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STANDARD LECTURE NOTES

COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT

DIPLOMA IN SOCIALWORK

AND COMMUNITY

DEVELOPMENT

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MESSAGE FROM THE CHAIRMAN & ACADEMIC S DIRECTOR

I would like to take this chance to express my sincere gratitude to

all the staffs who have been involved in developing these standard
lecture notes to be used in all our campuses.

The standard lecture notes are part of our bigger efforts to ensure
total quality management in our delivery of service. We anticipate
that the standard lecture notes will enhance the delivery of service
by the lecturers .Students who have used standard lecture notes in
the past have shown remarkable performance in the internal and
national examinations

I wish to urge all the lecturers and students to make maximal use of
these lecture notes.

Positive and negative feedback are most welcome. We shall

Endeavour to continuously improve these manuscripts with the final
intention of reaching international standard based on your
feedback.

Yours faithfully,

MR OMONDI ORONY
CHAIRMAN& ACADEMIC DIRECTOR

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MODULE I
COMMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT/SOCIAL WORK
INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT

Summary of topics
1. Introduction to Community Development…………………………………….5
2. Principles and Practice of community Development……………………12
3. Community Organization ………………………………………………………………17
4. Models of Community Development………………………………………………24
5. Community Development Worker …………………………………………………33
6. Community Empowerment…………………………………………………………….37
7. Collaborations Partnerships and organizational Networks……………43
8. Sustainability of Community Programme………………………………………50
9. The Role of Government in community Development………………….54

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 INTRODUCTION
This module unit is designed to equip the trainee with knowledge, skills and
attitudes that will enable him / her participate in community development
activities.
General objectives
By the end of this module unit, the trainee should be able to:
 Understand the principles and practice of community development.
 Understand the role of organizations in community development.
 Apply various approaches to community development.
 Appreciate the importance of empowerment and partnerships, sustaining
development project in a community.

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 CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT
Specific objectives
By end of this topic the trainee should be able to:
 Explain the meaning of community.
 Explain the meaning of community development.
 Discuss the evolution of community development.

Meaning of community
A community refers to a group of people presiding in specific geographical
location area sharing common culture, political system and resources.

Meaning of community development

Community development is a process that involves changing the living
standards of a community from less desirable to a more desirable one.
Community development can also be defined as a joint rather than individual
effort to empower peoples ways of life from a less desirable to a more
desirable one using their own resources, skills and knowledge.
The overall result of community development is to ensure that communities
become self reliant by using joint efforts, skills and available resources to
change their situation to a better one.
It can also be defined as the coming together of people in a bid to change their
living standards/transform /move the living standards from a less desirable to a
more desirable one.
Community development has been perceived differently by different people as
a form of betterment to community members. This is defined in the following
ways:
i) According to UN, it is a process by which the effort of the people themselves
is united with those of the government to improve the economic social and

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political conditions of communities to enable them contribute fully to national
progress.
This definition emphasize is laid on participation of the people in their efforts
to empower their standards of living with reliance on their own initiative, self
help and mutual decision making.
ii)According to International co-operative Association I.C.A,Community
development is a process of social action in which people of a community
organize themselves for planning an action to define their common and
individual needs with maximum reliance upon common resources and
supplements from government and NGO`s.
iii)According to the Biddle and Biddle (1965) Community development is a
social process in which human being become competent to life and gain some
control of local aspect of frustrating and changing world .It is a government
method of realizing personality growth which can occur when neighbors work
together to save their growing concept of good for all.
iv) According to Clifford in (1966) Community development concerns technical
assistance at the village level that help people to work together for a better
living. Its objective goal is to help people find methods of organizing self help
and co-operative action on plans which they have developed to improve their
own local circumstances.
Further there have been different conceptions of Community development as a
process, method, and programme and as a movement. It is a process ,because
it seen as done in stages which permit movement from one stage which is less
desirable to a more desirable egg shifting from a state of dependence of local
people on outside resources such as relief food to that of reliance of their own
resources.
As a method Community development is seen as a means of accomplishing
some end that is desirable by community members as well by the developing
agencies.

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This conception holds that Community development is a means that permit a
quicker attainment of developed goals that anything done by people
themselves in a systematic way has lasting effects.
As a programme, Community development is a set of activities whose
implementation of properly done, facilitate the attainment of the objective
e.g. construction of schools calls for a number of activities e.g. formation of
committee obtaining materials and labour and actual construction. If these
activities are poorly done then the objective of having a school won’t be
realized.
As a movement, Community development may be encouraged by a society and
a community by aiming at progress i.e. community members can be
empowered to perceive their role as that of improving their neighbor’s welfare
for a good of all.
Evolution of Community Development
The origin community development can be traced in the USA, Britain and India
as well as in British colonial territories.
Reasons for the emergence of community development
According to Dunhulm, Community development originated from the following
events
i) Utopian ideology/ideal communities by Robert Owen
ii) Growth of local government
iii) Agricultural extension services
iv) Growth of social welfare programmers
v) Rural reconstruction of India

a) Utopian/Ideal Community
Robert Owen a British industrialist propounded /came up with the ideal
communities on the basis of a religious principle. Principle that is perceived on
an ideal community which community development needs to achieve as that
that is characterized by industriousness, self reliance on its resources, skills
and knowledge.

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An ideal community should own goals in accordance with the set rules and
moral development towards mankind.
It should have high standards of living which is equitable. In this context he saw
Community development as a vehicle that can be used to achieve the ideal
community. Community development scholars based their strategies on Owens
ideas in a bid to achieve development.
a) Growth of Local Government
As societies developed, centralized administration was formed where rules and
regulations were stipulated by a local government which provided social
welfare service to the citizens. In U.S.A and Britain local governments
provided social welfare services in order to do away with social problems such
as overcrowding ,poor sanitation,illness,long working hours, poor working
conditions which were caused by industrialization, changes in technology and
rural migration.
In relation to community development, growth of local government through the
provision of social welfare services aimed at improving the undesirable state of
affairs in the Britain.
In USA local government sought reform in official housing codes, establishment
of agencies for the care of dependent children, community policy and
collection of data on population logistics, thus through effort of social welfare
by local government to improve the poor living conditions of people,
Community development started taking rots by employing the principles of
social welfare so that it realizes self reliance sustainable developments.

a) Agricultural Work/Services
It emerged in USA in a bid to give out information to farmers on issues
concerning agriculture. It comprises of instruction on technical aspects of
agriculture, business management, farm management and the use of derived
seed and fertilizers for better yields.
Through the extension work, the portion of community development evolved as
farmers participated in planning and implementation of their farming

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activities. Leading improvement in agriculture production the extension. Work
provided the growth for self reliance among farmers in rural areas leading to
community development.
b) Rural Reconstruction Of India
After gaining independence from Britain pioneer leaders of India undertook
rural development of Indian villages which were adopted by under-developed
Mahatma Gandhi held that the evaluation of Indian villages had to come from
the villages had to come from the villagers themselves through their self
sponsored efforts. He noted that ignorance was the main problem of villagers
and development would prevail if people were empowered
The reconstruction of rural India entailed empowerment. Of villagers to shun
ignorance and adopt responsible lifestyle to achieve self reliance .it included
improvement in agricultural infrastructure, health services, sanitation and
drainage etc.
Training institutions were started to train village guides who had the task of
assisting villagers to improve the conditions of their villages. All these efforts
natured the spirit of mobilization of local resources, participation of local
people in planning and implementation of their projects leading to self reliance
and community development.

e). Growth of Social Welfare Programmes

Emergence of CD in British colonial territories in Africa
During the early years of colonization Britain entrusted supervision of most
services to missionaries, while the government was pre-occupied with
enforcement of law and order. After the railway roads school, hospitals were
constructed and attention was directed to alleviation of the disease and
illetaracy.The new approach was termed as mass education which later
became community developed, mass education was aimed at enabling Africans
to gain community education so as to better their living standards.
Mass education recommended the need for co-operation and self reliance
among Africans in improving conditions of their communities, mass education

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was geared towards eliminating ignorance and illiteracy and influence
innovative social existence.
All people at all levels of community were able to understand and appreciate
the force which g\had and which continue to change their lives. Mass education
that was geared to eliminate illiteracy was recommended for young and old to
the community. The final development which influenced the emergence of
community development was the experiment in mass education in social
concretion agriculture and cooperation.
To initiate CD in its colonies Britain took several measurers:
i) a new advisory committee on mass education (CD) was appointed by
the secretary of state for the colonies in 1949.The committee was to
oversee CD activates and solve problems of co-ordination between
various departments in official agencies.
ii) Mass education clearing house was established in 1989 in the London
university institute for tropical areas and headed by anthropologist
Margaret mead. The clearing has provided a centre through which those
interested with community development inform each other and acquire
information on its principle and techniques.
iii) CD bulletin was established regularly by the clearing house that
contained information on ongoing community development work in the
department territories.
iv) Training of officers in CD technology was also undertaken through
short courses in CD.
v) Conferences on CD were concerned on early basis
All their efforts provided information of foundation for CD and paved
ways for its vast growth and popularity through 1950.Funds for
implementation of CD activities came from the British government and
from the government of territories.

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Community Development Works In The Colonial Era In Kenya.
CD in Kenya as associated welfare work carried out by the society welfare
organization established in the 1946 and headed by Mr. John Asquish as the
commissioner of CD .The social work aim was to uplift the economy and social
recreational activities. The service and facilities provided included illiteracy in
English library and reading rooms and places of receation.These services were
managed by CD assistants (CDA`s) with the help of the DO. Officers.

REVISION QUESTIONS
1. Explain the meaning of a community?
2. Explain the Social Welfare Programmes?
3. Discuss the evolution community development?

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 CHAPTER TWO

PRINCIPLE AND PRACTICE OF COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT

Specific objectives
By the end of this topic the trainee should be able to:
 Discuss the principles and practices of community development;
 Describe the process of community development ;
 Explain the philosophies of community development;
 Discuss the impact of community development on other fields;
 Discuss the assumptions in community development.

Principles and practice of community development

Def: They are used to guide the process of Community development and shows
how and what CD entails. The principles are:
i) Principle of movement-CD should be involving in terms of participation in
carrying out the duties and obligations of the community. Involvement helps
people to identify the development projects of the community.
ii) Principle of felt need-the early community members are aware of the
problems they face such as poor health, illiteracy. Poverty etc.This is
important for CD to focus attention and achieving the most felt need. There
must be collective perception of the need and understanding of the problem,
this collective concern brings about motivation and shared identity of the
needs of community members. The role of CD workers is to encourage the
community to be actively involved in the process of change according to their
felt needs.
iii) Principle of agreed perception/goals/acceptability
There should be agreed perception in terms of project to be undertaken in the
society. Development workers should encourage forum that people can express
their need and priorities for the goals that they need to be achieved. The goals
should accept high levels of acceptability by community members.

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iv). Principle of communication
It is very important in CD because of the diversity of people in each community
e.g. young, illiterate, and old.
CD workers should use proper communication methods to enhance
understanding of friendship.
iv). Principle of the discontent needs-this entails focus on problems that
people are not happy with e.g. drug abuse, corruption, mismanagement etc

Community Development Process (CD as a process)

Some of the stages in CD are as follows:
i) Identification of community concern (problem)
Issues that existence in a community e.g. poverty, inequality, people should be
concerned about particular situation that need to be addressed.
ii) Stimulus for action- (organization)
This is where community members acknowledge the current situation i.e.
dissatisfaction and needs to change this stage, organization resumes and
people have to take part in order to address.
iii) Laying the ground work
Action needs to passionate and confident people with ability to change things
iv) Developing a profile of the community
It is a paramount to establish/identify /explore the level of concern, issues and
options before starting of resources support and assets are identified before
solutions are posed. Thus community needs an average picture of a democratic
social, physical and environmental characteristics of its own that are adoptable
to change e.g. culture can be drawn back to community development.
v) Making meaning of information
The summary of analysis from profiles should be presented to the community
members so that they can make their own choices about the aspects to be
covered and the presentation styles that suits their need such information

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include demography, economic activities, socio-physical and community
infrastructure services and challenges.
vi) Generating the community record project
The emphasis here is the community asset and the gap that this point is
identified with previous visioning .It is vital to rethink about problems and
reframe them as opportunities and focuses on how existing or readily
accessible skills can be used.
vii) Identifying areas of action
First things fast, development strategies that have maximum support and
affects can be done in a range of ways identifying their broad cross section of
the community to what is often perceived as more efficient process based on
working with representatives sectors of community democracy.
viii) Establishing an evaluating frame work
Involve measuring the success of any community project in a bid to achieve
sustainability measurers. Evaluation monitoring ensures that there is a better
utilization of resources in the right manner.
Here the community seeks professional assistance about how other
communities succeed in addressing the same issue.
ix) Implementation
This is to ascertain and develop action plan that sets out when, what and who
of the various projects are to be undertaken.
The key aspects include;-
Seek assistance within the community or outside extra ordinary development
plans.
-develop participation and alienate result to an integrated approach to the
issue
-Find ways to access resources-disseminate information in an ongoing basis so
that a community remains informed and more likely to provide support.
-elaborate a success as a community and remember the community
development is an ongoing process

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 Assumption of community development
Theoretical assumption (community development) is based on a number of
assumptions and principles.
i) knowledge-in both physical and social science is passed to members of
a society through a process of education to perfect the society to meet its
needs. The use of physical and social science knowledge will facilitate the pace
of society progress than under the natural process of evaluation. This
assumption can be applied in the situation of 3rd world countries where there is
often resistance to technical innovation.
ii)All members of democratic society need to have both access of
physical and social knowledge to help them improve their life /society
member have responsibility of improving their living conditions by taking the
advantage of the available knowledge.
iii) Community development worker has to be entrusted to train
professional to know what to be done and who has the skill for doing it, the
reason in social science knowledge is hard/much difficult to apply in view of
changing nature of social relationship. Individuals have also to choose use of
knowledge if this assumption
iv) Relate to mode of communication development practice hence
application of social science knowledge. According to Wileden (1970)
community development should seek to confirm to be accepted by community
members in those ideas, plans and practice to organize local community should
emanate from community members themselves as to achieve sustainability.
Her CD is seen as a radical and conservative, it’s radical in the sense that it
entails democratic freedom and defending them is necessary i.e. it tries to
promote change from worse to better. It is concentrative in a sense that it
works within perceiving ideological, cultural social framework without
threatening to change them i.e. use of local leader to mobilize local resources
in the base in which a community is ready to take.
v).community development seeks to strengthen local organization or
groups and to ensure coordination of their activities/local leadership of this

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organized other formal and informal leadership within the community had to
be identified and developed through deviant training which increases its
identifying to identify its process,problems,plans .solutions implemented and
have action.
vi)relation to the resources needed to the improvement
activities .Member of the community who have to work with community
development workers in determining resources that are locally available and
how can be used. They also collaborate to the resources that have to be
imported as long as the importation of resources will not undermine the
determination and strength of the community.
vii) The needs of the community have to be identified as to serve as a
basis for action, recognition of the needs start with a problem that may have
risen out of gradual changes of the conditions in the community.
REVISION QUESTIONS
1. Discuss the principles and practices of community development?
2. Describe the process of community development?
3. Explain the philosophies of community development?
4. Discuss the assumptions in community development?

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CHAPTER THREE
COMMUNITY ORGANIZATION
Specific objectives
By the end of this topic the trainee should be able to:
 Discuss the characteristics of a community;
 Describe the principles of community organization;
 Discuss the challenges of community organization;
 Discuss the impact of community activities on an organization.

Introduction
It means bringing people together to combat/deal with shared problem and
their say about decision that affects their lives. Is a proves of organizing time,
people and resources.
It is often with community development because both are social processes but
community development occurs when people from their own organize to
provide long time capacity for problems solving therefore community
organization is a process that facilitates community development.

Community organization strategy

There is no single preferred method for community organization .There is 3
main models /strategies and methods of community organization.
a) Specific content strategy/method/model
Under this strategy any individual/agency recognizes the community specific
needs and launch a programme to meet this needs in form of reforms
It focuses on achieving specific activities by involving selected people,
authority and individuals.
The success of this strategy is measured by the agree of a set objectives
Most have specific time frame and be completed in the shortest time possible.
b) General content strategy

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In this method the effort is made to co-ordinate the existing services to extend
present and initiate state services to meet the community needs
The objective is not a single reform but more general objective of a specific
group in the community.
This strategy requires involvement of considerable groups of interested people
in learning ways and means of coordinating and expanding services in a
particular area.
c) Process or content/social action strategy
This strategy emphasize on process in which community people are involved
through their representative in identifying and linking action with respect to
their problem. The emphasis is on cooperative and collaborative work among
the various groups to the community
It is useful in helping to organize the disadvantaged segments of the
population. It involves trying to redistribute power or resources which allow for
institutional and community change. It is useful during civil rights movements
and where people have been oppressed, it’s low but effective and long-lasting
as the community learns to solve its problems by utilizing its own resources.

Principles of community organization

1. Start from the community’s felt need-the community recognizes areas of
discontent with the existing situation, thus expressing the need for
change.
2. Discontent must be understood by the community-as many as possible of
the community members should be aware /conscious of the needed
change
3. Principle of proper communication-the community members should get
to know of the process for the desired change through the community
used and accepted channels in the community
4. Principle of involvement-community member’s involvement in the
change process should be made as free as possible without any
restriction.

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 5. Principle of agreed upon goal-the change process should be agreed
towards the goal/objective that have been agreed on by the members
(prioritized goals)

ROLES OF COMMUNITY ORGANIZATION

 Provide satisfaction of member’s social needs and a sense of
personal identity and belonging
 Enhances effective communication within the community
 Promotes team work
 Provides a feeling of stability, security and through informal
norms f behavior exercise a form of control of the members.
 It provides a means of highlighting efficiencies of weakness of the
formal organization.
Characteristics of community
 Residence in a rural locality
 They have informal relationships
 They share common feelings and a sense of belonging
 Permanency-not passing like a crowd
 Members share common language
 Leadership based on interpersonal qualities
 Have natural boundaries.
Process of Community Organization
Mc Kenzie and Smeltzer synthesized the works of other several scholars and
came up with a 10 step approach to community organization
1. Recognition of the problem
The process of community organization begins when somebody recognizes the
existence of a problem and decides to do something about it. If those who
initiate the process are members of the community, this is referred to as grass
root or citizen initiated or bottom up approach

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Where the process is initiated by individuals from outside the community, this
is referred to as top-down or outside –in approach, not every one can be an
effective organizer who has a rare combination of attributes and skills.
2. Gaining entry into the community
After recognition of the problem the community must be properly informed.
This is the most crucial step in the whole process that must be accomplished
through the community’s most influential members (gate keepers/opinion
leaders)
These are the individuals who control both formally and informally the political
climate to the community, they also know their community how it functions
and how accomplish task within it e.g. politicians, religious ledges, activist
groups, education leaders etc.
Before approaching these individuals, one must study the community well; you
should know where the power lies what type of politics must be used to solve a
problem and whether the particular problem to be solved has ever been dealt
with in the community.
3. Organizing the people
Obtaining the support of the community interested in seeing the problem
should (executive participants, as they will end up doing the majority of the
work).It’s also important to involve those individuals directly affected by the
problem.
The work of this particular group is to recruit more members of the community
to the course, this helps spread out of the work load and generate more
resources to deal with the problem in expanding their constituencies, the
organizers should be sure to
 Identify people who are affected by the problem of concern
 Ensure a reward for the volunteers
 Keep volunteers assignment with their ability and expertise
 Consists providing appropriate training to make sure volunteers are okay
with their task

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 4. Identify the specific problem
This is the isolation and defining more carefully the problems that need to be
solved.
Community problems are complex and the reality is that somebody usually
benefits if the problem remains unsolved.

5. Determine priorities and setting goals

More often than not, the resources needed to solve all the problems are not
available and thus need to prioritize. Prioritization is achieved through general
agreement or consensus so that some of ownership, participants will not be
wiling to give their resources, time, energy etc towards disowning the problem.
Once the problem is prioritized, goals need to be identified to serve as a guide
for problem solving.
6. Arriving at the strategy and selecting intervention activity
These are the alternative strategies or consideration o various alternatives for
solving the problem. Strategy involves selecting one or more intervention
activities. Each type of intervention activities, again the group must work
through consensus and compromise.
7. Implementing the plan
This entails identifying and collecting the necessary resources for
implementation and creating appropriate work plan (time schedule) for
implementation. It is the carrying out of the activities that has been agreed on
in the previous step that is embarked on at this step.
8. Evaluating the outcome of the plan of action
This is the comparing of the outcome of the process to goals and objectives
that have been set initially. The achievement that was realized the factors that
contributed to their realization or failure to realize that they are considered
/ascertained. This provides for a learning opportunity and a motivation process
for all who participated in the process.
9. Maintaining the outcome in the community

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This is the most difficult step in the entire process. It is at this point that the
organizers need to seriously consider the need for the community development
i.e. the creation of an organization to provide a long term capacity for problem
solving.
10. Looping back
This is the review/reconsideration of what transpired in the entire process
before proceeding on the stake holders reflect on all activities that took place
from the beginning and derived lessons for future intervention from them.

Challenges of community organization

The process of community organization is influenced by a range of internal and
external factors.
Internal factors
 Misunderstanding among the members
 Lack of clear goal and objectives (different need)
 Communication barriers among members
 Poor patterns of work in the nature and variety of activities and the
extend of autonomy and freedom of action
 Lack of social interaction with the organization/community
 Individual differences e.g. social economic status
 Cultural diversity differences
External factors
 Advance in information technology
 Changing roles in a society
 Conflicting interest from other stake holders
 Government policy
 Changing population trends
 Lack of political goodwill

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REVISION QUESTIONS
1. Discuss the characteristics of a community?
2. Describe the process of organization?
3. Discuss the challenges of community organization?
4. Discuss the impacts of community activities?

©CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSAL COLLEGE 23

 CHAPTER FOUR

MODELS OF COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT

A model in community development refers to a theoretical frame work in which
community development workers follow I developing community capacity.
Capacity building enables community members to identify their local resources
and mobilize them for their own development purpose. It is a plan course for
action in which community needs and prospects are achieved through
participation, involvement, and decision making by community members with
help of community development workers/change agents
Community development uses several models to assist communities in
identifying as well as mobilizing their resources for their own development.
These models are
 Diffusion of innovation
 Social action model
 Spontaneous social action model
 Induced social action model
 Quasi stationary equilibrium
 Social advocacy model

DIFFUSSION INDUCED MODEL

This model shows how social change can be achieved by communities through
adoption of innovation (new technologies by community members).Here new
technologies are introduced to the members of our social unit and then the
innovation diffuses to other members of the social unit.
Factors affecting /influence diffusion of innovation
Innovation decision process-this is a series of mental stages through which an
individual passes from becoming aware of new ideas to the time he/she adopts
These mental stages are:

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a) Awareness stage-this is during which an individual gets to hear of the new
idea
b) Interest stage-this is during which he/she seeks more information about the
idea.
c) Persuasion stage-this is where the individual compares the strengths and
weakness of the idea based on the information collected at the interest stage.
d) Trial stage-this is where the individual tries out the idea on small scale
where possible.
e) Adoption stage-this is where the individual decides to use the innovation of
ideas as part and parcel of his/her ongoing operation.
Personal characteristic of the adaptors
This also influences the adoption of innovations because some individuals have
been found to adapt innovations faster than others.
This is owed /attributed to human growth and development process as well as
cultural control of certain changes in the community.
Some adaptors may be willing to take risks and are therefore more open to new
ideas. This adopter is categorized as early and late adapters.
Attributes of the innovation
They comprise of;
a) Relative advantage-refers to the degree to which the new idea is perceived
as being more superior to the old one.
b) Compatibility-this refers to the degree to which the new ideas can be split
into smaller packages which can be tried out easily and in phases
d) Operability-this is the degree to which the result of innovation can be
demonstrated easily to the targeted population.
e) Triability-this refers to the degree to which an innovation can be tried in
small scale
Process of communication of innovation
This affects the basis of innovation in the following ways
a) Types of medium used
b) Target population

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c) Opinion leaders
d) Language used
e) Outlook of the change agents
2. SOCIAL ACTION MODEL
It is based on the assumption that a disadvantaged segment of the community
need to be organized and mobilized to gain power and resources in accordance
with the principle of democracy and social justice.
This model is based on the conflict theory where it’s seen to exist and need to
organize the disadvantaged group to pressurize and agitate with the dominant
group for its rights.

Social action model is done through:

a) The use of democratic and social justice approach
This is applicable in democratic societies where civil rights groups and other
social movements are active and are not limited by the government.
b) The use of educational approach/campaigns
Such as those on child abuse, H.I.V/AIDS awareness as well as other larger
national problems.
Literacy campaigns are also provided held uplift the awareness and literacy
levels of the members and help the affected groups, appreciate the forces
responsible for their problems.
Education campaigns also help enlighten people on their rights and the
structural in equalities that bring about situations e.g. culture is permanent
and certain practices permanent problems that affect the people.

c) Concretization
This approach emphasizes action research that entails involvement of people
not only in research but also in research but also in stimulating practical rural
development activities and assisting rural households to carry them out.
It is normally used by higher institutions of learning.
3. Spontaneous social action model

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It asserts that an idea conceived by a single individual may form the basis of
social action. This person Wielden (1970) sees social as developing through
steps/stages.
1. The I stage
This is when some need is identified by at least an individual who interprets it
as requiring solutions.
2. Do stage
Individuals think about the solutions, its various dimensions and have to be
convinced about its desirability. They also have to be willing to invest time
energy and, in some cases, financial resources and reputation to get it done.

3. The we step
Individuals talk to each other about a task in order to win the interest and get
their help among those who get concerned.
4. The group step
This deals with the way the interest members of the community organize
themselves for action.
They may hold meetings and talk about the task and how it has to be taken. In
this way the general concern of the problem may grow and approved decision
be made about the desirability of the particular course of action.
5. Do step
This begins when members organize themselves for action such as by forming
committees to oversee the project, deciding on the use of available resources.
In this model social change is engineered from within the community and
specifically from one of its members. Most self-help projects in Kenya
originated in this way.
Quasi stationary equilibrium model
It was developed by Lewin (1970)
It is applicable where work is done in groups in crisis situations. It is based on
the assumptions:

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  Positive forces in a situation that supports a given level of behavior and
negative forces which oppose this level of behavior.
 When the positive and negative forces are in a balance a state of
equilibrium are maintained.
 Change in the level of behavior can result when positive forces are
strengthened or when new positives forces are added or when negative
forces are weakened.
Lewin hold that change can be brought up in three steps;
 Unfreezing-this step entails the situation in order to discover the
existing level of behavior.
 Moving-this refers to altering the forces in the desired direction
by adding to all strengthening the positive forces or weakening
eliminating the negative forces or doing both.
3. Freezing-this entails stabilizing the situation at the new level of behavior
The positive may be factors such as education, mobilization resource provision
provided by members of a community for carry out the proposed action. The
negative forces include: culture, environmental limitation to the proposed
action.
Induced social action model
It was developed by bead and bohlem (1958) and it based on the following
stages of action
a) exploration stage-this starts as soon as a change agent has been located in
the area or community in meetings such as visits or brazes, where the agent is
not invited she may call for invitation by introducing him/herself to a few
members in order to make them aware of his/she can provide the agents
identifies the leader among the community members and discus the community
problems with them
He/she also identifies local community groups and organization and finds out
their goals, activities and inter-organizational that influence the community
from outside e.g. government NGO`s etc.

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The change agents also get information about the physical environment, the
social economic conditions of the community and resource as well as the local
knowledge practices and habits and the history of the community e.g. relating
to successful or failed projects.
The agents also strives understand political social religious, cultural and other
forces that act to divide the community/threaten their co-operation.
b) Organization stage
It begins community members starts to discuss some particular problems in
deails.the active members can be invited for further meetings and
deliberations on the problems or even co-opted into the interim committee.
The group may be formalized through a constitution by law that governs them
or may just consult only officials. Training needs to be provided to such
member on the technical management aspect of the project through seminars,
capacity building or session.
c) Discussion stage
Begins when the agents encourages wide spread discussion of the problem
among the community members. This will help in the development of skills
especially among the interim committee members on aspects such as
presentation, defending of ideas explanations and how to disagree without
arousing and resentment the community and their problems.

d) Group decision making stage

This begins where the need for consensus among the community members has
been attained. This include/entails while decision aimed at bringing to
attention of those may be unaware who may be not be interested in the
proposed action. The decision can be arrived by a secret ballot (formal votes)
acclamation or any other acceptable way.
The interim committee may be dissolved at this point and a proper
management committee is instituted or chosen.
e) Action stage

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This is when people carry out the planed activities while making adjustment
where necessary. Activities here vary from one project to another and they
include obtaining resources division of labour visiting supporting agencies etc.
This stage fall for active participation through labour resource contribution etc.
f) Planning for social action
It entails detailed examination of the identified problem by the management
committee. Goals to be achieved are set and agreement is reached on the
resources required on implementation programmes of required activities in
terms of goods who, what and when and how it is done.
The projected is costly and experts may be consulted at this stage.
Discussion at this stage provides a firm commitment to the proposed action.
g) Evaluation stage
This may be done at the end of every stage (continuous evaluation) or at the
end off (end term evaluation)
It helps refill the progress made constraints and encounter and for mistakes to
be verified, this stage gives a chance for self critics and learning from
experience.
h) Subsequent action stage
This is a term used to refer to new project/continuation stage whereby
following experienced gained with the 1st project, community members take
more projects along the lines already outlined.

IMPACTS OF THE MODELS ON COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT ACTIVITIES

a) Benefits (qualitative)
i. The cohesiveness of the community are achieved
ii. The community’s ability to meet very basic needs is attained
iii. A shift from individual interaction to a complete interaction is important
indicators
iv. Reduction in conflicts overtime within the community
v. Change from dependency to self-reliance

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 vi. Level o awareness of the people their social awareness therefore is an
indicator of community development.
vii. Decision making structure is set
viii. Articulation of the people (be able to express themselves well)
ix. Attempts to solve their problems and no of projects started.
x. No of committees/per thousand of population who are involved in
community development projects. The more the number of committee
the higher the likelihood of participation.
xi. Community motivation-the number of local resources used over a given
period of time to the ratio of external resources over the same period

REVISION QUESTIONS
1. Explain the meaning of development models?
2. Discuss the nature of community development models?
3. Discuss the various types of development models?
4. Discuss the impacts of the models on community development?

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 CHAPTER FIVE

COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT WORKERS

Specific objectives
By the end of this topic, the trainee should be able to:
a) Explain the meaning of community development worker
b) Discuss the role of community development worker
c) Discuss the factors that influence performance of community
development worker.
d) Discuss the impact of community development worker on community
development.
INTRODUCTION
They are the main moving force in community development. They are the ones
who put community development approach for betterment to work. According
to Rodgers and Shoe maker (1971) CD workers are those agents who influence
decisions in a direction deemed desirable by a change agency for the
community.
The main function is to seek adoption of new ideas, slowdown, prevent
adoption of certain new ideas or innovation

Roles of CD workers
 Helps mobilize and organza member of the community/group, guide them
in their identification of their problems in planning for solutions. The
Biddle (1965) saw themes helping to facilitate a community realization
and solution of their problems.
 Are concerned with transfer of innovation from the change agency to the
community, such as in agriculture, sanitation, heath .This approach is
supported by the fact that CD is an educational approach towards
community betterment.

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  They serve as a communication link between the agency system and the
client system. They get information of problems experienced by the
community and transmit them to the respective agency.
 They act as guides i.e. serve as enables and encourages, here the change
agents helps the community to find a means of achieving its goals in the
directing chosen by the community. The agent may suggest alternative
causes of action but the choice of any of them is left to the community.
 They act as advisor or consultants-by traveling frequently to the field they
look at the process of the community projects and offer relevant advice
ion the next step forward as consultants they are concerned with
providing an effective links between the agency and the client system.
They do this by relying on information they catch up in the field through
their agencies.
 The change agents act as advocates of the community, they are
committed to the aspirations and desires of the community members
having identified their problems, they put forward their wants and desires
to the concerned agencies.
 They act as brokers i.e. they guide the community to locate resources and
stimulate collective social action. They may also assist in seeking
administrative measurers and policies to change in the community.
 They also act as activist i.e. commit themselves to spearheading the
realization and implementation of undesirable state of affairs in the
community i.e. other professional skills e.g. They act as community
agitators.
 As professionals especially when employed by change agents put into
practices their other professional skills e.g. mobilization training

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Factors influencing performance of community development worker

1. Amount of effort exerted by change agents influence his/her success

fewer days in the office and more in the field and who are actively
involved in the change process that involves interpersonal
communication tend to succeed.
2. Empathy-this refers to putting oneself into the shoes of others and
seeing things from their sides. The ability of agents to emphasize can be
increased through selection procedures e.g. agriculture agencies with
farm experience background.
3. Homophile-this is the degree to which the interaction individuals are
similar in certain attributes e.g. language, culture, gender etc.
4. Creditability-this refers to the degree to which a community source
(change agents) is perceived by the recipients (community members)as
competent and trustworthy, where the community members perceive
the change agents as being highly credible they will be more receptive
to the messages he/she puts across.
5. Self reliance and self behavior by change agent is also vital to their
success. Self reliance assists the change agents to easily terminate the
client dependence upon him/her which is the ultimate call for
community development. In other words the main role of the change
agents is to seek and enable the clients to be their own change agents
and therefore be self-reliant and dependent.
REVISION QUESTIONS
1 Discuss the impact of community development worker in community
development?
2. Discuss the factors that influence performance of community development
worker?

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 CHAPTER SIX

COMMUNITY EMPOWERMENT
Specific objectives
By the end of this topic the trainee should be able to:
a) Explain the meaning of empowerment.
b) Discuss the importance of community development.
c) Discuss ways of empowering communities.
d) Discuss the factors necessary for empowerment.
e) Discuss the impact of community empowerment on community
development.
Meaning of empowerment
It refers to giving lawful power/authority to an individual a group and
institution or a community to act and control their destiny.
Empowerment brings together people of diverse background to clarify their
deals and to make sense of their experiences.
The principle of empowerment is not to help people do anything that may that
they can do themselves but instead they are s strongly committed to ownership
of problems and solution based on a feeling of genuine participation.
Empowerment is strategy that moves the development agencies as it involves
the practice of full participation of the community members on their activities.
The process of empowerment requires heavy investments in terms of funds
human and other resources in a bid to realize self-reliance and sustainable
development in the community.
N/B most of the groups to be empowered became empowered due to the fact
that they share common disadvantages in the community/society e.g. the
physically challenged.
Importance of community empowerment
1. It facilitates exchange of ideas among community members and the
change agents concerning the development work thus both parties

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 through the exchange of ideas learn on how to achieve self reliance and
sustainable development through awareness programmers and
campaigns.
2. It helps in the development of ability of community members to run
their own activities as per their own aims and objectives as well as the
available resources.
3. It enhances training and retraining of development agents volunteer
workers and the community developments workers through
empowerment individuals and groups get to learn about ways of
improving their living standards by making themselves aware of the
problems they are facing (societal/community problems) e.g. lack of
water, roads etc.
4. It enhances stronger optimism abut the eventual sources of development
work with achievement of self reliance and sustainable development.
5. Provides a framework for creative and active thinking for development
actors (change agents and community members) in solving common
problems in community development work.
6. Provides greater persistence by community members in the face of
obstacles and temporary set backs affecting their development
endeavors.
7. Helps to facilitate technical and material support in transition period of
project development
8. It assists in locating areas of resource concentration (location of rich
areas in terms of resources)
9. Assist groups materially to manage projects with response to their needs
as well as providing a strong commitment to development work.
Ways of empowering communities
1. Education-community members have to be educated on their rights,
privileges responsibilities and the various resources and their respective
sources.

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 2. Publication-this involves writing and printing reading materials on
various subjects and aspects for community members to read and gain
knowledge that can foster their own development. Materials provided
for reading must create awareness among the community members and
encourage and motivate them to take their own responsibility for their
own developments.
3. Research-change agencies through research where they involve the
community members in asking them questions, share the knowledge and
information they have just acquired and in thinking about ways of
getting more facts and any other essential information to the
community. Through research change agents develop members capacity
to identify their problems, find their causes, analyze them and
formulate possible solutions thereby becoming self reliant.
4. Capacity building-this involves enhancing and strengthening the ability
of community members to effectively and efficiently manage their own
development activitie.It is characterized by provision of training through
seminars and conferences on issues affecting individuals and
communities at large.
5. Training and academic study-this entails provision of formal
training/education to community members.
Factors necessary for community empowerment
1. Activities to be undertaken/done-activities that people engage in can affect
their feelings of empowerment. When community members enter into a routine
and repetitive activities e.g. where they omit interact briefly it creates
monotony and thus discourages the optimism for empowerment.
2. Community organization system-in communities where there is high
centralization of power in top leadership the middle and lower level
community members find it hard to embrace empowerment. A change agent
should therefore access the leadership structures on how power is shared with
the community by using opinion leaders and local organizations e.g. youth
groups etc.

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3. Culture-these are shared values and beliefs of community members about
their activities of the community and interpersonal relationship, it’s thus the
totally of peoples way of life. A culture that accepts no mistakes (rigid) it
discourages members from taking initiatives e.g. in problem solving where one
deviates from the culturally prescribed solution. Culture with strong values on
flexibility, learning and participation will support issues of an empowerment.
.Change agents should try and understand a community’s culture before
implementing the empowerment programme in order to avoid resistance or
conflicts.
Community members-self determination tends to threaten people who perceive
themselves as the custodians of the community interest.
-people with high emotional stability and self acceptance seem more capable
of dealing with responsibilities and empowerment.
-change agents therefore should identify skills and potentiality of self
determination.
-the particular proactive characteristics should be sought among the members
whom are to be judged with leadership responsibilities in spear heading the
empowerment program/process.
Trust-empowerment is more feasible where there is high level of mutual trust
among parties involved0000, trust is very important as it encourages mutual
participation and a unity of command in empowerment campaigns.
 Involvement of community members in programs
Community programmers are widely used to increase community empowerment
and influence over what is done and how it is done. Involvement increases
empowerment because it promotes a sense of belonging and togetherness
among community members. (Willingness of members to participate in
different programmes)
 Leadership
Successful empowerment programs require a dedicated leadership that is able
to unite the community in the achievement of their common objectives
without being torn apart by internal/external forces.

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Networking and linkages
Empowered individuals or groups have high connectivity’s this include those
who occupy high status such as academicians, politicians officials etc, because
these people have high power and control over their destiny, the will be
motivated to influence empowerment programmers and make them successful.
IMPACTS/EFFECTS ON COMMUNITY EMPOWERMENT
i) change in attitude
An attitude is a long term indication to perceive interpret and evaluate events
and issues in a certain way. It involves attitude feelings belief values and
indication to have in particular.
An empowered community will show a difference in how they perceive,
interpret and evaluate events compared to how they viewed the events before
empowerment.
ii) improved living standards
Empowerment controls over individual, groups, or individuals groups or
individuals will thus be able to change their living standards because they have
information, power to make decisions and knowledge that can improve their
living conditions
iii) Economic development
Empowerment flourishes the economy because the empowered individual will
take the initiative of contributing to economic development of their
communities since through empowerment they get skills and knowledge and
control over their activities
iv) Social development
Through networking and linkages as well as collaboration, individuals usually
get social economics which assist them to develop conducive, social
environment for interaction.
v) Technological advancement
Through empowerment people get to understand the importance of technology
in transforming their communities and a result they will be able and willing to

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utilize the availability of technology resources so as to improve their living
standards
vi) Self reliance
Empowerment instills skills and knowledge which make community member
creative in a way they can manipulate their environment. In this case
community members will be entirely dependant on themselves thus leading to
independence in their development activities.
v) Sustainable development
Community members are equipped with skills to enable them utilize resources
in meeting their needs without compromising the ability of the future
generations to meet their own.
REVISION QUESTIONS

1. Discuss the impact of community empowerment in community

development?
2. Discuss factors necessary for empowerment?
3. Discuss the ways of empowerment community?
4.

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 CHAPTER SEVEN

COLABORATION PARTNERSHIP AND COMMUNITY

ORGANIZATION AL NETWORKS

Specific objectives
At the end of this topic, the trainee should be able to:
a) Describe the impacts and rationale for collaboration.
b) Describe ways of creating broker relationships.
c) Discuss various types of community partnerships.
d) Discuss impacts of partnerships in community.
INTRODUCTION
Partnership is relationships between two or more people joint in an objective
for the purpose of profit making.

Each person is called a partner and institution they form is called a firm or an
organization. In partnership each member contributes skills and labour for the
benefit of the organization. Collaboration which is referred to as partnership
together in a bid to achieve a goal at a faster rate than on individual basis.

Most collaboration is made by like minded people and who have similar
objectives.
Community development largely depend on collaboration and partnership since
it deals will diverse people, community or groups who need to collaborate so as
to improve their well being.
Development agencies also use collaborative mechanism to reach their clients
through organizational networks and partnership.
Ways/strategies used in building community partnerships

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Focus on partnership goal-potential partners need to identify the objectives for
understanding the partnership the objectives can be social, economic,
institutional etc.
They should establish and approach partnership development in a way that
contributes to the realization of the set objectives. This include
a) Participation and consultation-this will enable and encourage the partners to
gear towards achieving the set objectives in a mutual way.
b) Integral planning at a strategic levels –this assists development partnership
in stages so as to facilitate and account for monitoring and evaluation.
c) Financially sound and management partnership needs an accountable
financial management in order to avoid conflict among partners and to justify
the use of resources. This contact to the development of partnership solidarity
which facilitate easy realization of the set objectives
d)accountable and transparent action-this promotes a shared course of action
in partnership by discouraging corruption and misuse of the partnership funds
thus promoting easy achievement of the set goals.
e) Collaborative innovative management-this promotes involvement and
consultation by members in pointing out the strength and weakness of their
union where management involves all parties. The change of achieving the set
objectives are heightened or increased.
iii) Linking partnership with other related activities (collaboration) after
identifying the partnership objectives and developing a partnership approach.
Partners should link their organization with other related activities, this leads
to the speeding up of goals achievement and assists the partners in monitoring
and evaluating (to compare their progress with those of other related
organization)
iv) The partnership should be developed in relation with a broader
organizations obligations and functions
v) Partners should identify other actors, assets and mechanism involved in the
delivery of goods and services that the partnership is interested in i.e.
partnership never works in isolation but in union with other organizations. They

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also need assets and external help for efficient delivery and provision of
services e.g. consumer, government and other stake holders.
vi) Developing partnership frame work-partnership should explore the role of
each factor on the basis of their potential intern of skills, knowledge and
experience; this forms the partnership frame work which assists the partners to
contribute equally in respect to their professional experience. In the same time
the partnership framework does the appreciation of the different
characteristics that partners have i.e. if a framework is put in place.
When developing a relationship framework partners should design mechanisms
for partnering i.e. promoting effective interaction which can be achieved
through;
 Creating a learning approach
 Ensuring adequate preparation
 Establishing clarity of communication and commitment to roles
 Reviewing and monitoring partners performance
 Building on strength and discouraging weakness of the partners in the
partnership.
The partnership frame work should consider the content of roles played by
each partner by
i) Identification of key components that respond to the objective of the
partnership
Partners should address their challenges which may be social, political
economical etc so as to avoid incompetence
-in partnership framework, partners should consider equity and access to
information by all partners. Gender sensitivity is thus important in enhancing
equal access to information.
-partnership should also address institutional objectives such as skill transfer,
ethnology transfer, capacity building and decision-making structure.
-partnership framework should be geared towards achieving key principles of
the union.
Key principles of the union include

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 i. Transparency and accountability
ii. Legitimacy and legality
iii. Specificity of roles played by each partner (sharing roles/power)
iv. Stake holders’ participation
v. Risk management
vii) Enhancing capacity to implement partnership-partners should develop an
understanding of the operating context of the organization such as political,
economic policy and administrative aspects. Partnership should thus define
clearly the area of operation in order to avoid conflicts between the goals and
activities being undertaken.
They should develop an understanding of the regulatory environment that
partnership should be aware of the external environment that partnership
should be aware of the external environment in which it operates e.g. the law
and should abide constitution of the country as well as other regulatory
authorities such as licensing and payment of tax.
Partnership should develop appropriate skills for implementing and sustaining
the objectives by coming up with an organizational development strategy to
respond to the changes and other factors affecting the union the strategy
should entail mechanism for dealing with these changes and sustainable.
Relationship should address financial capacities to ensure strong financial base
for the implementation of their union. This is done by management in
collaboration with other stake holders.
Challenges of partnership in community activities
1. Inadequate trust
2. Inadequate resources
3. Elite domination (people aware of what is happening –literacy)
4. Insufficient information sharing
5. Leadership conflict owing to diverse interest (scramble for leadership)
6. Conflicts of expectation
7. Weakness of working structure and co-ordination
8. Competition and internal rivalry

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 9. Poor evaluation structures, poor performance assessment (personal
evaluation)
10.Weakness of individual and initiatives
11.External interference e.g. political
Importance of partnership, collaboration and networking
a) Enables sharing of information and ideas thus enhancing the partner’s
strategies and programme implementation
b) Enables people/community groups to avoid duplication in delivery of
services to communities this allows for effective utilization of resources in
various intervention measurers
c) It enhances feelings of ownership among different stake holders involved.
d) Programs tend to be successful because of the complementarily of skills and
expertise that is pulled together through networking collaboration and
partnership thus reducing cost in terms of human and other resources.
e) Collaboration and networking helps to crate cross border awareness of
common problems.
f) It provides members with support and encouragement as opposed to when
one is working in isolations
g) It provides the needy masses or groups of people with an ability to influence
policies both locally and internationally.
Impacts of collaborations and partnerships on community development
1. Additional source of capital-through partnership a lot of capital will be
obtained to fund community activities since each partner will contribute
to the union financially, materially or in any other way
2. It leads to a broader management base-due to the complimentary of the
partners’ experiences in different spheres/areas the management base
of the union is enhanced through diversification and division of labour
leading to increase in performance and ease of managing community
activities.
3. Ease of expansion-partnership promotes faster expansion of community
activities due to collaboration, consultation and complimentary of

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 partners’ skills experiences and expertise, this leads to a quicker
achievement of goals and consequently quicker expansion.
4. It enhances enhanced sustainability-the broadened financial and skill
base allows for the community activities to be sustained for longer
time/lifespan.
5. Sharing of profit and losses-the partnership allows for the distribution of
the disadvantageous/burdens and opportunities or achievement of the
community development activities.
6. Operational disputes may arise
7. Difficult in decision making

REVISION QUESTIONS
1. Describe the meaning of organizational?
2. Discuss the strategies used in building community?
3. Explain the impact of partnerships in community development?

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 CHAPTER EIGHT
SUSTAINABILITY OF COMMUNITY PROGRAMMES
Specific Objectives
1. By the end of this topic, the trainee should be able to:
2. Explain the meaning of sustainability.
3. Discuss the strategies used to ensure sustainability of community
programme.
4. Discuss the role of various stakeholders in sustainability of community
development programme
5. Discuss the challenges of sustaining community development
programme.
INTRODUCTION
Sustainability
-means that a programme or project will continue to field benefits in a
community even long after support from outside agencies has been withdrawn.
This entails that either the ideas introduced by the outside agencies have won
the hearts of community members by making them work hard to maintain the
programme or the project in order to generate enough income to sustain itself.
Community development is generally geared towards continuity of the
implemented programs to be utilized not only by the current generation but
also by the future generation.
Issue of sustainability began in 1990 when UN commission environment and
development (U.N.C.E.D) introduced the need for sustainability refers to the
kind of development that does not compromise the ability of future generation
enjoying the current environmental resources i.e. the fruits of today’s
economic development should not hinder or hamper the enjoyment of natural
resources but future generations.
Sustainability in community development is more emphasized by ensuring that
community members run the implemented projects independently without
external assistance.

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STARTEGIES USED TO SUSTAIN COMMUNITY PROGRAMS
This entails how to ensure sustainability in community projects .This will
include the following activities
i) There should be maximum supervision of the program from the start to the
end by program managers/officers.
ii) There should be continuous monitoring and evaluation through the
programme time frame.
iii) Offering back up e.g. training the community on the challenging areas of
the project e.g. monitoring or evaluation. Educating the members on
development issues of the project e.g. maintenance e.t.c.
iv) Proper planning-conduct of the program before its implementation to see if
the programme is viable or not.
Removal of constrains-as a programme officer, one should try as much as
possible to avoid challenges through a vast array of solutions and use of
appropriate mechanisms to curb such constrains (challenges)
vi) Strengthening of the institutional capacity-use modern skills and technology
to build the capacity of the organization or community so that they can sustain
the programme for long.
vii) Ensure adequate local resources ,for programme to be sustainable, it is
portent that there be enough human, material and financial resources to fund
them.
viii) Use of participatory approach to ensure sustainable one should count with
the people and not for the people this can be done through.
a) Involving people in decision making (indigenous knowledge of how things
have been done)
b) Consulting people on the way forward
c) Having a good relationship with the people which promotes a people
centered and bottom up development growth.
Ix) Enactment of policies –it is good to work alongside plans and goals which
have a given lifespan e.g. 5 years development.

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x) Let the community play the most put in the implementation and the day to
day running of the project e.g.
a)leadership management-if the community members are the ones directing
and guiding the program they will not let it fail/stop before attaining the
desired goals
b) Buildings of coalition-putting of efforts and abilities from other light minded
communities
xi) The program should be community based or rooted. If programs are not
identified by the clients themselves but by the external agency, they do not
last because of the following
a) They use the progressive person approach
b) They marginalize grass root
c) Difficulty in ensuring transparency and accountability
d) They lead to pithy/indifference
e) They reduce a community level of motivation and sideline them from solving
their problems.
f) They undermine the people’s confidence in leadership
xii) Much use of indigenous knowledge, locally available human and other
material resources, local leadership structures and appropriate technology.
xiii) The programme should be targetive or inclusive on the peoples need (felt
needs)
Role of various stakeholders in sustaining community
Importance of sustainability of community development programme
1. It ensures continuous functioning and acceptance of program/projects
hence eliminating in aspects of collapsing projects.
2. It leads to the attainment of communities responsibilities and goals
3. Enhances he concrete transformation of the community for the better
4. Through the use of local resources (human or natural )there is the
cutting down on cost
5. It gives people a chance of participating id designing their own destiny.

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 6. It boosts the people’s social development potential such as through
training and education.
7. It gives or crates a sense of ownership and belonging among the people.
8. It crates confidence among the people in programme implementation
since they are the main stakeholders in the process.
9. Through coalition and pulling together of resources available community
programme are chosen which later promotes the full utilization of
sustainable development.
Challenges in sustainability of development programme.
 Bureaucracy-are set rules that govern the on going programme
 Where the implementing officers are based away from the ground
work or the community
 Lack of transparency and accountability
 Limited participation of the people concerned (beneficiaries)
 Lack of knowledge and skills
 Use of progressive person approach
 Marginalization of the grass roots
REVISION QUESTIONS
1 Discuss the role of various stakeholders in sustainability of development
programmes?
2. Discuss the challenges of sustaining community development programme?
3. Discuss strategies used to ensure sustainability of community programme?

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 CHAPTER NINE
ROLE OF GOVERNMENT IN COMMUNITY DEVELOPMNT

Specific objective
By the end of this topic, the trainee should be able to:
1. Discuss the meaning of central and local government.
2. Discuss the reason for government involvement in community
development activities.
3. Discuss how the government gets involved in community development
activities.
4. Discuss the role of various government agencies in community
development activities.
5. Discuss the impact of government involvement in community
development activities.
INTRODUCTION
Since independence the government has taken the central place in community
development.Kenyan`s 1st development policy (sectional paper no 10 of 1965)
identifies the elimination of ignorance, diseases and poverty as the key areas
of focus.
The aim was to promote attainment and sustainable of high level of economic
growth as a means of dealing with these social concern. The government is
therefore the supreme executive and administrative organ of the state
Arms of the government
These are the various institutions which set the framework for cooperation and
formulate rules.
They do not work in harmony as they compete for resources that they use to
get and maintain the area of influence e.g. in decision making

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MEANING OF CENTRAL AND LOCAL GOVERNMENT
Central Government
It is comprised of all ministries created under the constitution, designed to
deliver services to the citizens. It is headed by the president.
The local government
It is an institution of the government that enforces the authority dedicated to
it by their central government.
It comprises the decision that are made at the district level and civil levels
Its authority is to co-ordinate activities of its area of jurisdiction.
It is only within the limits of its areas that its authority can be ascertained.
Roles of local government
1. Alteration of boundaries of local areas e.g. districts
2. Approving a variety of minor statutory matters e.g. authorizing changes
for the purpose in which trust-land is used.
3. Is a representative for policy issues relating to the structure and
constitution of their institutions
4. Technological development-the government protects local and domestic
market.
Characteristics of the government
1. Total authority over involuntary membership i.e. rules and laws set by
the government apply equally to all members of the society
2. Authorization rules-its rules are superior to all other rules of other
organizations within level outside its territorial boundaries. Its rules
have to prevail/supersede when there is conflict with other organs.
3. Monopoly of life and death principle i.e. it can imprison, punish or even
execute violators of law.
4. Technological development-government protect demolished local
markets during their initial periods of growth by providing low cost
longtime finance to promote capital investment and restricting
importation of foreign technologies.

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 5. Safe guarding the interest of future generation by planning for socially
optimum (sustainable) development, innovation and utilization of
available resources.
6. Death of infrastructure-it provides the necessary infrastructure and
creates opportunity for growth e.g. educating, training power, transport
and communication.
7. Ensuring a stable environment both politically in terms of security.
8. National policy for promoting and supporting local enterprise e.g. small
and medium enterprises to protect local producers e.g. through
subsidies.
9. Facilitating the mobilization and redistribution of national resources for
development.
10.Provision for employment
11.Maintaining proper management of the economy.
12.Strengthening relationship with development partners.
GOVERNMENT AGENCIES INVOLVED IN COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT
Central bank
 Through the monetary policy it furnishes the economy with money
supply
 Maintains stability in the micro-economy by keeping inflation and
interest rates low and ensuring competitive exchange rates
 Increase/enhance access of the rural ports financial resources
Reasons for government involvement in community development activities
1. Creation of employment
2. Promotion of good governance
3. Economic growth and integration
4. Poverty reduction and eradication

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 WAYS IN WHICH THE GOVERNMENT IS INVOLVED IN COMMUNITY
DEVELOPMENT ACTIVITIES

ROLE OF VARIOUS GOVERNMENTS

1) The executive
This is concerned with governance and administration
Roles of the executive
1. It is the chief organ for making laws and it’s comprised of
a) The president
b) The prime Cabinet secretary
c) Cabinet secretaries
The head of the state is the representative and guardian of the countries
interest, the executive is therefore also responsible for hiring and firing
citizens in a given position
2.) Legislature
This is the chief organ for making laws and comprises of the parliamentarians,
it seta guidelines and procedures for implementing decions
3. Judiciary
This is the chief interpreter of decisions for and into the society, it comprises
of the courts and its personnel
It ensures that the actions of all conform with the wishes the society (law and
order is maintained)

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