P HYS 3140 C IRCUITS S PRING 2023

C IRCUITS
Homework
As your Pre–Lab report due at the beginning of your lab period, do the following exercises:

Problem 0. Affirm that you have, indeed, attended the lecture.

Problem 1. Answer the question posed in Exp. 1. Keep a copy for use in lab.

Problem 2. For the circuit shown below, assume Vin is the square wave shown below (zero to 10 V at
2 kHz). Also assume that the internal resistance of the square wave generator is zero.
R

Vin C

15

10

5
V [V]

-5

-10

-15
0 125 250 375 500 625 750
t [μs]
For R = 1 kΩ and C = 27 nF, sketch graphs of the voltage VC across the capacitor and the voltage VR
across the resistor as functions of time on the axes above. Keep a copy for use in lab (Exp. 2b).

L03-1
P HYS 3140 C IRCUITS S PRING 2023

Problem 3. If the square wave generator in Problem 2 is replaced with a sine wave generator with √ ampli-
tude V0 , at what frequency fc is the amplitude of the voltage VC across the capacitor equal to V0 / 2? What
is the magnitude |ZC | of the impedance of the capacitor at this frequency? At this frequency, what is the
phase of the voltage across the capacitor relative to the input signal from the generator? At this frequency,
what is the magnitude of the voltage across the resistor, and what is its phase relative to the input signal
from the generator? Keep copies of these results for use in lab (Exp. 2b).

Problem 4. For the series LCR circuit for Experiment 3b (shown in Fig. 33), assume nominal component
values1 (L = 25 mH, C = 10 nF, R = 100 Ω, and RL = 64 Ω).

a. What is the resonant frequency f0 ?

b. What is the impedance Z at resonance?

c. What is the impedance Z at very low frequency, i.e. as f approaches zero?

d. What is the impedance Z at very high frequency, i.e. as f approaches infinity?

e. What is the Q of this circuit?

f. If the function generator sources a voltage V0 cos (2π f0 t) (where f0 is the resonant frequency), what
are the amplitude VC and the phase angle φC of the voltage across the capacitor C, and what are the
amplitude VL and the phase angle φL of the voltage across the inductor L?

1R is the resistance of the inductor’s wire. Assume negligible core and dielectric losses. See Fig. 28.
L

L03-2
P HYS 3140 C IRCUITS S PRING 2023

Model

Introduction
Sources of electromotive force (usually designated “emf”) create an electric potential difference VB 2 be-
tween two terminals and are capable of supplying energy to a circuit connected to the terminals. Electric
potential difference is measured in volts (joules per coulomb3 ): 1 V = 1 J/C. There are many ways of
producing emfs: Electric generators convert mechanical energy to electrical energy and produce either a
steady potential difference (dc voltage) or one that alternates in sign (ac voltage) like that at the terminals
of the wall sockets, which sinusoidally oscillates at 60 Hz. Batteries use chemical processes to produce
steady emfs at their terminals and convert chemical potential energy to electrical energy. Other sources
of emf include photovoltaic and thermoelectric devices, which use energy from light and heat sources
respectively to produce electrical energy.
An electrical conductor is a material containing electric charges that are free to move when an electric
field is applied to it. When an electrical conductor is connected to the terminals of a source of emf VB , there
is an electric field E (measured in volts/meter) along the conductor that causes the free charges to move
creating a current I flowing through the conductor. Current I is defined as the rate of flow of charge through
a cross-sectional area of the conductor and is measured in amperes (coulomb per second): 1 A = 1 C/s.
In metals, the moving charges are electrons. In semiconductors the charge carriers are both electrons
and holes4 (which in effect act like positive charges). In ionized gases, the free charges are both electrons
and positively charged ions. By convention the direction of current flow is taken to be the direction of flow
of positive charges, so current flows from the positive to the negative terminal of a source of emf.
For many conductors, when a potential difference V is applied between two points on the conductor,
the current I that flows is proportional to V . This fact is expressed as Ohm’s law,
V = IR (1)
where the constant R is the resistance, which is measured in ohms (volts per amp): 1 Ω = 1 V/A. Note that
it is necessary to have a closed circuit loop in order to have steady state current flow.
I

VB +
R
-

Figure 1 Ohm’s Law

For the simple circuit shown in Fig. 1, the battery is a source of emf giving a voltage “rise” VB , and
there is a voltage “drop” VR across the resistor R. The connecting wires are considered to have negligible
2 The subscript “B” denotes “battery”, a simple and common emf source.
3A coulomb is 6.242 × 1018 e, where e is the magnitude of the charge on an electron. It is amusing to note that a coulomb
is the charge of about ten micro-moles of positrons!
4 A hole is a vacancy in the material where one would normally expect to find an electron. The absence of the electron

makes that region of the material positively charged. A nearby electron moving to fill the hole leaves a hole behind. It is as if a
positively charged “particle” has moved.

L03-3
P HYS 3140 C IRCUITS S PRING 2023

resistance compared to the resistor R. Since for a path around the circuit from a particular point back to
the same point the net change in potential must be zero (conservation of energy), the voltage drop VR must
be equal to the voltage rise VB , and the current is just I = VB /R.
In an electrical circuit with two or more resistances and a single voltage source, Ohm’s law may be
applied to the entire circuit or to any portion of the circuit. When applied to the entire circuit, the voltage
is the input voltage supplied by the voltage source and the resistance is the total resistance of the circuit. In
the case of applying Ohm’s law to a particular portion of the circuit, the individual voltage drops, currents,
and resistances are used for that part of the circuit.
The equivalent resistance to two or more resistors, R1 , R2 , R3 , . . ., in series (Fig. 2a) is given by
Rab = R1 + R2 + R3 + . . .. Thus for the two resistors in series in Fig. 2b, Rab = R1 + R2 .

I I
a b a b
R1 R2 R3 R1 R2
(a) (b)
Figure 2 Series Resistors

The equivalent resistance to two or more resistors, R1 , R2 , R3 , . . ., in parallel (Fig. 3a) is given by
1
Rab = R11 + R12 + R13 + . . .. Thus for the two resistors in parallel5 in Fig. 3b, Rab ≡ R1 ||R2 = RR11+R
R2
2
.

R1 R1
I
I R2
a b
a b
R3 R2
(a) (b)
Figure 3 Parallel Resistors

Voltage Divider
An extremely important simple circuit is the voltage divider, shown in Fig. 4.
I

R1 V1

VB +
-
R2 V2

Figure 4 Voltage Divider

Ohm’s law applied to R1 gives

V1 = IR1
5 Notation: We use || to mean “in parallel”. For “in series” we can simply use +.

L03-4
P HYS 3140 C IRCUITS S PRING 2023

Similarly for R2
V2 = IR2
Since the sum of the voltage drops, V1 + V2 , across the two resistors connected in series must equal the
voltage VB supplied by the battery,
VB = V1 +V2 = I (R1 + R2 )
so
I = VB / (R1 + R2 )
Hence    
R1 R2
V1 = VB and V2 = VB (2)
R1 + R2 R1 + R2

This result tells us that the voltage V1 across R1 is the same fraction of VB that R1 is of the total resistance,
R1 + R2 . Many circuits can be thought of as voltage dividers.

Voltmeters, Ammeters and Ohmmeters

Measurements on dc circuits are concerned primarily with determining the magnitude and direction of
currents and voltages with ammeters and voltmeters and magnitudes of resistance with ohmmeters.
An ideal voltmeter, for which we will use the symbol shown in Fig. 5a, is a device that would display
the electrical potential difference V between the two points in a circuit to which its leads are connected
without any effect on the circuit. That is, it would draw no current. Real voltmeters, however, always draw
some current, so they always affect to some degree the voltage that is being measured. Real voltmeters
can be modeled by the equivalent circuit shown in Fig. 5b, where Ri is the internal resistance of the meter.
The larger Ri is, the smaller the effect on the circuit to which the meter is connected.

V Ri V

(a) (b)
Figure 5 Voltmeters

Note that voltmeters are always connected “across” a circuit element or group of circuit elements so
that it is in parallel with the other elements in the circuit.

Similarly, an ideal ammeter, for which we will use the symbol in Fig. 6a, is a device that could be
inserted into a circuit and display the current I flowing in the circuit without having any effect on the
circuit. This implies that the meter would have no resistance so that there would be no voltage developed
across it. Real ammeters always affect the circuit into which they are inserted, because they do have
resistance. Real ammeters can be modeled by the equivalent circuit shown in Fig. 6b, where ri is the
resistance of the meter.

L03-5
P HYS 3140 C IRCUITS S PRING 2023

ri
I I
(a) (b)
Figure 6 Ammeters

Note that ammeters are always inserted “into” a circuit so that it is in series with the other elements in
the circuit.

DC Circuit Analysis
A dc circuit is a circuit having only dc voltage or current sources together with resistances or effective
resistances.
The following circuit theorems are very important for analyzing dc circuits:

1. Kirchhoff’s current law (junction rule) – The sum of all of the currents entering a junction is equal
to the sum of the currents leaving the junction:

∑ Iin = ∑ Iout (3)

junction junction

2. Kirchhoff’s voltage law (loop rule) – The sum of the voltage drops encountered whilst traversing a
closed circuit loop is equal to the sum of the voltage rises:

∑ Vdrop = ∑ Vrise (4)

loop loop

3. Superposition Theorem – The current through any circuit element is equal to the sum of the currents
due to each of the sources (voltage or current) in the circuit, calculated with the other sources set to
zero.

4. Thévenin’s Theorem – Any two terminal dc circuit behaves as if it were an ideal voltage source, VT ,
in series with a resistor, RT .
RT

VT
+ RL
-

Figure 7 Thevenin’s Theorem

L03-6
P HYS 3140 C IRCUITS S PRING 2023

5. Norton’s Theorem – Any two terminal dc circuit behaves as if it were an ideal current source, IN , in
parallel with a resistor, RN .

IN RN RL

Figure 8 Norton’s Theorem

Kirchhoff’s current law is simply a statement of charge conservation. The voltage law follows from the
fact that the electric force is conservative. The application of Kirchhoff’s laws (plus Ohm’s Law) yields a
set of linear equations that can be solved for voltages across and the currents through each of the circuit
elements in terms of the sources.
The Superposition Theorem follows from the fact that voltages and currents can be expressed as linear
functions of the sources. It is important to note that setting a voltage source to zero means replacing it
with a short circuit (no voltage and zero resistance). A current source is set to zero by replacing it with an
open circuit (no current and infinite resistance).
Thévenin’s and Norton’s Theorems follow from the Superposition Theorem. With no “load” resistor
across the terminals, the “open circuit” will develop a voltage Voc (also called the Thévenin voltage VT )
due to the sources and resistors internal to the two-terminal circuit. Similarly, with the terminals shorted,
the “shorted circuit” will drive a current Isc (also called the Norton current IN ) through the short. Their
ratio is called the internal (or Thévenin or Norton) resistance Rint ≡ RT ≡ RN ≡ Voc /Isc ≡ VT /IN .
IL

Isc

VL
Voc

Figure 9 Superposition Theorem

The Superposition Theorem says that voltage VL across and the current IL through a load will be
linearly related: VL = Voc − IL Rint (Thévenin form) or IL = Isc −VL /Rint (Norton form).

Example Circuit

We will analyze the following circuit using Kirchhoff’s Laws. We will then make measurements and
compare with our theoretical results.

L03-7
P HYS 3140 C IRCUITS S PRING 2023

R1 R2
A B D

+ +
V1 R3 V2
– –

Figure 10 Example Circuit

We arbitrarily assign directions for the currents through the branches (see redrawn circuit below). [If
we get the direction wrong, we’ll just get a negative value for the current.]
R1 R2
A B D

+ I1 I2 +
V1 I3 R3 V2
– –

C
Figure 11 Example Circuit – Kirchhoff’s Laws

The current law says that the sum of the currents entering junction B is equal to the current leaving:

I1 + I2 = I3

Applying the current law to junction C yields the same result. Applying the current law to all of the
junctions in a circuit will always yield one redundant equation.
Before we apply the voltage law, it helps to define some notation. We will indicate the voltage differ-
ence between two junctions with subscripts. For example, we denote the voltage between A and B as VAB
(VAB ≡ VA −VB ). VAB will be positive if junction A is more positive than junction B. Clearly, VBA = −VAB .
Applying the voltage law to the loop ABCA yields

VAB +VBC +VCA = 0

loop DBCD yields

VDB +VBC +VCD = 0
and loop ABDCA yields
VAB +VBD +VDC +VCA = 0
Again we have an extra equation. The voltage law always yields at least one redundant equation if applied
to all possible paths.
Ohm’s Law gives the voltage drop across the resistors: VR1 ≡ VAB = I1 R1 , etc. The voltage “drop”
across an emf is actually a voltage gain. Hence, VCA = −V1 and VCD = −V2 .

L03-8
P HYS 3140 C IRCUITS S PRING 2023

Making these substitutions into the first two loop equations gives us:
V1 = I1 R1 + I3 R3 and V2 = I2 R2 + I3 R3
Substituting in for I3 and collecting terms, we get two linear equations in terms of the two unknowns, I1
and I2 :
V1 = I1 (R1 + R3 ) + I2 R3 and V2 = I1 R3 + I2 (R2 + R3 )
These linear equations can be easily solved to get the following solutions:
V1 (R2 + R3 ) −V2 R3
I1 = (5)
R1 R2 + R1 R3 + R2 R3
and
V2 (R1 + R3 ) −V1 R3
I2 = (6)
R1 R2 + R1 R3 + R2 R3
Combining these yields V1 R2 +V2 R1
I3 = I1 + I2 = (7)
R1 R2 + R1 R3 + R2 R3
The voltage across R1 is I1 R1 , that across R2 is I2 R2 , and that across R3 is I3 R3 . In other words,
V1 (R2 + R3 ) R1 −V2 R3 R1
VR1 = VAB = , (8)
R1 R2 + R1 R3 + R2 R3
V2 (R1 + R3 ) R2 −V1 R3 R2
VR2 = VDB = , (9)
R1 R2 + R1 R3 + R2 R3
and
V1 R2 R3 +V2 R1 R3
VR3 = VBC = . (10)
R1 R2 + R1 R3 + R2 R3

AC Circuit Analysis
A resistor is any two–terminal device where the voltage across it is proportional to the current through it
(Ohm’s Law):
V = IR (11)
where R is the called resistance.
A capacitor is any two–terminal device where the voltage across it is proportional to the charge sepa-
ration: ˆ
Q 1
V= = I dt (12)
C C
where C is called the capacitance.
An inductor is any two–terminal device where the voltage across it is proportional to the time rate of
change of the current through it:
V = L dI/dt (13)
where L is called the inductance.
The application of Kirchhoff’s laws plus these relationships yields a set of linear integro-differential
equations that can be solved for voltages across and the currents through each of the circuit elements in
terms of the sources.

L03-9
P HYS 3140 C IRCUITS S PRING 2023

Frequency Domain
It is often useful to analyze the behavior of circuits containing resistors, capacitors, and or inductors driven
by sinusoidal inputs. We suppose that there is a sinusoidally varying current of the form6

I = I0 cos(ω t)

For a resistor the voltage across it will simply be

VR = R × I0 cos(ω t)
For a capacitor, the voltage will be7
ˆ
1 1  π
VC = × I0 cos(ω t) dt = × I0 cos ω t − (14)
C ωC 2
We note that this looks much like the resistor result (voltage oscillating at the same frequency as the
current), but with a frequency dependent amplitude (∝ 1/ω) and a −90◦ phase shift.
Similarly, for an inductor, the voltage will be
d  π
VL = L × I0 cos(ω t) = ω L × I0 cos ω t + (15)
dt 2
Again, this looks much like the resistor result, but with a frequency dependent amplitude (∝ω) and a +90◦
phase shift.

Complex Notation

We can simplify our analyses by using complex notation. We make use of Euler’s formula

eiωt = cos(ωt) + i sin(ωt) (16)

With the rule that what we observe is the real part, we can then, for example, write

I = I0 eiω t

6ω is the angular frequency. The frequency one measures in the lab, f , is given by ω = 2π f . We use ω when “doing the
math” to cut down on all of the 2π’s. We switch to f to get formulae for use in the lab.
7 Ignoring constants of integration.

L03-10
P HYS 3140 C IRCUITS S PRING 2023

A review of complex numbers:

We can write complex numbers as

z = a + bi = |z|eiφ = |z| [cos(φ ) + i sin(φ )]

The real part of z is ℜ(z) = a, the imaginary part is ℑ(z) = b, |z| is the magnitude, and φ is the phase.
We get the “complex conjugate” by replacing i by −i:
z∗ = a − bi = |z|e−iφ
The magnitude is then √
|z| = z∗ z
and the phase is then given by
tan(φ ) = ℑ(z)/ℜ(z)
Derivatives become
d iωt
e = iωeiωt = ωei(ωt+π/2)
dt
and integrals become ˆ
1 iωt 1
eiωt dt = e = ei(ωt−π/2)
iω ω

With this notation, the voltage across the resistor becomes

VR = R × I0 eiω t = I R
For the capacitor, we have
I0 i(ω t−π/2)
VC =
e = ZC × I0 eiω t = I ZC
ωC
where
1 −iπ/2 1
ZC ≡ e = (17)
ωC iωC
is called the “impedance” of the capacitor. The magnitude of the impedance is called the “reactance” and
for a capacitor the reactance is XC = 1/ωC.
Similarly, for the inductor, we have
VL = I0 ωL ei(ω t+π/2) = ZL × I0 eiω t = I ZL
where
ZL ≡ ω L e+iπ/2 = iωL (18)
is called the impedance of the inductor. The inductor’s reactance is XL = ωL.
Impedance is a generalization of resistance for sinusoidal signals8 . We can then analyze circuits in-
volving combinations of resistors9 , capacitors, and/or inductors using DC circuit analysis techniques (such
as Kirchoff’s laws), replacing Ohm’s law with the AC generalization:
V = IZ (19)
8 One can only talk about impedance when there is only one frequency.
9 The impedance of a resistor is just the resistance, ZR = R. There is no phase shift.

L03-11
P HYS 3140 C IRCUITS S PRING 2023

After we’ve done the analysis, we take the real parts to get what we will observe in the lab.

Series RC Circuit
Transient Response of Series RC Circuit (Time Domain)

You will use an oscilloscope to observe the repetitive charging and discharging of a capacitor as it is
charged through a resistor R by a voltage source V0 and then allowed to discharge through the resistor with
the voltage source removed.
Conceptually the two steps of the process are represented by the circuits in Fig. 12a and Fig. 12b.

R R

+ I I +
V0 C - C
-

(a) Charge (b) Discharge

Figure 12 Capacitor Charging & Discharging Circuits

Consider first Fig. 12a. The initial conditions are that there is no charge on the capacitor (hence
VC = 0). From Kirchoff’s Loop Law we see that after the switch is closed
ˆ
1 t
V0 −VR −VC = V0 − I R − I dt = 0
C 0
This has the solution
I = I0 e−t/RC
where I0 = V0 /R. The response is exponential and characterized by the time constant τRC ≡ RC, the time
for the current to drop to 1/e ≈ 37% of its initial value.
The voltage across the resistor is then
VR = I R = V0 e−t/τRC (20)

as shown in Fig. 13a. The corresponding voltage across the capacitor is

 
VC = V0 −VR = V0 1 − e−t/τRC (21)

as shown in Fig. 13b. [τRC is seen to be the time for the voltage across the capacitor to rise to (1 − 1/e) ≈
63% of its final value.]

L03-12
P HYS 3140 C IRCUITS S PRING 2023

VR VC
V0 V0

0.63 V 0

0.37V 0

0 0
0 τ t 0 τ t
(a) Voltage across the resistor (b) Voltage across the capacitor

Figure 13 Capacitor Charging

Discharging the capacitor from an initial voltage V0 is shown in Fig. 12b. Here the initial condition is
that the capacitor is charged with VC = V0 . When the switch is closed, Kirchoff’s Loop Law gives10
ˆ
1 t
 
VR +VC = I R + V0 + I dt = 0
C 0
This has the solution
I = −I0 e−t/τRC
with τ = RC and I0 = V0 /R as before. The current is negative because the charge is flowing back out of
the capacitor, so the current is in the other direction (as shown in Fig. 12b).
The voltage across the resistor is then
VR = I R = −V0 e−t/τRC (22)

as shown in Fig. 14a. The corresponding voltage across the capacitor is

VC = −VR = V0 e−t/τRC (23)

as shown in Fig. 14b.

VR 0 τ t VC
0
V0

-0.37V 0

0.37 V 0

-V 0 0
0 τ t
(a) Voltage across the resistor (b) Voltage across the capacitor

Figure 14 Capacitor Discharging

10 The V
´0
0 term comes from initial condition, Qinitial = CV0 = −∞ I dt.

L03-13
P HYS 3140 C IRCUITS S PRING 2023

RC Circuit in Frequency Domain

We now consider the response of the system to sinusoidal signals (Vin = V0 cos(2π f t)), see Fig. 15.

C
R
V 0 cos (2π f t)

Figure 15 RC Circuit, Sinusoidally Driven

We recognize this as a voltage divider (albeit an AC divider) and so voltage across the capacitor is
given by (ω = 2π f )
VC ZC 1/iωC 1
= = = (24)
Vin ZC + ZR 1/iωC + R 1 + iωRC

The response is characterized by a specific frequency determined by the component values. It is often
called the “crossover” or “cut-off” frequency. This is the frequency where the capacitive reactance is
equal to the resistance
XC (ωc ) = 1/ωcC = R −→ ωc = 1/RC
hence the crossover frequency that we measure in the lab will be

fc = ωc /2π = 1/2πRC (25)

Note that ωc = 1/τRC , meaning that we can determine the system’s frequency response simply by measur-
ing the decay time for a “step” input.
The magnitude is then
s    s
VC ∗ VC
  
VC 1 1 1
= = × =p (26)
Vin Vin Vin 1 − iω/ωc 1 + iω/ωc 1 + ( f / fc )2

We can get the tangent of the phase shift of VC relative to Vin by taking the ratio of the imaginary part
of VC /Vin to the real part. From Eqn. 24 we see
   
VC 1 1 − iω/ωc 1 − iω/ωc
= × =
Vin 1 + iω/ωc 1 − iω/ωc 1 + (ω/ωc )2

and so 
tan(φC ) = ℑ(VC /Vin ) ℜ(VC /Vin ) = −ω/ωc = − f / fc (27)

L03-14
P HYS 3140 C IRCUITS S PRING 2023

If we consider the voltage across the resistor, we get

VR ZR R 1
= = = (28)
Vin ZC + ZR 1/iωC + R 1 − iωc /ω

and so
VR 1
=p (29)
Vin 1 + ( fc / f )2
and
tan(φR ) = fc / f (30)

Low Pass RC Filter

Consider the ratio of Vout = VC (t) to Vin = V0 cos(2π f t) as a function of frequency. As discussed above
and in lecture, the calculated response is shown to be


 1 for f  fc


Vout 1  .√

=p −→ 1 2 for f = fc (31)
Vin 1 + ( f / fc )2 




fc / f for f  fc


and the phase φ of Vout relative to Vin is given by

0◦ for f  fc






φ = − tan−1 ( f / fc ) −→ −45◦ for f = fc (32)



−90◦ for f  fc



This circuit is called a low pass filter because signals with frequencies below fc are passed through with
little attenuation or phase shift while those with frequencies above fc are attenuated (and phase shifted).

Attenuation

The attenuation can be expressed in decibels, a term with which you are probably familiar in the context
of sound intensity levels. However, it is applied to power levels of any sort. A bel is a factor of ten in
power. Ten decibels equals one bel. [bels are almost never used.] Thus attenuation11 in decibels is given
by
A(dB) = 10 log10 (Pout /Pin ) = 20 log10 (Vout /Vin ) (33)
The extra factor of two in the right-hand-side of Eqn. 33 comes because power is proportional to the
voltage squared (as in P = V 2 /R). Thus, for example, a ten-fold reduction in voltage corresponds to an
attenuation of 20 dB and a hundred-fold reduction in power.

11 For attenuation, a negative sign is often implicit.

L03-15
P HYS 3140 C IRCUITS S PRING 2023

Bode Plots

You should generally plot amplitude frequency response data on log–log scales. If you do so, then the
asymptotic behavior described by Eq. (2a) for high frequencies ( f  fc ), is |Vout /Vin | ≈ f / fc which gives
a line of slope −1:
log10 (|Vout /Vin |) −→ log10 ( fc ) − log10 ( f )
f  fc

Figure 16 Low Pass Bode Amplitude Plot

If the y–axis is labeled in decibels12 , as Fig. 16, it is called a Bode amplitude plot. Also shown in
Fig. 16 are the linear asymptotes (shown as the dashed lines). Note that the asymptotes intersect at f = fc
and that the amplitude is down by circa three decibels13 . On a Bode plot, the asymptotic slope is -20 dB
per decade (a decade is a factor of ten in frequency) or approximately -6 dB per octave (an octave is a
factor of two in frequency).

Figure 17 Low Pass Bode Phase Plot

12 Making the intrinsically logarithmic.

 y–axis

13 1
20 log10 √2 ≈ −3 dB

L03-16
P HYS 3140 C IRCUITS S PRING 2023

The phase φ is shown in Fig. 17 (log–linear scales) as a function of f / fc . Note that the output is in
phase with the input for frequencies well below fc and is shifted by −90◦ for frequencies well above the
crossover frequency. At the crossover frequency, the output is phase shifted by −45◦ .

High Pass RC Filter

Now consider the ratio of Vout = VR (t) to Vin = V0 cos(2π f t) as a function of frequency. As discussed
above and in lecture, the calculated response is shown to be


 f / fc for f  fc


Vout 1  .√

=p −→ 1 2 for f = fc (34)
Vin 1 + ( fc / f )2 




1 for f  fc


and the phase φ of Vout relative to Vin is given by

+90◦ for f  fc






φ = tan−1 ( fc / f ) −→ +45◦ for f = fc (35)



0◦ for f  fc



where ωc = 1/RC and fc = ωc /2π = 1/2πRC as before. Bode plots of |Vout /Vin | and φ vs. frequency are
shown in Fig. 18.
This circuit is called a high pass filter because signals with frequencies above fc are passed through
with little attenuation or phase shift while those with frequencies below fc are attenuated (and phase
shifted).

0
A (dB) 90°
-10 ϕ
-20 45°

-30

-40 0
0.01 0.1 1 f/f c 10 100 0.01 0.1 1 f/f c 10 100

(a) Amplitude (b) Phase

Figure 18 High Pass Bode Plots

L03-17
P HYS 3140 C IRCUITS S PRING 2023

Series RL Circuit
RL Circuit in Time Domain

One can also use an oscilloscope to observe the repetitive energizing and de-energizing of an inductor14
as it is energized through a resistor R by a voltage source V0 and then allowed to de-energize through the
resistor with the voltage source removed.
Conceptually the two steps of the process are represented by the circuits in Fig. 19a and Fig. 19b.

L L

R R
V0 V0
0 0

(a) Energize (b) De-energize

Figure 19 Inductor Energizing & De-energizing Circuits

Consider first Fig. 19a, where the voltage source transitions from V = 0 to V = V0 at t = 0. The initial
conditions are that there is no current flowing through the inductor (hence VR = 0). From Kirchoff’s Loop
Law we see that for t ≥ 0
V0 −VR −VL = V0 − I R − L dI/dt = 0
This has the solution  
I = I0 1 − e−t/τRL

where I0 = V0 /R and τRL ≡ L/R.

The voltage across the resistor is then
 
VR = I R = V0 1 − e−t/τRL (36)

as shown in Fig. 20a. The corresponding voltage across the inductor is

VL = V0 −VR = V0 e−t/τRL (37)

as shown in Fig. 20b.

14 Energizing an inductor is analogous to charging a capacitor in that we are adding energy to the device’s field in both cases
(electric field for the capacitor and magnetic field for the inductor).

L03-18
P HYS 3140 C IRCUITS S PRING 2023

VR VL
V0 V0

0.63 V0

0.37V 0

0 0
0 τ t 0 τ t
(a) Voltage across the resistor (b) Voltage across the inductor

Figure 20 Inductor Energizing

De-energizing the inductor is shown in Fig. 19b, where the voltage source transitions from V = V0 to
V = 0 at t = 0. Here the initial condition is that the current through the inductor is I0 ≡ V0 /R. For t ≥ 0,
Kirchoff’s Loop Law gives
VR +VL = I R + L dI/dt = 0
This has the solution
I = I0 e−t/τRL
with τRL = L/R as before.
The voltage across the resistor is then
VR = I R = V0 e−t/τRL (38)

as shown in Fig. 21a. The corresponding voltage across the inductor is

VL = −VR = −V0 e−t/τRL (39)

as shown in Fig. 21b.

VR VL 0 τ t
0
V0

-0.37V 0

0.37V 0

0 -V 0
0 τ t
(a) Voltage across the resistor (b) Voltage across the inductor

Figure 21 De-energizing Inductor

RL Circuit in Frequency Domain

High–pass and low–pass filters can be made also by using a resistor and an inductor in a voltage divider
circuit. Fig. 22 shows a circuit like Fig. 15, but with the capacitor replaced by an inductor.

L03-19
P HYS 3140 C IRCUITS S PRING 2023

R
V 0 cos (2π f t)

Figure 22 RL Circuit, Sinusoidally Driven

The ratio of Vout = VL (t) to Vin = V0 cos(2π f t) as a function of frequency is that of a high pass fil-
ter with a crossover frequency fc = 1/2πτRL = R/2πL. Similarly, the ratio of Vout = VR (t) to Vin =
V0 cos(2π f t) as a function of frequency is that of a low pass filter with the same crossover frequency.

Series LCR Circuit

Series LCR Circuit in Time Domain

We consider the response of a series LCR circuit to switched input (V = ±V0 ), see Fig. 23.

L C

R
±V 0

Figure 23 Series LCR Circuit, Switched

Consider first voltage source transitions from V = −V0 to V = V0 at t = 0. The initial conditions are
that there is no current flowing and that the capacitor is charged to VC = −V0 . From Kirchoff’s Loop Law
we see that for t ≥ 0 ˆ
1 t
 
V0 −VL −VC −VR = V0 − L dI/dt − −V0 + I dt − I R = 0
C 0
or, in terms of the charge on the capacitor,
R 1
q̈C + q̇C + qC = 2V0 /L
L LC
We recognize this as the differential equation for a damped harmonic oscillator. This has the solution
qC (t) = q1 e−t/τ cos(ωd t + φ ) + q2

L03-20
P HYS 3140 C IRCUITS S PRING 2023

where √
ω0 ≡ 1/ LC (40)
τ ≡ 2L/R (41)
ωd2 ≡ ω02 − 1/τ 2 (42)

and q1 , q2 , and φ are determined by the initial conditions.

For lightly damped systems (1/τ  ω0 ⇒ ωd ≈ ω0 ) with these initial conditions, we can show that
the current will be given by
I(t) ≈ (2V0 / L/C) e−t/τ sin(ω0t)
p
(43)
and the voltage across the resistor will be

VR (t) ≈ (2V0 /Q) e−t/τ sin(ω0t) (44)

where p
1 L/C
Q≡ 2 ω0 τ = (45)
R
is the quality factor for this oscillator.
Fig. 24 shows a plot of I(t)/I(0) ≡ VR (t)/VR (0). [The green dashed curve shows the sin(ω0 t) behavior,
the red dashed line the exponentially decaying envelope, and the blue curve their product.] τ is the time
for the amplitude to reach 1/e ≈ 37% of the initial value.

1/e

τ
Figure 24 Damped Oscillation

Series LCR Circuit in Frequency Domain

We now consider the response of the system to sinusoidal signals (Vin = V0 cos(2π f t)), see Fig. 25.

L03-21
P HYS 3140 C IRCUITS S PRING 2023

L C

R
V 0 cos (2π f t)

Figure 25 Series LCR Circuit, Sinusoidally Driven

We again will use complex notation and complex impedances to analyze the circuit. We will also adopt
the convention that the eiωt factor15 is assumed. We then simply write

Vin = V0 (46)

Once we have a final expression for current and voltages, we multiply by the assumed eiωt factor and take
the real part to get the observables.
The current through the circuit will be given by
Vin
I=
Z
where the impedance of this circuit is given by

Z = ZL + ZC + ZR = R + i(ωL − 1/ωC) (47)

The magnitude of the impedance is

√ q
∗
|Z| = Z Z = R2 + (ωL − 1/ωC)2 (48)

and the phase by    

−1 ℑ(Z) −1 ωL − 1/ωC
φZ = tan = tan (49)
ℜ(Z) R
We see that the magnitude has a minimum and the phase is zero at ω = ω0 . At this frequency, the inductive
and capacitive reactances are equal
√
XL (ω0 ) = XC (ω0 ) ⇒ ω0 L = 1/ω0C ⇒ ω0 = 1/ LC

the same frequency as we found for the transient response.

The magnitude of the current will then be
V0 V0
|I| = =p (50)
|Z| R2 + (ωL − 1/ωC)2
15 ω = 2π f , as usual.

L03-22
P HYS 3140 C IRCUITS S PRING 2023

and the phase will be16  

−1 ωL − 1/ωC
φI = −φZ = − tan (51)
R

At ω = ω0 , the current will be in phase with the driving voltage and its magnitude will be a maximum at
Imax = V0 /R.
We can then write
V0 eiφI
I=p (52)
R2 + (ωL − 1/ωC)2

The voltage across the resistor is then

RV0 eiφI
VR = IZR = IR = p (53)
R2 + (ωL − 1/ωC)2

the voltage across the capacitor is

(1/iωC) V0 eiφI (V0 /ωC) ei(φI −π/2)

VC = IZC = p =p (54)
R2 + (ωL − 1/ωC)2 R2 + (ωL − 1/ωC)2

and the voltage across the inductor is

iωLV0 eiφI (V0 ωL) ei(φI +π/2)

VL = IZL = p = p (55)
R2 + (ωL − 1/ωC)2 R2 + (ωL − 1/ωC)2

 √
We now make use of the following: f0 = ω0 /2π = 1 2π LC and Q = 12 ω0 τ = L/C/R. We also
p

define a “universal” function U as

R 1
U( f ) ≡ =q (56)
|Z| 2 2
1 + Q ( f / f0 − f0 / f )

We can then write the observable voltages in the following lab-friendly forms

VR (t) = U ( f ) ×V0 cos (2π f t + φI ( f )) (57)

 
f0
VC (t) = Q × ×U ( f ) ×V0 cos (2π f t + φI ( f ) − π/2) (58)
f
 
f
VL (t) = Q × ×U ( f ) ×V0 cos (2π f t + φI ( f ) + π/2) (59)
f0

where
φI ( f ) = tan−1 [Q ( f0 / f − f / f0 )] (60)

Plots of U (linear and Bode) and φI (Bode) for Q = 10 are shown in Fig. 26.
V0 V0 V0 −iφZ
16 I= Z = |Z|eiφZ
= |Z| e = |I|e−iφI

L03-23
P HYS 3140 C IRCUITS S PRING 2023
1.00

0.75

0.50
U

0.25

f- f+
0.00
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0
f/f0
(a) Linear Amplitude Plot
0
-5
-10
-15
U [dB]

-20
-25
-30
-35
f- f+
-40
0.1 1 10
f/f0
(b) Bode Amplitude Plot
90°

60°

30°

0°
ϕI

-30°

-60°

f- f+
-90°
0.1 1 10
f/f0
(c) Bode Phase Plot
Figure 26 Universal Function U( f ) and Phase φI ( f )
L03-24
P HYS 3140 C IRCUITS S PRING 2023

The Bode plot of U( f ), Fig. 26b, shows the asymptotic behavior as red dashed lines. For f  f0 ,
the behavior is that of a high pass filter with the response dropping off at 20 dB per decade (or 6 dB per
octave) with decreasing f . For f  f0 , the behavior is that of a low pass filter with the response again
dropping off at 20 dB per decade with increasing f . The asymptotic behavior of the phase φI ( f ), Fig. 26c,
is also consistent with high and low pass filters, converging to 90◦ for f  f0 and -90◦ for f  f0
On all three plots, the green vertical lines mark the frequencies just above ( f+ ) and just below ( f− )
resonance ( f ≡ f√
0 ) called the “half power points”. These are the frequencies where the amplitude is down
by a factor of 1/ 2 (or about -3 dB) and the phase shift is ∓45◦ . For large Q, Q is approximately
f0
Q≈ (61)
f+ − f−

Series LCR Circuit at Resonance

At f = f0 , U has its maximum value of one and φI is zero. This is called resonance. At resonance, the
voltages become
VR (t) = V0 × cos (2π f0 t) (62)
VC (t) = Q ×V0 cos (2π f0 t − π/2) (63)
VL (t) = Q ×V0 cos (2π f0 t + π/2) (64)

In other words, at resonance VR = Vin , VL = −VC , and the magnitude of VC and VL is Q times the magnitude
of Vin . Fig. 27 shows the voltages at resonance for a system with Q = 2.

VL VC

V R = V in

Time

Figure 27 Voltages at Resonance

Real Components
The resistors that we will be using are well modeled as ideal. Real inductors, on the other hand, cannot be
so modeled. Due to the length of the typically fine wire, they have an internal series resistance (denoted

L03-25
P HYS 3140 C IRCUITS S PRING 2023

Rwire ) that usually cannot be ignored. In addition, for inductors with ferrite cores17 , there are energy losses
due to internal dissipation while changing the magnetization of the core. We can model this energy loss
as yet another internal “resistance” (denoted Rcore ). A good model for our “real” inductor is then a series
combination of an ideal inductor and the effective internal resistance RL ≡ Rwire + Rcore (see Fig. 28).
L RL

Figure 28 Real Inductor Model

Similarly, real capacitors also have an effective internal series resistance due to internal dissipation
while changing the polarization of the dielectric. Again, we can model this as an ideal capacitor in series
with an internal resistance (denoted Rdielectric ).
We cannot measure the voltage across the “internal” ideal inductor, capacitor, or resistors. We can
only measure the voltage across the series combination. We will therefore focus attention on the voltages
across the more ideal discrete resistor when analyzing circuits.
The “R” in the previous discussion must include the internal effective resistances. We write this total
circuit resistance as Rtotal = R + Rint where R is the resistance of the discrete resistor and Rint accounts for
inductor wire resistance as well as core and dielectric dissipation. Eqn. 45 then becomes
p
L/C
Q= (65)
Rtotal
and Eqn. 62 becomes  
R
VR (t) = ×V0 × cos (2π f t) (66)
Rtotal

We can measure Rwire with an ohmmeter, but we have to estimate Rcore and Rdielectric from circuit
behavior. To do so, we make use of the fact that we can use the circuit’s transient behavior to measure
the decay time (τmeas ). Recall that the decay time is given by τ = 2L/R. The “R” must include all of the
resistance of the circuit, so we can invert this expression to get
Rtotal = 2L/τmeasured (67)

Parallel LCR Circuit

We now consider a circuit (called a “tank”18 circuit) with an inductor and capacitor in series. This circuit
is shown in Fig. 29. It is a large resistance (R0 ) in series with the parallel combination of an inductor and
a capacitor. [In our model of the circuit, we have lumped all of resistances (discrete as well as internal) as
a single resistor, Rtank (and somewhat arbitrarily19 assigned it to the inductive branch).]
17 Ferritecores store magnetic energy, greatly increasing the inductance.
18 The term “tank” refers a water tank analogy: energy “sloshes” back and forth between the capacitor and the inductor,
much like water in a tank.
19 Not entirely arbitrary, as the inductor’s wire resistance plus its core effective resistance is usually significantly larger than

the capacitor’s dielectric effective resistance.

L03-26
P HYS 3140 C IRCUITS S PRING 2023

R0 L

V C
R tank

Figure 29 Tank LCR Circuit

The impedance of the LC circuit is just the parallel combination of the impedance of the inductive
branch (ZL = iωL + Rtank ) and the impedance of the capacitive branch (ZC = 1/iωC), so
Rtank + i ωL 1 − ω 2 LC − R2tank ωC


ZL ZC
ZLC = = 2
(68)
ZL + ZC (1 − ω 2 LC) + (ωRtankC)2

We define the parallel resonance frequency fpr as the frequency for which the imaginary part of the
impedance is zero (ℑ (ZLC ) = 0), so the phase angle is zero. From Eqn. 68 we find this occurs when
s
Rtank 2
 
1 1
fpr = − (69)
2π LC L
For small Rtank , the parallel resonance is approximately the same as for the series LCR circuit:
1
fpr ≈ f0 ≡ √
2π LC

We define Q for the parallel resonance circuit as

p
L/C
Q=
Rtank
the same as for the series LCR circuit. Expressing Eqn. 69 in terms of Q yields20
q
fpr = f0 1 − 1/Q2 (70)

So, for example, if Q = 10, fpr differs from f0 by only 0.5%.

At resonance, ZLC becomes
Zpr = ZLC fpr = L/RtankC = Q2 Rtank


(71)
Notice that as Rtank → 0, Zpr → ∞! At resonance both the series LCR circuit and the parallel LCR circuit
act as pure resistances, however the series circuit has a minimum value of impedance at resonance and the
parallel circuit has a maximum value of impedance.
20 This is a result that we will need next week when we build a tank circuit to measure the speed of light!

L03-27
P HYS 3140 C IRCUITS S PRING 2023

Experiments

DC Circuits
For your measurements you will be using both a battery powered, hand-held Wavetek (or AMPROBE)
Model 37XR digital multimeter (DMM) as well as a more precise Keithley 197A bench-top DMM.
The Model 37XR DMM specifications that you need to know now are as follows:
dc Voltage
Ranges: 1000 mV, 10, 100, 1000 V
Input Resistance Ri = 10 MΩ
Accuracy: ± (0.1% reading + 5 counts)
dc Current
Range Resistance ri
µA 1,000 Ω
mA 10 Ω
10 A 35 mΩ
Accuracy: ± (0.5% reading + 5 counts)
Resistance
Ranges: Accuracy:
200 Ω, 2, 20, 200 kΩ, 2 MΩ ± (1.0% + 4 counts)
20 MΩ ± (2.0% + 4 counts)
The Model 197A DMM specifications that you need to know now are as follows:
dc Voltage
Ranges: 200 mV, 2 V
Input Resistance Ri = 1 GΩ
Ranges: 20 V, 200 V, 1000 V
Input Resistance Ri = 10 MΩ
Accuracy: ± (0.01% reading + 2 counts)
dc Current
Range Resistance ri
200 µA 1,000 Ω
2 mA 100 Ω
20 mA 10 Ω
200 mA 1Ω
2A 0.1 Ω
10 A 10 mΩ
Accuracy: ± (0.1% reading + 15 counts)

L03-28
P HYS 3140 C IRCUITS S PRING 2023

Experiment 1: Example DC Circuit

Set up the circuit shown in Fig. 30 using 1% resistors (measure and record the actual values). For V1
and V2 , use two channels of the power supply, setting the voltages carefully to 5.00 and 1.50 V respectively
(again, set the current limits at 20 mA to limit maximum power dissipation).
R1 R2
A B D V1 = 5.00 V

+ + V2 = 1.50 V

V1 R3 V2 R1 = 10.0 kΩ
R2 = 2.10 kΩ
– –
R3 = 1.00 kΩ
C
Figure 30 Example Circuit
For your Pre–Lab report, Problem 1, calculate the voltages across each of the three resistors for the
values of the resistors and voltages given above. You can use the results from our earlier analysis. However
you should study in detail the derivations leading to these results to make sure that you can reproduce them.
Measure these three voltages and compare them with your calculated values.

AC Circuits
You will measure the time domain and frequency domain behavior of series RC and LCR circuits. For the
time domain, we will use square waves and look at the transient response to a step input. For the frequency
domain, we will look how the circuits behave with sinusoidal inputs of various frequencies.
To make sure that you don’t “inherit” odd settings, reset both the oscilloscope and function generator
to default state. Press Default Setup button (below the display) on the oscilloscope. For the function
generator, press the Utility button and then press “Set To Default” (you have to press Utility again to get
out of utility mode). Verify that the
Since we will be using a function generator, configure the oscilloscope to trigger on the function
generator’s sync signal (AUX input).
Use 10X probes connected to the oscilloscope’s CH 1 and CH 2 to make measurements. The probe’s
10 MΩ resistance is high enough make negligible perturbations to the circuit. Make sure that the probes
are properly compensated, as you will be making rise–time measurements. Refer to Lab 00 or the oscillo-
scope manual if you’ve forgotten what to do.
Use short 22–AWG wires (yellow for CH 1 and blue for CH 2) clipped to the probes to make connec-
tions to the breadboard. Use short green 22–AWG wires for the probe’s ground leads.
Some of the signals you will look at are quite small and high frequency noise will distort measure-
ments. To minimize the problem, set both oscilloscope channels to 20 MHz bandwidth.
It is very likely that even with bandwidth limiting noise will be problematic. You can use another
technique, averaging, to clean up such repetitive signals. To turn on averaging, press the oscilloscope’s
Acquire button, press the Average button below the display, and then press the Average toggle button to

L03-29
P HYS 3140 C IRCUITS S PRING 2023

the upper right of the display. Like with AC coupling, don’t use averaging unless you have to (as you may
see unexpected results). [As always, ask your TA for additional guidance.]

NOTE: The function generator has an internal series 50 Ω resistor (we’ll talk about why when we get
to transmission lines later in the semester). That would cause problems for these experiments due to
the “unseen” IR voltage drop across the internal resistor, so we use an external amplifier (the triangular
symbol with the ×1) with very low internal resistance to “buffer” the function generator’s output.

Use a BNC cable to connect the function generator’s CH1 output to the input of the external amplifier.
Connect a BNC–to–banana adapter to the amplifier’s output. Use banana leads with alligator clips to
connect to short (circa 200 ) lengths of 22–AWG wire that you can insert into the breadboard. Use red and
black wires to help identify what is connected where.

Experiment 2: Series RC Circuit

Open RCandRLfilters.xlsx. This spreadsheet is already formatted for your use (there are a number of
“Excel tricks” that are yours to steal for future use). The pinkish cells are where you enter your data (you
may have to first “Clear Contents” to delete any sample data).

Experiment 2a – Series RC Circuit: Time Domain

The RC circuits shown in Fig. 12 uses a dc voltage source and a switch to produce a voltage step. In
order to produce a repetitive transient that is easily observed on the oscilloscope, we shall use a square
wave generator as a voltage transient source. The output of such a generator is shown in Fig. 31. The func-
tion generator used to produce the square wave also generates sinusoidal and triangular waves. Controls
on the generator permit variation of the amplitude and the frequency f = 1/T of the square–wave output.
V (t)

V0

-T/2 T/2 T 3T/2 2T t

Figure 31 Square Wave

Choose a 1 kΩ resistor and a 27 nF capacitor. Since these are nominal values of resistance and
capacitance, measure and record their actual values. Use the bench meter to make a precision measurement
of the resistance. Enter your measurements into tab Components in the spreadsheet.
Use the components to assemble the circuit shown in Fig. 32.

L03-30
P HYS 3140 C IRCUITS S PRING 2023

CH 1

x1
CH 2
R

V0
C

Figure 32 RC Circuit

Set the function generator to output a 6 VPP square wave21 with a 3 VDC offset at 1 kHz. [Alternatively,
you can achieve this setting via levels: HiLevel to 6 V and LoLevel to 0 V.] Trigger the oscilloscope on
the function generator’s SYNC output. Trigger on AUX rising slope ( in the Trigger menu).
What kind of oscilloscope pattern do you expect? Observe the waveform and compare to your predic-
tions (Pre–Lab Problem 2). Measure the value of the time constant τ in two ways (enter your results into
the appropriate cells in tab RC Low Pass):

1. As the time for the capacitor to charge from zero voltage to (1 − 1/e) × V0 (≈ 3.68 V, for V0 = 6 V).
To make the best use of the displayed data, adjust the Horizontal Position to locate the orange “t = 0”
indicator (at the top of the display) to one division from the left hand side of the display. [This should
go into the τ+ cell.]

2. As the time for the capacitor to discharge from V0 to (1/e) ×V0 (≈ 2.21 V, for V0 = 6 V). It is conve-
nient to trigger on AUX falling slope ( in the Trigger menu) to make this measurement. [This should
go into the τ− cell.]

These values of τ should both equal RC. Compare your measured values with the value of RC obtained
from the measured values of the circuit components.

Experiment 2b – Series RC Circuit: Frequency Domain

We will now measure the response of the RC circuit to a sinusoidal voltage by using the sine–wave
output of the function generator.
The objective now is for you to measure |Vout /Vin | and the phase φ as functions of frequency and to
compare your results with the theoretically predicted results, Eqn. 31 and Eqn. 32. You will measure
both |Vout /Vin | and φ over the range from approximately fc /100, to 100 fc , with three points per decade of
frequency.

21 The signal amplitudes are chosen so that many, if not most, measurements are best made with the oscilloscope channels
set to 2 V/div.

L03-31
P HYS 3140 C IRCUITS S PRING 2023

NOTE: You should have noticed that the cells where you enter measurements have a pinkish back-
ground. Cells with calculated values are in blueish cells. The greenish cells are used to generate the
model based frequency domain curves and such. The purplish cells are used to generate evenly spaced
nominal frequencies. As always, you should explore the spreadsheet to see how it works.

On the RC Low Pass tab, the greenish cell labeled τRC 22 is initially calculated from the measured
component values (and fRC is calculated from τRC ). You can replace the initial value of τRC with your τ
value measured in the time domain (although it probably makes little difference for this circuit). When
you look at circuits with inductors, you will probably find more significant corrections, as not all of the
“resistances” can be directly measured.
The calculated quantities are plotted along with the model results on the two embedded Bode plots.
The experimentally determined points are plotted as small blue markers with vertical error bars. The
model is plotted as a green “Smoothed line”. Clear the “sample” amplitude and phase data in the pinkish
cells.
From your best value for τRC , the spreadsheet will calculate the expected (model) fc and offer sug-
gestions as to frequencies to use for your measurements. Using nominal component values, we expect
fc = 1/2π RC = 1/2π (1 kΩ)(27 nF) ≈ 5.9 kHz

The oscilloscope’s Measure functions work quite well for both the amplitude and phase measurements.
Set up amplitude measurements for both Ch. 1 and Ch. 2 and a phase measurement for Ch. 2 to Ch. 1.
Ask the TA for help if you don’t remember how to do this.

Set the function generator to output a 12 VPP sine wave with a 0 VDC offset at a frequency of fc .
Continue to trigger on the function generator’s SYNC output (trigger on AUX rising slope).
Set both channels of the oscilloscope to 2 V/div. Perform a “survey” by observing the circuit’s behavior
over many decades of frequency. Use the rotary knob on the function generator to vary the frequency.
[Note that you can use the buttons below the knob to choose the digit that changes when you rotate the
knob.] Note qualitatively how the amplitude and phase change as you sweep through the frequency range.
Experimentally√ determine fc by finding the frequency for which the amplitude is reduced to 70.7%
(|Vout /Vin | = 1/ 2 ≈ 0.707) and the phase shift between input and output is −45◦ . Enter your result
into the appropriate cell in tab RC Low Pass (the cell is pre-loaded with the value predicted from the
component values).
Now make amplitude and phase shift measurements at frequencies suggested by the spreadsheet. As
you enter data, the points will appear on the embedded Bode plots. You may take the function generator’s
displayed frequency as accurate (hence with negligible error). [You should see that the function generator
and the oscilloscope agree to at least five significant digits.]
In your report, discuss how well the model fits your data.
22 TheRC subscript indicates that the circuit is an RC circuit. The RL tabs show model behavior of an RL circuit and the
decay time and crossover frequency have RL subscripts.

L03-32
P HYS 3140 C IRCUITS S PRING 2023

Take a little time to explore the other tabs:

• “RC High Pass” shows model behavior for what you should see for the voltage across the resistor.

• The “RL Low Pass” tab shows model behavior for the voltage across the resistor in series with a
“real” inductor (with internal series resistance). The internal resistance manifests as a slight fre-
quency independent attenuation at low frequencies.

• The “RL High Pass” tab shows model behavior for the voltage across the a “real” inductor in series
with the resistor. Here the effect is more dramatic as for low frequencies (where the inductive
reactance is small compared to the internal resistance) the inductor behaves like a pure resistance
with frequency independent attenuation and zero phase shift.

Experiment 3: Series LCR Circuit

Open SeriesLCRfilter.xlsx. This spreadsheet is also formatted for your use (with “Excel tricks” that
are yours to steal). The pinkish cells are where you enter your data (you may have to first “Clear Contents”
to delete any sample data).
Choose a 100 Ω resistor, a 10 nF capacitor, and a L = 25 mH inductor. Since these are nominal compo-
nent values, measure and record their actual values (don’t forget to measure the inductors wire resistance!).
Use the DVM to measure capacitance and inductance and use the bench meter to make a precision mea-
surement of the resistances. Enter your measurements into tab Components in the spreadsheet.
Verify that the predicted natural frequency23 f0 (Eqn. 40), decay time24 τ (Eqn. 41), and “quality
factor” Q (Eqn. 45) are calculated correctly. [These are used as initial parameters for the frequency domain
model.]
Use the components to assemble the LCR circuit shown in Fig. 33 (Vgen denotes the function generator
signal; the triangle with the ×1 again denotes the buffer amplifier).
CH 1 CH 2

x1
L C

R
V gen

Figure 33 Series LCR Schematic

CH 1 of the oscilloscope records the voltage across the series LCR circuit while CH 2 records the voltage
across just the resistor R.

23 Remember that ω = 2π f
24 Don’t forget to include Rwire , the resistance of the inductor’s wire: Rwire . See page L03-25.

L03-33
P HYS 3140 C IRCUITS S PRING 2023

Experiment 3a – Series LCR Circuit: Time Domain

The first objective is to observe the current in the circuit as the applied voltage is switched abruptly on
and off. Switch to the Transient LCR series tab.

Note that many of the following “instructions” really mean for you to verify that the overly-helpful
spreadsheet is doing the calculations correctly. You STILL need to understand what is being done and
how so that you can create your own such workbooks in the future!!

Configure the function generator to output a 20 VPP square wave (with no offset) at ∼ 100 Hz. Setting
the oscilloscope sweep speed to 100 µs/div should produce a display like Fig. 24.

a: Use the cursors to measure the heights VRi of the sequence of voltage peaks (positive excursions only)
and the times ti at which they occur. Enter these values into the appropriate cells.

b: Plot ti vs. i and fit a straight line to your data (LINEST). The slope of the line is the period (Td ). Use
Td to calculate fd .

c: Plot ln (|VRi |) vs. ti and fit a straight line to your data. From Eqn. 44 we see that the slope of the line
is −1/τd .
Now we will use these time domain measurements to determine better parameters for the frequency
domain model.

d: Use fd and τd to get a better value for f0 (see Eqn. 42). [You should find that this value for f0 is
approximately equal to fd within errors.]

e: Use Eqn. 40, find a refined value for L25 :

1 1
Ld = =
ωd2 C 4π 2 fd2 C

f: Use this result and Eqn. 41 to get a better value for the effective total resistance:

Reff = 2 Ld /τd

g: Use τ and the refined value for f0 to get a better estimate of Q: Qd = π f0 τd .

These values should agree reasonably well with the values that you’ll determine from the driven oscilla-
tions.

Experiment 3b – Series LCR Circuit: Frequency Domain

In this experiment, you will explore the frequency domain behavior of the circuit. You will measure
the variation of the amplitude ratio |Vout /Vin | and the phase angle φ for a sinusoidal input as functions of
25 the“d” subscript indicates that this was determined from the decaying oscillations

L03-34
P HYS 3140 C IRCUITS S PRING 2023

frequency and compare your measurements with Eqs. 53 and 51. For each frequency f you should measure
three quantities: the amplitude Vin ≡ Vgen of the voltage from the generator (CH 1 of the oscilloscope),
Vout ≡ VR , the voltage across the resistor (CH 2 of the oscilloscope), which is proportional to the current,
and the phase shift between the voltage across the resistor (CH 2) and the generator voltage (CH 1).
Switch to the Driven LCR series tab. You should see Bode plots of model predictions. Some sample
data (using components with the same nominal values) are plotted as dots with error bars.
The greenish cells labeled fmodel , Qmodel , and Reff,model are used to calculate the model curves and are
initially seeded with values derived from your measured component values. You will later replace these
with refined values.

a: Configure the oscilloscope to “measure” the amplitudes of CH 1 and CH 2 as well as the phase shift
between CH 2 and CH 1.

b: Switch the function generator back to sinusoidal output.

c: Find the resonant frequency f0 and record data for it.

Since the phase shift between the current and the driving voltage is zero at resonance, a very good way to
find resonance is to see when an X–Y display of the voltage across the resistor versus the driving voltage
collapses to a straight line. With this technique you can get the resonant frequency, denoted26 fres , to
within 0.01% or so.

d: Use this value for f0 to get an even better measure of L:

1
Lres =
4π 2 fres
2 C

Use this value for L for subsequent calculations, as it is our best estimate.

e: Record data for the upper and √ lower half power frequencies f+ and f− , the frequencies at which the
ratio |Vout /Vin | is reduced to 1/ 2 of its value at resonance and the phase is shifted by ∓45◦ . [NOTE:
You’ll probably get better results looking at the phase shift instead of the amplitude.]

f: Use Eqn. 61 to calculate Q and compare with the value you calculated from the damped oscillation
frequency and decay time.

g: Note that the values for f0 , f+ and f− automatically populate the main data table. Enter the corre-
sponding values of Vin , Vout and φ (and their errors) into the spreadsheet so that the data points are
plotted.

h: Measure Vin , Vout and φ for other frequencies on each side of resonance, closely spaced in frequency
where the curve is rapidly varying and widely spaced when it is varying slowly. Fill in the spreadsheet
and see how your results comport with the model curves.

i: Replace the initial model parameters with your best “refined” values. Does this make the agreement
between the data and the model better?
26 the“res” subscript indicates that this was determined from the “zero phase” resonant condition.

L03-35
P HYS 3140 C IRCUITS S PRING 2023

Experiment 3c – Series LCR Circuit: Resonant Amplification

a: Set the generator’s frequency to f0 ≡ fres (as determined in Exp. 3b). Does the voltage across the
resistor agree with the model (Eqn. 66, which accounts for “real” components)? [The phase, of
course, should be zero.]

b: Now interchange C and R so that oscilloscope CH 2 measures the voltage across the capacitor. Mea-
sure the amplitude and phase of VC at resonance and compare with the model (Eqn. 63). Use this
measurement to calculate Q and compare with previously calculated values.

c: Now interchange L and C so that oscilloscope CH 2 measures the voltage across the inductor. Measure
the amplitude and phase of VL at resonance and compare with the model (Eqn. 64). [Remember that
the inductor has internal “resistances” that will impact the measurements and so we don’t expect as
good agreement with the simple model as for the resistor and capacitor.]

L03-36