the
performance of BHA. The results illustrated that BHA got
high accuracy with fast processing comparing with Particle
Swarm Optimization (PSO) algorithm.
4.5.1 Aircraft applications
An improved Blackhole algorithm is introduced to enhance
the intuitive way planning in the Unmanned combat aerial
vehicle (UCAV) [63]. The introduced approach can estimate
the quasi-optimal trajectories and the feasibility for UCAV
flight. Furthermore, in another study, the author presented a
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novel mission planner based on BH algorithm for UCAVs
3D mission planning [64].
4.5.2 Parameter estimation applications
In [92], used BHA to find the optimal model parameter
in self-potential (SP) data. It is worth mentioning that the
SP data is frequently highly nonlinear. Therefore, local-
based search algorithms are close to gradient approaches,
which lead to employing BHA, where it considers as one
of the standard global-based search algorithms. The result
illustrated that BHA accurately locates model uncertainty
and model parameters. As well as, it highly potential as an
innovative approach for SP data inversion.
Singh and Shukla [88] utilized BHA to determine
the optimal parameter of the electrochemical machining
process. In this work, two performance parameters have
been used; (i) overcut (OC). (ii) material removal rate
(MRR) to achieve the optimal machining parameter
settings. The results showed that the BHA got best results
comparing with bio-geography based optimization (BBO),
artificial bee colony (ABC), and genetic algorithm (GA).
4.6 Software engineering applications
One essential utilization of the BHA is in software
clustering. Software clustering (modularization) refers to
the process of partitioning system into smaller manageable
clusters (subsystems) encompassing highly related modules.
In this context, the multi-objective BH algorithm using
GA and auxiliary archive (MOBHGA) algorithm was
introduced to cluster android mobile applications [82]. The
proposed algorithm showed better results comparing to
Two-Archive approach. Another study, which demonstrated
good results, was conducted by [65]. They suggested
an enhancement to the search-based technique using the
hybrids of BHA and GA for software clustering.
4.7 Network applications
A new effective and reliable method to cable network
diagnosis using Time Domain Reflectometry (TDR) and
an Improved Black Hole (IBH) optimization algorithm
have been proposed by [89]. For a given wiring network,
a forward system based on RLCG criteria and Finite
Difference Time Domain (FDTD) model is built to emulate
the TDR response. To detect, classify and locate defects in
wiring networks, the IBH method is employed to overcome
the inverse problem. Research investigations are conducted
to demonstrate that the proposed method can be utilized for
real-world systems diagnostics.
Heuristic search techniques were widely used in the
major issue of reactive power optimization based on

their benefits in multi-objective and multi-dimensional
optimization. Pei et al. [83] proposed a novel heuristic
search scheme called black hole gravitational search
algorithm (BHGSA), which is a combination of black
hole algorithm (BHA) and gravitational search algorithm
(GSA), to address the issue of reactive power optimization
in the distribution network day-ahead. The simulation
result is given to overcome IEEE 33-bus distribution
network system’s day-ahead reactive power optimization
issue with wind generators and photovoltaic generator using
BHGSA. Compared with the conventional gravitational
search algorithm, it provides advantages in the ability to
search globally and prevent early convergence.
An intelligent computing scheme called Enhanced Black
Hole (EBH) is suggested by [106] to which the operation
and weight factor of the mutation are added. In EBH,
the original Black Hole (BH) method applies many elites
as role models rather than just one. CEC 2013 test suit
verifies the efficiency of the EBH method and demonstrates
better outcomes than the current BH. Additionally, the EBH
and other praised techniques can be utilized to overcome
Wireless Sensor Network (WSN) node coverage issues with
adequate results on 3-D terrain.
Biju et al. [107] proposed a new approach for solving the
problem of reconfiguration of the radial distribution system
(RDS) to reduce the losses and improve system reliability.
Efficient reconfiguration chooses the appropriate set of fee-
ders by adjusting the switching status of sectionalizing and
connection switches in order to enhance the resulting RDS
voltage profile and minimize power loss. Additionally, the
effect of DG and the capacitor is also taken into conside-
ration in the problem formulation. In order to measure the
reliability such as SAIFI, SAIDI, CAIDI, AENS and ASAI,
the reconfiguration method is also utilized as a method for
reducing failure rates. This paper introduced the black hole
algorithm (BHA) application to overcome the optimal net-
work reconfiguration issue. A standard radial bus system
IEEE 69 is selected for the study. To demonstrate the effi-
cacy of the proposed method in choosing the optimal solu-
tion, simulations are performed on the test system, and find-
ings are compared briefly before and after reconfiguration.
4.8 Wireless sensor network
Wireless sensor network (WSNs) is a distributed system
that consists of a tremendous number of mobile sensor
nodes (SN) and base stations (BS). WSNs can be subjected
to numerous types of security threats and denials of
service attacks due to its dynamic topology, resource
constraint sensors and highly decentralized infrastructure.
Thus, energy utilization becomes a big challenge since these
attacks can result in energy-hole creation in the network.
Different energy-efficient cluster head selection protocols
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L. Abualigah et al.
have been introduced to extend the lifetime of WSNs. In
their study [84] presented a secure routing mechanism from
source to the sink node, which is able to detect and defence
single and cooperative Gray Hole and Black Hole attack.
The proposed protocol indicated better performance than
LEACH protocol.
Wireless Sensor Networks (WSN) nowadays have seve-
ral utilizes for supervisory operations in a variety of areas
because of the low cost and easy communication. The res-
triction of the resources available in the network nodes is
the key issue affecting the network’s sustainability. Exper-
iments demonstrated that the production of energy would
increase with the development of control over the number
and position of the cluster heads on, which leads to an in-
crease of the network lifetime. However, this issue is not ap-
propriate to traditional modelling techniques due to the dy-
namic nature of the problem and due to continuously chang-
ing in cluster heads in any of the network traffic. Farahman-
dian et al. [74] employed the black hole algorithm (BHA)
to measure the number and position of the cluster head
optimal optimization. The application of the criteria will be
based on the average energy consumed by each sensor node
over each data transmission activity cycle, which lead to the
creation of a balance in the energy consumption of cluster
heads and thus optimize the overall network lifetime.
4.9 Other applications
Evolutionary algorithms, demonstrated a better outcome,
have been employed to solve several optimization issues
[108]. However, if these methods are implemented, they in-
troduce the challenge of deciding on the correct criteria.
Factors are usually defined before the method is executed
and include the probabilities of population size, selection
rate and operator. This step is called as offline control and is
known as an optimization issue itself. In comparison, input
criteria or online control is a modification of the original
version of the method. The critical point is to modify the
criteria so that the interested algorithm can produce a good
rate of convergence, and thus achieve the best efficiency.
Soto et al. [109] proposed an adaptive black hole algorithm
capable of adjusting its population based on solving output
dynamically.
To that end, authors employed free search that emerged
as a new technology that uses the problem solver to con-
trol and evolve its own criteria and heuristics during solving
to become more productive without an expert user’s knowl-
edge. In order to verify this method, it solved the set
covering the issue, which is a classic optimization standard
for many industrial applications, including line balanc-
ing, crew scheduling, service deployment and databases.
Authors demonstrated promising experimental findings in
which the suggested technique is capable of achieving
Black hole algorithm...
different global optimums for such a well-known instance
collection from Beasley’s OR-Library while enhancing var-
ious modern metaheuristic approaches.
A new technique for adjusting the classifier using
metaheuristics based on the black hole algorithm is
introduced in [110]. The purpose of this study is to obtain
results comparable to those obtained with the techniques
of manual noise elimination. The MAHNOB HCI Tagging
Database was used for evaluating the introduced scheme.
Findings demonstrate that it obtained an accuracy of 92.56%
over 30 runs using the black hole algorithm to optimize the
Support Vector Machine feature vector.
Mehrani et al. [111] conducted a study aimed at opti-
mizing the portfolio using the black hole method in Tehran
security exchange and comparing with Markowitz. Due to
its ability to measure downside risk, the semi-variance app-
roach is employed in this study, and it is attempted to dec-
rease the appropriate portfolio risk. This work carried out
in the period 2012 to 2017. The approach of this research is
implemented in terms of research intent, and it is a des-
criptive-correlative data collection basis that they seek to op-
timize the portfolio using black hole technique retrospective
approach, post-event and by analyzing the observed data.
Research findings indicate that it concluded with the use of
black hole method that the black hole algorithm has achie-
ved results the same as Markowitz ’s results overall years
and can be the appropriate pattern for portfolio optimization.
5 Results and discussion
5.1 Benchmark functions
In this section, experiments are conducted on 23 classical
benchmark functions to show the effectiveness of the Black
Hole Algorithm compared to other optimization methods
published in the literature. The competitor algorithms are
Genetic Algorithm (GA) [112], Particle Swarm Optimiza-
tion (PSO) [113], Differential Evolution (DE) [114], Bat-
inspired Algorithm (BAT) [115], Grasshopper Optimization
Algorithm (GOA) [116], Dragonfly Algorithm (DA) [117],
Ant Lion Optimizer (ALO) [118], Multi-verse Optimizer
(MVO) [119], Moth–Flame Optimizer (MFO) [120], and
Since Cosine Algorithm (SCA) [121].
The experiments are conducted in Matlab software using
computers with Windows 10, 16 GB RAM. The parameter
setting of used comparative algorithms is set as given in
the original papers mentioned above. Moreover, the general
parameters such as the number of solutions are fixed to 30,
and the maximum number of iterations is 500. Each method
is executed 30 runs to reasonable comparisons.
Table 3 shows the average performance of the Black Hole
Algorithm against the compared optimization algorithms. It
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clear from Table 3 that the Black Hole Algorithm obtained
better results over all other optimization algorithms in
terms of the average fitness function value. These results
reflect the Black Hole Algorithm’s ability to solve different
optimization problems according to the obtained results.
Table 4 shows the performance of the Black Hole
Algorithm against the compared optimization algorithms
in terms of the minimization of the fitness function. As
presented in Table 4, the Black Hole Algorithm got better
results in most cases, and it is considered as a robust
competitor algorithm in the domain of the optimization
algorithms, which motivate the future researchers to apply
and modify the Black Hole Algorithm for solving different
optimization problems according to its performance in
solving mathematical optimization problems.
Table 5 shows the Black Hole Algorithm’s performance
against the compared optimization algorithms in terms of
the maximization of the fitness function. As well, in Table 5,
the Black Hole Algorithm got better results in most cases
and comparative results on the other cases. This proved the
ability of the Black Hole Algorithm to solve the various
optimization problems.
In regards to the standard deviation (STD) as shown in
Table 6, the Black Hole Algorithm obtained better results
in most cases, and it got comparative results in other cases.
We conclude that the Black Hole Algorithm is compara-
tive optimization method, and it can get promising results
in some cases and comparative results in other cases com-
pared to different optimization algorithms published in the
literature. The obtained results showed that the Black Hole
Algorithm can efficiently determine the optimal global
solutions of 23 benchmark test functions with quick con-
vergence speed. The Friedman ranking test is conducted to
show the statistical results for the comparative methods as
shown in Table 7. It is clear the BHA is an excellent com-
petitor compared to the other well-known methods in the
literature. BHA got the sixth ranking over 11 test methods.
5.2 Engineering design problems
5.2.1 Problem 1: Tension/compression spring design
problem
The tension/compression spring dilemma is presented to
degrade the entire weight of a assigned spring [122, 123].
Three principal variables are considered in this dilemma, as
presented in Fig. 4: wire diameter (d), mean coil diameter
(D), and the number of active coils (P ).
The result of the BHA is compared with other well-
known optimization methods, including PSO [124], HS
[125], MPM [126] GSA [127], ES [128], MFO [129], BA
[130], WOA [131], MVO [27], RO [132], HHO [133],
GWO [134], and BHA [26].
 L. Abualigah et al.

Table 3 The average results of the competitor optimization algorithms on 23 benchmark test functions

Func. BHA GA PSO DE BAT GOA DA ALO MVO MFO SCA

F1 2.66E+01 1.90E-01 2.19E+00 4.00E-01 4.64E+03 1.28E-01 2.66E+01 3.83E+01 3.95E-01 8.05E+00 7.16E+00
F2 4.16E-03 1.15E-02 4.26E-03 8.42E-02 2.43E+01 2.32E-01 2.65E+00 1.30E+01 1.99E-01 4.21E-01 1.03E-01
F3 1.01E+02 5.57E+02 1.03E+02 2.08E+03 7.94E+03 5.87E+00 3.21E+02 9.03E+02 2.86E+00 1.42E+03 2.46E+02
F4 6.72E+00 4.95E+00 3.52E+00 8.39E+00 4.23E+01 3.12E-01 6.79E+00 1.05E+01 5.08E-01 1.12E+01 4.34E+00
F5 1.64E+02 1.22E+02 3.40E+01 1.65E+02 4.37E+06 1.57E+02 4.79E+03 2.95E+03 3.40E+02 6.68E+02 4.01E+02
F6 6.22E+00 4.50E-01 2.83E+00 3.16E-01 4.95E+03 1.20E-01 2.08E+01 1.20E+01 3.88E-01 6.37E+00 3.20E+00
F7 2.10E-02 2.15E-02 2.68E-02 3.33E-02 1.13E+00 2.38E-02 6.33E-02 1.12E-01 1.25E-02 4.41E-02 2.30E-02
F8 -1.82E+03 -3.63E+03 -1.62E+03 -3.55E+03 -2.12E+61 -2.83E+03 -2.79E+03 -2.40E+03 -2.82E+03 -3.22E+03 -1.96E+03
F9 1.80E+01 6.26E+00 1.25E+01 1.60E+01 4.41E+01 2.24E+01 3.54E+01 2.23E+01 2.70E+01 2.67E+01 1.81E+01
F10 2.86E+00 2.59E-01 9.49E-01 6.93E-01 1.53E+01 1.41E+00 5.08E+00 7.15E+00 1.01E+00 2.49E+00 3.86E+00
F11 3.47E-01 2.61E-01 3.60E+00 6.66E-01 4.57E+01 3.17E-01 9.06E-01 4.09E-01 6.86E-01 9.44E-01 7.33E-01
F12 3.10E-02 3.28E-02 2.25E-01 3.63E-02 6.60E+06 1.27E+00 4.50E+00 8.00E+00 4.95E-01 2.43E+00 1.50E+00
F13 1.57E+00 2.63E-02 1.36E-01 7.85E-02 1.70E+07 3.54E-02 7.75E+00 2.82E+01 4.34E-02 2.68E+00 1.58E+00
F14 2.41E+00 1.08E+00 2.82E+00 1.03E+00 2.28E+01 1.36E+00 3.64E+00 6.42E+00 2.62E+00 3.25E+00 2.41E+00
F15 4.35E-03 3.03E-03 8.91E-04 1.25E-03 1.19E-02 3.71E-03 4.34E-03 4.50E-03 4.35E-03 1.14E-03 1.25E-03
F16 -1.11E+00 -1.03E+00 -1.03E+00 -1.03E+00 -1.01E+00 -1.03E+00 -1.03E+00 -1.03E+00 -1.03E+00 -1.03E+00 -1.03E+00
F17 4.24E-01 4.09E-01 3.98E-01 3.98E-01 4.85E-01 3.98E-01 3.98E-01 3.98E-01 3.98E-01 3.98E-01 4.11E-01
F18 3.45E+00 3.00E+00 3.00E+00 3.00E+00 3.00E+00 3.00E+00 3.00E+00 3.00E+00 3.00E+00 3.00E+00 3.00E+00
F19 -3.45E+00 -3.86E+00 -3.86E+00 -3.86E+00 -3.79E+00 -3.86E+00 -3.86E+00 -3.85E+00 -3.86E+00 -3.86E+00 -3.85E+00
F20 -3.13E+00 -3.29E+00 -3.27E+00 -3.32E+00 -3.17E+00 -3.27E+00 -3.24E+00 -3.25E+00 -3.26E+00 -3.23E+00 -2.82E+00
F21 -7.13E+00 -3.34E+00 -5.65E+00 -8.34E+00 -3.82E+00 -7.15E+00 -5.47E+00 -4.84E+00 -5.27E+00 -7.44E+00 -1.98E+00
F22 -5.23E+00 -4.36E+00 -5.25E+00 -8.61E+00 -3.80E+00 -8.15E+00 -6.15E+00 -5.25E+00 -6.62E+00 -6.52E+00 -2.84E+00
F23 -7.34E+00 -7.98E+00 -6.07E+00 -8.74E+00 -3.30E+00 -7.25E+00 -5.04E+00 -5.62E+00 -7.24E+00 -7.63E+00 -2.48E+00

Table 4 The minimum results of the competitor optimization algorithms on 23 benchmark test functions

Func. BHA GA PSO DE BAT GOA DA ALO MVO MFO SCA

F1 2.82E-02 9.12E-03 8.39E-08 9.91E-02 9.39E+02 2.68E-02 2.92E-02 1.79E-03 1.54E-01 1.36E+00 4.02E-02
F2 8.22E-06 3.31E-04 8.64E-06 5.07E-02 1.07E+01 8.75E-03 2.08E-01 1.34E+00 7.77E-02 1.39E-01 1.35E-03
F3 8.45E-02 8.33E+01 8.85E-02 9.14E+02 1.46E+03 4.37E-01 3.00E+01 4.32E+01 5.55E-01 1.12E+02 5.60E+00
F4 1.00E+00 1.13E+00 6.14E-02 5.09E+00 2.47E+01 7.89E-02 1.01E+00 2.32E-01 2.40E-01 4.51E+00 3.56E-01
F5 5.64E+01 8.49E+00 8.14E-04 5.74E+01 4.10E+05 8.26E+00 1.45E+01 2.94E-01 8.82E+00 4.82E+01 1.42E+01
F6 7.01E-01 6.51E-05 2.01E-09 6.73E-02 8.05E+02 2.44E-02 1.04E-01 1.76E-04 6.07E-02 7.33E-01 8.76E-01
F7 2.00E-03 3.41E-03 4.34E-03 9.66E-03 1.07E-01 5.66E-03 5.93E-03 2.81E-03 2.82E-03 8.78E-03 1.90E-03
F8 -2.62E+03 -4.07E+03 -2.42E+03 -3.92E+03 -7.29E+62 -3.52E+03 -3.61E+03 -4.16E+03 -3.72E+03 -3.71E+03 -2.47E+03
F9 1.23E+00 2.51E+00 4.17E+00 9.70E+00 1.78E+01 3.98E+00 7.86E+00 5.02E+00 6.13E+00 6.09E+00 1.24E+00
F10 1.45E-03 1.03E-02 2.76E-05 2.82E-01 1.15E+01 1.44E-01 1.53E+00 3.93E-01 2.29E-01 6.15E-01 1.55E-01
F11 1.25E-01 5.45E-02 1.30E+00 3.80E-01 1.84E+01 1.45E-01 1.68E-01 8.51E-02 4.05E-01 5.79E-01 1.94E-02
F12 1.97E-04 1.89E-06 7.85E-10 5.89E-03 3.52E+01 1.38E-02 5.90E-01 2.59E+00 8.87E-03 2.16E-02 1.56E-01
F13 4.54E-01 7.72E-04 9.29E-09 2.20E-02 8.83E+04 4.17E-03 1.94E-02 7.66E-04 1.14E-02 1.63E-01 4.46E-01
F14 9.98E-01 9.98E-01 9.98E-01 9.98E-01 9.98E-01 9.98E-01 9.98E-01 9.98E-01 9.98E-01 9.98E-01 9.98E-01
F15 3.16E-04 7.14E-04 3.86E-04 7.09E-04 8.97E-04 7.40E-04 5.96E-04 3.16E-04 5.11E-04 6.32E-04 4.04E-04
F16 -1.03E+00 -1.03E+00 -1.03E+00 -1.03E+00 -1.03E+00 -1.03E+00 -1.03E+00 -1.03E+00 -1.03E+00 -1.03E+00 -1.03E+00
F17 3.54E-01 3.98E-01 3.98E-01 3.98E-01 3.98E-01 3.98E-01 3.98E-01 3.98E-01 3.98E-01 3.98E-01 3.98E-01
F18 2.12E+00 3.00E+00 3.00E+00 3.00E+00 3.00E+00 3.00E+00 3.00E+00 3.00E+00 3.00E+00 3.00E+00 3.00E+00
F19 -3.56E+00 -3.86E+00 -3.86E+00 -3.86E+00 -3.86E+00 -3.86E+00 -3.86E+00 -3.86E+00 -3.86E+00 -3.86E+00 -3.86E+00
F20 -3.08E+00 -3.32E+00 -3.32E+00 -3.32E+00 -3.32E+00 -3.32E+00 -3.32E+00 -3.32E+00 -3.32E+00 -3.32E+00 -3.12E+00
F21 -1.02E+01 -5.10E+00 -1.02E+01 -1.02E+01 -1.02E+01 -1.02E+01 -1.02E+01 -1.02E+01 -1.02E+01 -1.02E+01 -4.77E+00
F22 -1.34E+01 -9.23E+00 -1.04E+01 -1.04E+01 -1.04E+01 -2.75E+00 -1.04E+01 -1.04E+01 -1.04E+01 -1.04E+01 -4.95E+00
F23 -1.15E+01 -1.05E+01 -1.05E+01 -1.05E+01 -1.05E+01 -1.05E+01 -1.05E+01 -1.05E+01 -1.05E+01 -1.05E+01 -5.76E+00

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Black hole algorithm...

Table 5 The maximum results of the competitor optimization algorithms on 23 benchmark test functions

Func. BHA GA PSO DE BAT GOA DA ALO MVO MFO SCA

F1 1.87E+02 9.31E-01 3.03E+01 1.04E+00 1.11E+04 2.54E-01 1.97E+02 3.34E+02 8.16E-01 2.58E+01 4.58E+01
F2 6.32E-02 4.73E-02 6.55E-02 1.62E-01 4.03E+01 7.51E-01 6.48E+00 4.24E+01 4.85E-01 9.10E-01 2.89E-01
F3 7.60E+02 1.76E+03 7.29E+02 3.47E+03 2.06E+04 2.07E+01 1.16E+03 2.26E+03 1.71E+01 1.01E+04 3.05E+03
F4 2.04E+01 2.04E+01 9.71E+00 1.34E+01 6.18E+01 9.14E-01 1.94E+01 2.65E+01 1.29E+00 3.96E+01 1.74E+01
F5 2.90E+02 1.04E+03 2.16E+02 2.88E+02 1.13E+07 1.80E+03 6.66E+04 2.85E+04 2.84E+03 3.43E+03 3.24E+03
F6 1.91E+01 3.05E+00 4.77E+01 6.68E-01 1.13E+04 2.98E-01 8.59E+01 1.60E+02 1.01E+00 2.01E+01 1.81E+01
F7 7.27E-02 5.23E-02 6.81E-02 5.77E-02 2.69E+00 1.22E-01 2.12E-01 5.47E-01 2.94E-02 1.37E-01 7.16E-02
F8 -1.58E+03 -3.24E+03 -1.28E+03 -3.19E+03 -1.29E+52 -2.20E+03 -2.17E+03 -1.81E+03 -2.15E+03 -2.40E+03 -1.60E+03
F9 6.59E+01 1.17E+01 2.99E+01 2.48E+01 6.87E+01 6.17E+01 7.50E+01 6.37E+01 5.49E+01 7.08E+01 6.43E+01
F10 4.77E+00 1.67E+00 6.21E+00 1.81E+00 1.85E+01 2.49E+00 1.17E+01 1.37E+01 2.81E+00 3.94E+00 2.00E+01
F11 6.24E-01 9.68E-01 6.00E+00 9.34E-01 8.24E+01 6.44E-01 1.64E+00 2.06E+00 9.91E-01 1.15E+00 1.24E+00
F12 3.75E-01 3.57E-01 2.80E+00 1.06E-01 5.97E+07 5.79E+00 2.16E+01 2.72E+01 2.12E+00 1.18E+01 4.58E+00
F13 1.75E+01 1.13E-01 2.89E+00 1.35E-01 9.02E+07 1.14E-01 1.40E+02 5.37E+02 1.62E-01 1.24E+01 1.35E+01
F14 1.74E+01 1.99E+00 1.55E+01 1.99E+00 4.15E+02 2.98E+00 1.55E+01 1.55E+01 1.74E+01 1.17E+01 5.94E+00
F15 2.40E-02 2.08E-02 2.89E-03 2.87E-03 1.12E-01 2.30E-02 2.04E-02 2.49E-02 2.05E-02 2.24E-03 2.80E-03
F16 -2.17E-01 -1.03E+00 -1.03E+00 -1.03E+00 -2.16E-01 -1.03E+00 -1.03E+00 -1.03E+00 -1.03E+00 -1.03E+00 -1.03E+00
F17 4.43E-01 6.09E-01 3.98E-01 3.98E-01 1.47E+00 3.98E-01 3.98E-01 3.98E-01 3.98E-01 3.98E-01 4.84E-01
F18 3.95E+00 3.00E+00 3.00E+00 3.00E+00 3.00E+00 3.00E+00 3.00E+00 3.00E+00 3.00E+00 3.00E+00 3.02E+00
F19 -3.05E+00 -3.86E+00 -3.86E+00 -3.86E+00 -3.09E+00 -3.68E+00 -3.79E+00 -3.72E+00 -3.86E+00 -3.86E+00 -3.83E+00
F20 -3.22E+00 -3.20E+00 -3.20E+00 -3.30E+00 -1.70E+00 -3.12E+00 -3.07E+00 -3.02E+00 -3.12E+00 -3.16E+00 -1.91E+00
F21 -2.63E+00 -2.63E+00 -2.63E+00 -2.60E+00 -8.67E-01 -2.63E+00 -2.63E+00 -2.63E+00 -2.63E+00 -2.63E+00 -4.96E-01
F22 -1.84E+00 -2.75E+00 -1.84E+00 -3.49E+00 -6.70E-01 -1.04E+01 -1.84E+00 -1.84E+00 -1.84E+00 -1.84E+00 -5.22E-01
F23 -2.34E+00 -2.87E+00 -1.68E+00 -3.45E+00 -1.03E+00 -2.42E+00 -1.86E+00 -1.68E+00 -2.42E+00 -1.86E+00 -9.32E-01

Table 6 The STD results of the competitor optimization algorithms on 23 benchmark test functions

Func. BHA GA PSO DE BAT GOA DA ALO MVO MFO SCA

F1 3.65E+01 2.17E-01 5.50E+00 2.15E-01 2.27E+03 6.79E-02 3.75E+01 8.01E+01 1.68E-01 6.02E+00 1.23E+01
F2 1.11E-02 1.26E-02 1.16E-02 2.27E-02 8.08E+00 2.04E-01 1.47E+00 1.01E+01 8.79E-02 2.04E-01 8.06E-02
F3 1.55E+02 4.58E+02 1.52E+02 6.10E+02 4.60E+03 5.09E+00 2.77E+02 6.06E+02 2.84E+00 2.13E+03 5.42E+02
F4 4.98E+00 3.78E+00 2.35E+00 2.05E+00 1.19E+01 2.01E-01 4.84E+00 5.98E+00 2.28E-01 7.00E+00 3.73E+00
F5 6.20E+01 2.37E+02 5.75E+01 6.19E+01 2.98E+06 3.48E+02 1.19E+04 5.57E+03 7.89E+02 8.27E+02 7.68E+02
F6 4.63E+00 7.12E-01 8.10E+00 1.49E-01 2.79E+03 5.83E-02 2.58E+01 3.04E+01 2.09E-01 4.52E+00 3.22E+00
F7 1.80E-02 1.29E-02 1.41E-02 1.13E-02 7.35E-01 2.20E-02 5.08E-02 1.01E-01 6.32E-03 2.68E-02 1.77E-02
F8 2.30E+02 2.01E+02 2.24E+02 1.88E+02 1.21E+62 3.22E+02 3.81E+02 5.07E+02 3.52E+02 3.11E+02 1.94E+02
F9 1.68E+01 2.46E+00 5.42E+00 3.29E+00 1.52E+01 1.27E+01 1.42E+01 1.14E+01 1.43E+01 1.35E+01 1.46E+01
F10 8.47E-01 3.95E-01 1.23E+00 3.66E-01 1.49E+00 8.87E-01 2.13E+00 3.28E+00 6.44E-01 7.20E-01 6.08E+00
F11 1.22E+00 1.70E-01 1.42E+00 1.23E-01 1.83E+01 1.44E-01 4.59E-01 3.85E-01 1.65E-01 1.53E-01 2.49E-01
F12 9.16E-02 9.11E-02 5.08E-01 2.31E-02 1.14E+07 1.32E+00 4.06E+00 5.71E+00 6.10E-01 2.62E+00 1.28E+00
F13 2.12E+01 2.60E-02 5.42E-01 2.76E-02 1.87E+07 2.28E-02 2.31E+01 9.64E+01 2.45E-02 2.83E+00 2.24E+00
F14 1.66E-01 2.43E-01 2.87E+00 1.66E-01 6.75E+01 6.53E-01 3.03E+00 4.28E+00 3.58E+00 2.59E+00 1.09E+00
F15 4.68E-04 4.44E-03 4.13E-04 4.44E-04 2.12E-02 6.18E-03 6.01E-03 5.12E-03 6.99E-03 4.02E-04 5.10E-04
F16 1.26E-01 4.56E-07 3.16E-16 3.36E-10 1.36E-01 2.88E-10 9.08E-08 9.66E-13 1.08E-05 2.71E-16 4.66E-04
F17 3.47E-02 4.05E-02 0.00E+00 5.14E-07 2.12E-01 4.98E-10 2.13E-07 2.24E-12 2.00E-05 3.15E-12 1.97E-02
F18 3.20E+01 8.67E-05 5.84E-13 4.66E-12 7.32E-04 2.55E-09 8.32E-07 1.04E-11 6.47E-05 4.85E-15 3.12E-03
F19 2.21E-01 2.28E-08 2.42E-15 1.86E-14 2.15E-01 3.20E-02 1.19E-02 2.94E-02 7.52E-05 3.31E-14 6.98E-03
F20 5.47E-02 5.37E-02 5.88E-02 6.11E-03 3.51E-01 7.00E-02 9.14E-02 9.06E-02 7.39E-02 5.35E-02 3.12E-01
F21 3.15E+01 9.00E-01 3.52E+00 2.27E+00 2.81E+00 3.50E+00 2.55E+00 2.65E+00 2.86E+00 3.40E+00 1.48E+00
F22 3.30E+00 1.93E+00 3.30E+00 2.03E+00 2.60E+00 3.26E+00 2.84E+00 3.18E+00 3.73E+00 3.46E+00 1.30E+00
F23 3.45E+00 3.01E+00 3.62E+00 1.76E+00 2.50E+00 3.58E+00 2.52E+00 3.62E+00 3.75E+00 3.54E+00 1.15E+00

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 L. Abualigah et al.

Table 7 The Freidman raning test results of the competitor optimization algorithms on 23 benchmark test functions

Func. BHA GA PSO DE BAT GOA DA ALO MVO MFO SCA

F1 8 2 5 4 11 1 8 10 3 7 6
F2 1 3 2 4 11 7 9 10 6 8 5
F3 3 7 4 10 11 2 6 8 1 9 5
F4 6 5 3 8 11 1 7 9 2 10 4
F5 4 2 1 5 11 3 10 9 6 8 7
F6 7 4 5 2 11 1 10 9 3 8 6
F7 2 3 6 7 11 5 9 10 1 8 4
F8 1 10 2 9 11 7 5 4 6 8 3
F9 4 1 2 3 11 7 10 6 9 8 5
F10 7 1 3 2 11 5 9 10 4 6 8
F11 3 1 10 5 11 2 8 4 6 9 7
F12 1 2 4 3 11 6 9 10 5 8 7
F13 6 1 5 4 11 2 9 10 3 8 7
F14 4 2 7 1 11 3 9 10 6 8 4
F15 8 5 1 3 11 6 7 10 8 2 3
F16 10 1 1 1 10 1 1 1 1 1 1
F17 10 8 1 1 11 1 1 1 1 1 9
F18 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
F19 11 1 1 1 10 1 1 8 1 1 8
F20 10 2 3 1 9 3 7 6 5 8 11
F21 4 10 5 1 9 3 6 8 7 2 11
F22 8 9 6 1 10 2 5 6 3 4 11
F23 4 2 7 1 10 5 9 8 6 3 11

Average 5.3478261 3.6521739 3.7391304 3.4347826 10.26087 3.3043478 6.826087 7.3478261 4.1304348 5.9565217 6.304348
Ranking 6 3 4 2 11 1 9 10 5 7 8

Table 8 presents the achieved results of the comparative
methods in determining the tension/compression spring pro-
blem. The acquired constraints costs and optimal decision
cost of the optimal solution for all the similar methods are
presented in Table 8. It is clear from Table 8 that the BHA is
a superior optimization method compared to other methods
by achieving better results where the optimal variables at x ∗
= (d = 0.05172800, D = 0.357644000, P = 11.24454300)
with an objective function: F(x ∗ ) = 0.01267400.
Figure 5 illustrates the curves of the objective values, the
trajectory of the first solution, and the convergence curve
of the BHA method when solving the tension/compression
spring design problem. The BHA method reported the
optimal solution very quickly, before iteration number 40,
according to the given convergence curve in Fig. 5. The
figures of the decision variables and the trajectory of the
first solution are produced to determine the ability of the
BHA to investigate the search space.

Fig. 4 Tension/compression
spring design problem

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Black hole algorithm...

Table 8 The algorithm’s results for solving the tension/compression spring design problem

Algorithm Optimal values for variables Optimal

d D N cost

PSO [124] 0.05172800 0.357644000 11.24454300 0.01267470

RO [132] 0.05137000 0.349096000 11.76279000 0.01267880
MPM [126] 0.05000000 0.315900000 14.25000000 0.01283340
WOA [131] 0.05120700 0.345215000 12.00403200 0.01267630
MFO [129] 0.05199446 0.364109320 10.86842186 0.01266690
BA [130] 0.05169000 0.356720000 11.28850000 0.01267000
ES [128] 0.05164300 0.355360000 11.39792600 0.01269800
MVO [27] 0.05251 0.37602 10.33513 0.012790
GSA [127] 0.05027600 0.323680000 13.52541000 0.01270220
HHO [133] 0.05197639 0.363669510 10.89275181 0.01266674
HS [125] 0.05115400 0.349871000 12.07643200 0.01267060
GWO [134] 0.05169 0.356737 11.28885 0.012666
BHA [26] 0.05172800 0.357644000 11.24454300 0.01267400

5.2.2 Problem 2: Pressure vessel design problem
The pressure vessel design dilemma tries to degrade the
entire cost of an assigned cylindrical pressure vessel [135,
136]. In this dilemma, as presented in Fig. 6, four variables
are examined and analyzed, including the width of the shell
(Ts ), the width of the head (Th ), internal radius (R), and
height of the cylindrical part without studying the head (L).
The result of the BHA is analyzed and compared with
other well-known optimization methods, including Branch-
bound [137], OBSCA [121], HS [138], GA [139], CSCA
[140], CPSO [124], PSO-SCA [141], MVO [27], HPSO
[142], WOA [131], ES [128], GWO [134], and GSA [127].
In Table 9, the results of the BHA and the other
optimization methods are provided. These methods involve
Branch-bound, OBSCA, HS, GA, CSCA, PSO-SCA, MVO,
HPSO, WOA, ES, GSA, and ACO on this utilization.
The acquired constraints conditions and optimal decision
variables of the optimal solution for all the used algorithms
are presented in Table 9. It is clear from Table 9 that
the BHA got better results than almost all comparative
methods methods by getting optimal variables at x ∗ = (Ts =
0.812500, Th = 0.437500, R = 42.098353, L = 176.637751)
with an objective function: F(x ∗ ) = 6059.7258.
Figure 7 represents the curves of the decision values, the
trajectory of the 1st solution, and the convergence curve
of the proposed method (BHA) when solving the pressure
vessel design problem. The BHA archived the optimal
solution at the beginning of the enhancement process, at
iteration number 160. It is clear that the solution’s diversity
is stable as presented in Fig. 7. Moreover, we concluded that
the BHA method obtained the most fitting parameters and
the minimum objective function.
6 Discussion and theoretical analysis
The benefit of meta-heuristic algorithms is confirmed for se-
veral reasons. The first reason is that the benefit of the sto-
chastic style supports these algorithms to avoid being stuck

Fig. 5 Qualitative results for the tension/compression spring design problem

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 L. Abualigah et al.

Fig. 6 Pressure vessel design

problem

in local exploitation and focalizing to the near-optimal sol-
ution. Directly, the aim is not to obtain the best solution to the
given problem but to obtain the near-optimal solution (with
high fitness value within a reasonable running time). The
main factor in creating this aim is to make the proper stab-
ility across search procedures. Exploration propose is to disc-
over the more promising areas in a complex-wide search area.
Consequently, the exploitation method is to become
intensified by the local search scheme in an encouraging
area to suggest better solutions. The optimal accomplish-
ment and effectiveness of a novel optimization technique
in trade-off these methods, the better technique will be
given. The current meta-heuristic algorithms adjust the bal-
ance amongst these two approaches in various approaches.
They could be further qualified and adjusted for local or
for global search procedures. Two or more optimization
techniques are mixed by hybrid its elements to get its essen-
tial characteristics together and powerful than each one
alone while averting as much as possible their disadvantages
and shortcomings. The second cause, the completion of
optimization techniques is due to its origin, abilities, sim-
plicity, and balance experimentally.
The Black Hole Algorithm is a simple optimization
method over many other ways, as shown in the literature.
The overall results of the Black Hole Algorithm can obtain
promising results as matching with other similar optimiza-
tion methods in the literature. This algorithm has been
applied to solve various optimization problems, including
global optimization problems, engineering problems, clus-
tering, task scheduling, image processing, and other applica-
tions, as found in the literature. Several types of researches
modified the basic procedure of the Black Hole Algorithm
to solve the optimization problems such as binary, modify,
hybrid, and multi-objective versions.
The Black Hole Algorithm is free from parameter
tuning arguments, which facilitate problem-solving on
the researchers. Researchers typically need to tune the
algorithm’s parameters to find the most suitable solutions
according to the chosen parameters. So, no parameters that
need tuning have been added to this algorithm.

Table 9 The algorithm’s results for solving the pressure vessel design problem

Algorithm Optimal values Optimal

Ts Th R L cost

Branch-bound [137] 1.125 0.625 48.97 106.72 7982.5

GSA [127] 1.125 0.625 55.9886598 84.4542025 8538.8359
HS [138] 1.125000 0.625000 58.29015 43.69268 7197.730
WOA [131] 0.812500 0.437500 42.0982699 176.638998 6059.7410
MVO [27] 0.8125 0.4375 42.090738 176.73869 6060.8066
PSO-SCA [141] 0.8125 0.4375 42.098446 176.6366 6059.71433
CPSO [124] 0.8125 0.4375 42.091266 176.7465 6061.0777
HPSO [142] 0.8125 0.4375 42.0984 176.6366 6059.7143
CSCA [140] 0.8125 0.4375 42.098411 176.63769 6059.7340
ES [128] 0.8125 0.4375 42.098087 176.640518 6059.74560
GA [139] 0.81250 0.43750 42.097398 176.65405 6059.94634
OBSCA [121] 1.2500 0.0625 59.1593 70.8437 5833.9892
GWO [134] 0.812500 0.434500 42.089181 176.758731 6051.5639
BHA [26] 0.812500 0.437500 42.098353 176.637751 6059.7258

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Black hole algorithm...
Fig. 7 Qualitative results for the
pressure vessel design problem
The most promising results obtained by this algorithm
was using the modified versions. This motivates future
researchers to change the conventional Blak Hole Algorithm
to solve the different problems effectively. The Black
Hole Algorithm has not addressed several optimization
problems. The Black Hole Algorithm can solve various
other real-world applications, such as task scheduling
in cloud computing environments, several engineering
design problems, data mining problems and text clustering
problems, smart home appliances management, brain signal
process, FMRI image tracking, recent CEC benchmark
problems, and many others.
As a result of the Black Hole Algorithm and due to its
simplicity and similarity to the real behaviour in nature,
the Black Hole Algorithm has earned significant attention
from researchers since it was proposed. This algorithm can
be classified into four elements: parameters and solutions
initialization, parameter tuning, exploitation search strategy
(local), and exploration search strategy (global). Several
types of researches have attempted to enhance the perfor-
mance of the Black Hole Algorithm by improving its parts.
Hence, since the development of Black Hole Algorithm,
several versions have been proposed. However, among the
searching for the conventional Black Hole Algorithm (basic
version) in the literature, different details can be found. It is
clear that the main procedure of this algorithm is straight-
forward, and it is accessible to implement compared to
other similar optimization algorithms. Additionally, other
improved implementations of the Black Hole Algorithm
have been determined with several modifications of the
main procedures of the searching strategies. Thus, the
general structure of the first implementations of the Black
Hole Algorithm is introduced in this paper, to present a
clear understanding of these modifications and the relation-
ships between them. Furthermore, this paper analyses the
improvements in the various components of the Black Hole
Algorithm to provide a clear procedure for the researchers
who are seeking to enhance this algorithm with helpful
references and direction.
The main difficulty of the Black Hole Algorithm is
defining the probabilistic convergence properties of the
Black Hole Algorithm, which is required to understand the
Content courtesy of Springer Nature, terms of use apply. Rights reserved.
given technique fully. The problem of early convergence
(premature convergence) in the Black Hole Algorithm
typically begins the recovery procedure to be stuck through-
out the exploitation search. This effect usually occurs while
the solutions divergence decreases, and the solutions can-
not avert falling in the local optima. Furthermore, there are
considerable potentials for researchers to employ and apply
the advantages of the Black Hole Algorithm to approach the
complex industry and any real-world problems.
In addition, there is another point has influence on
increasing the number of publications of Black Hole
Algorithm is comparison between it and PSO in [76].
This comparison concluded that PSO is better than BHA
that leads the researchers to doubt in the performance of
BHA. This, our, observation has been reached based on
the decreasing on the number of publications after this
comparison occurred in 2016 (see Fig. 3). In addition,
there is another reason that effect on increasing the number
of publication results from presented other metaheuristic
techniques in 2016 and years later such as whale
optimization algorithm, grey wolf optimization, arithmetic
optimization algorithm and others.
7 Conclusion and potential future works
This paper introduced a comprehensive review of the Black
Hole Algorithm (BHA) that established its high ability
to solve different problems at variant applications. The
contents of this review paper were collected from the lit-
erature that has been published from the beginning of the
first version of BHA from 2013 until 2020. This literature
presented a variant of modifications of BHA, also, its advan-
tages, robustness, and limitations. In addition, we exhaus-
tively summarized different problems that have been solved
using BHA such as global optimization, engineering design,
image processing, machine learning, software engineering,
aircraft, wireless sensor network, traditional networks, and
other important applications. Besides that, the BHA is con-
sidered one of the most metaheuristic techniques that have a
high ability to find suitable solutions for the tested problems
as concluded from the published papers. This paper supports

researchers who planning to present work based on BHA
by valuable information about how can be applied BHA, its
properties, and its weaknesses. Therefore, the Black Hole
Algorithm can be applied to new different applications.
According to the discussion, we concluded that the
behavior of the Black Hole Algorithm still requires
improvements, and this open the door to extent BHA.
This can be achieved by combining it with other MH
techniques, traditional optimization methods, and other
mathematical concepts. Therefore, in future works, we
recommend the following viewpoints to improve BHA and
apply to different applications.
• Using the operators of some metaheuristic techniques
to improve the exploration and exploitation abilities of
BHA.
• Modify the features of BHA and apply it to solve
different problems in the Internet of things (IoT) for
example, feature selection, task scheduling at edge
layer, or cloud layer.
• Enhancing the ability of BHA as a Multiobjective tech-
nique and applied to solve real-world problems such
as image segmentation, feature selection, engineering
design, renewable energy. Since most of these applica-
tions have conflict objectives.
• Improving BHA as a many-objective approach to
handling problems that consist of more than three
objectives.
Acknowledgements This research was supported by TPU develop-
ment program Priority 2030.
Declarations
Ethics approval This article does not contain any studies with human
participants or animals performed by any of the authors.
Informed consent Informed consent was obtained from all individual
participants included in the study.
Conflict of Interests The authors declare that there is no conflict of
interest regarding the publication of this paper.
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jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
 L. Abualigah et al.

Affiliations
Laith Abualigah1,2 · Mohamed Abd Elaziz3,4,5,6 · Putra Sumari2 · Ahmad M. Khasawneh1 ·
Mohammad Alshinwan1 · Seyedali Mirjalili7,8 · Mohammad Shehab9 · Hayfa Y. Abuaddous1 · Amir H. Gandomi10

Mohamed Abd Elaziz

abd el aziz m@yahoo.com
Putra Sumari
putras@usm.my
Ahmad M. Khasawneh
a.khasawneh@aau.edu.jo
Mohammad Alshinwan
mohmdsh@aau.edu.jo
Seyedali Mirjalili
ali.mirjalili@gmail.com
Mohammad Shehab
moh.shehab12@gmail.com
Hayfa Y. Abuaddous
haddose@aau.edu.jo
Amir H. Gandomi
gandomi@uts.edu.au
1 Faculty of Computer Sciences and Informatics, Amman Arab
University, Amman 11953, Jordan
2 School of Computer Sciences, Universiti Sains Malaysia,
11800, Pulau Pinang, Malaysia
3 Department of Mathematics, Faculty of Science, Zagazig
University, Zagazig, 44519, Egypt
4 Artificial Intelligence Research Center (AIRC), Ajman University,
Ajman 346, United Arab Emirates
5 Department of Artificial Intelligence Science & Engineering,
Galala University, Suez, Egypt
6 School of Computer Science and Robotics, Tomsk Polytechnic
University, Tomsk, Russia
7 Centre for Artificial Intelligence Research and Optimization,
Torrens University Australia, 90 Bowen Terrace, Fortitude Valley
QLD 4006, Australia
8 Yonsei Frontier Lab, Yonsei University, Seoul, South Korea
9 Information Technology, The World Islamic Sciences
and Education University, Amman, Jordan
10 Faculty of Engineering and Information Technology, University
of Technology Sydney, Ultimo, NSW 2007, Australia

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