Ancient Times
1. Sumerian Civilization
Significant Contributions
 Cuneiform- a set of word pictures depicted in
symbols made of triangular marks.
 Sexagesimal - using the number 60 as base,
system of counting and a form of place notation.
 Ziggurats- Mountain of god, served as the sacred
place of their chief god
 Potter’s wheel.
 Wheeled vehicle made of solid wooden wheels
on axles now regarded as the greatest mechanical
invention of all time.
 materia medica -made up of assorted botanical,
zoological and mineralogical ingredients.
 seed plow
 sail boat
 intricate system of canals, dikes and reservoir.
 the City of Uruk- a great wonder not only
because it is considered to be the first true city in
the world
 Divided the circle into 360 degrees.
 Developed advances mathematical functions to
permit accurately plot and forecast.
 Zodiacal map of Sumer was used for practical
mathematical and observational purposes.
 Code of Ur-NAmmu- the oldest surviving law in
the world. It is the earliest existing legal text
 Fabrication of copper
2. Babylonian Civilization
Babylonia- ancient region bordering the Tigris and Euphrates
rivers (Southern Iraq)
 Nebuchadnezzar ordered the construction of the
famous “Hanging Gardens of Babylon” and the Isthar
Gate.
 They adopted the Sumerian sexagesimal system of
counting in units, Ziggurat and cuneiform.
 Their measurements made use of fractions, squares
and square roots.
 book-keeping, a simple but adequate system of
double-entry accounting.
 Zodiac signs, concept of horoscope
 Prediction of solar and lunar eclipses.
 Jewelry making originated from the Babylonians
 Code of Hammurabi
 The Babylonian Map of the World- first map
 Astrology, the science of studying the position of
celestial bodies.
3. Egyptian Civilization
Egypt- located in the Northeastern part of the African
continent, a desert country thriving on an agricultural
economy.
 The Egyptian writing was in the form of pictorial
symbols known as hieroglyphics, representing
individual objects or actions.
 They wrote with ink and brushes on paper made of
papyrus reeds.
 Ancient Egyptians studies the heavens to record time,
calculate distances/directions, forecast the seasons
and predict annual flooding of the Nile river.
 The earliest Egyptian calendar was based on their
observations of the regular appearance and
disappearance of Sirius the brightest star in their
horizon which coincide with the annual rise and fall
of the Nile river.
 Another calendar was based on the phases of the
moon, consisting of 29 and ½ days.
 The first 365-day calendar was possibly devised by
IMHOTEP.
 They calculated the time by means of waterclock- a
conical earthen vessel with hours equally marked off
on the inside and spout at the bottom.
 Nobles, men and women wore wigs, they used a
variety of preparations for the hair such as henna.
 They used tweezers and razors to remove unwanted
body hair.
 Both sexes wore jewelries, sandals, perfume and
cosmetics-eye make-up and Kohl around the eyes to
prevent or even cure eye diseases.
 They built pyramids such as Pyramid of Sakkara as
Zoser’s tomb and memorial and Pyramid of Khufu or
Cheofs and Great sphinx- a stone statue with a king;s
head and a lion’s boy to guard the pharaoh’s tomb..
 The ancient Egyptians knowledge of human anatomy,
physiology and medical plants enabled them to
master the art and science of embalming the dead.
 From the Hyksos, they learned military technology
and system- horse driven light war chariots manned
by warriors armed with bows, bronze swords and
lances.
 The Egyptians invented and used many simple
machines such as ramp and lever, to aid construction
processes.
 They used rope trusses to stiffen the beam of ships
 In Hellenistic Egypt, lighthouse technology was
developed, the most famous example being the
Lighthouse of Alexandria- a port for the ships that
traded the goods manufactured in Egypt or imported
in Egypt.
 Library of Alexandria
 Obelisks and pillars
4. Greek Civilization
Greece- is an archipelago in the Southeastern part of
Europe.
- Known as the birthplace of western philosophy.
- Some of the major achievements of the Greeks
include in-depth works on philosophy and
mathematics.
- Their wise men were the first to systematically
separate scientific ideas from superstition and
stressed the logical development of general principles
or theories about natural phenomena.
- Transition from the Bronze Age to the Iron Age
 They designed various mathematical models and
mechanical systems to explain the planetary motions
and mechanical systems to explain the planetary
positions and movements on geometrical
determinations and logical deductions.
 Ancient Greeks invented the alarm clock- used large
complicated mechanisms to time the alarm. They
made use of water ( or sometimes small stones or
sand). That dropped into drums which sounded the
alarm.
 Watermills were also considered as one of the most
important contributions of the Greek civilization to
the world. They were commonly used in agricultural
processes like milling of grains which was a
necessary form of food processing.
Greek Philosophers
 Galen made the first steps for the advancement of the
science of anatomy.
 Hippocrates- “Father of Greek Medicine”
First to regard medicine as a science apart from
religion.
 He taught that diseases have natural causes and that
somehow the human body is capable of healing or
repairing itself.
 According to Empedocles nature was a mixture of
four elements: earth, fire, air and water.
 Thales of Miletus- Father of Philosophy, taught that
nature was composed of or convertible into water.
 Anaxagoras- argued that matter was composed of
countless tiny particles, each made of dominant
substances such as water mixed with other random
substances.
 Aristotle- proved the importance of critical
observation and systematic means to identify and
classify organisms.
 Thales,Phythagoras,Euclid- perfected geometry, as a
single logical system.
 Archimedes- performed experiments which led him
to discover the laws of lever and the pulley. –
invented the science of hydrostatics- measurement
and use of water-power.
- made planetarium powered by water to demonstrate
the movements of the sun and planets around the
stationary earth.
- discovered the concept of gravity
 Ptolemy- wrote the Almagest, wherein he presented
his ideas and summarized those of the earlier Greek
astronomers about the universe.
-postulated the geocentric theory of the universe.
5. Roman Civilization
- The Roman Empire was perceived to be the strongest
political and social entity in the west.
- Considered to be the cradle of politics and
governance.
 One of the major contributions of the Romans is the
newspaper- Gazettes-contained announcements of the
Roman Empire to the people, made metal or stone
tablets and then publicly displayed.
 The ancient Roman Empire was able to produce the
first books or codex.
 They introduced the Roman numeral.
 They constructed the Pantheon as one of the world’s
greatest domed buildings and Colosseum, Rome’s
stage for individual gladiatorial contest which held
50,000 spectators.
 Chariot races and gladiatorial fights were held at
Rome’s principal stadium, the Circus Maximus, which
accommodated some 300,000 people.
 Roman government were able to implement major
projects such as large churches (cathedrals and
basilicas), aqueducts, amphitheaters and even
residential houses.
 Vitruvius first described the odometer as being used
for measuring distance around 27BC, but evidence
points towards Archimedes of Syracuse as its inventor.
 Anaximander was one of the first pioneer
cartographers to create a map of the world.
 Olympics were dedicated to the Olympian Gods.
6. Arabic/Islamic Civilization
Arabia- is a rocky peninsula in Southwestern Asia.
- The most influential Muslim intellectual contribution
to the modern world was their synthesis of the
scientific and technological knowledge they learned
from and transmitted to the various cultures they
encountered.
 They introduced the Arabic system of numbers
 The Arabs interest in the pseudoscience of alchemy
encouraged them to mix and manipulate chemical
elements and conduct experiments to transform base
metals into gold.
 They were the first to use glass lens for
magnification
 First to manufacture the black powder
 They produced the first gun- a bamboo tube
reinforced with iron that used a charge of black
powder to shoot an arrow.
7. Chinese Civilization
- It is considered to be the oldest civilization in Asia.
- It is also known as the middle kingdom, located on
the far east of Asia.
 People learned the technology of silk production
 The outstanding contribution of the Shang included
the creation of magnificent bronze vessels, discovery
of lacquer, the development of the horse-drawn war
chariots and the first known Chinese writing which
was discovered incised on flat shoulder bones of cattle
or on tortoises shells called “oracle bone”.
 Chopsticks came into use.
 They invented the escapement, the basic device used
to regulate clocks.
 They constructed the Great Wall of China and the
great palace of the first emperor.
 The Chinese had one of the most advanced systems of
pharmacology- discovery of healing drugs and herbs.
 They also practice apothecaries and acupuncture- was
used to treat illnesses or pain by pricking the patient’s
body with needles at points believed to be connected
with the visceral organs causing the pain.
 They invented the “earthquake weathercock” to detect
earthquake occurrence
 The use of toilet paper was also traced in China back
to the sixth century.
 Development of calligraphy, water color, painting and
block printing were invented.
 The first movable type printer made form pottery was
developed by Pi Sheng.
 Chinese had an outstanding contributions such as the
invention of gunpowder, a naturally magnetic iron ore
used to magnetize a floating needle (prototype of the
magnetic needle in compass) to indicate location, the
use of coal as fuel, water wheel, the wheelbarrow, and
the flexible bamboo pole that speedily enchanted the
transport of heavy loads, the technology of copper
coinage, the artistry of wallpaper and porcelain.
 Tea production was developed.
8. Indus-Hindu Civilization
India- mainly in the Northwestern regions of South Asia.
 Considered the most remarkable accomplishment of
the Indus civilization was the construction layout of its
cities which featured water wells (that piped water
supply) bathrooms and wastepipe or drains in nearly
every house.
 They excelled particularly in medicine and
mathematics.
 Traditional Indian medication had a very extensive
pharmacopoeia and varieties of herbal remedies and
drugs.
 Indian surgeons successfully performed various
operations like repair of broken limbs, complicated
bone setting, amputation, plastic surgery and
Caesarian section.
 They introduced the negative and positive quantities,
square and cube roots, quadratic equations,
 mathematical implications of zero and infinity and
value of pi up to nine decimal places.
 They also developed the steps in sine functions,
spherical geometry and calculus
 Iron pillar of Delhi-the world’s first iron pillar.
 Stupa was used as commemorative monument
associated with storing sacred relics.
 Great technology was needed in the fields of
weaponry, navigation, mass food and farm production,
and health.
9. Persian Civilization
 Introduction of a uniform system of gold and silver
coinage.
 The first regular postal system in the world
 Taxation system, an important component of the
Achaemenid state administration.
 Qanat is a gently sloping underground channel that
carries water from an aquifer or water well to houses
and fields. It is used for drinking water and irrigation
of crops.
 Sulfuric acid was first discovered by Abu Bakr
Muhammad Ibn Jakarta al-Razi.
Medieval Times
• The period from 450A.D to 1450 A.D
• is generally known as the period of history between
Ancient Times and Modern Times.
• This is usually divided into the so called Dark Ages
and the High Middle Ages.
• The Age of Exploration.
• The start of the middle ages was marked by massive
invasions and migrations.
• The Islamic world had become a civilization of
colossal expansive and had imposed a unity of
religion and culture on much of southwest Asia and
North Africa.
Technological advances during the Middle Ages include the
following:
1. Printing press- After the Chinese, Johann Gutenberg
developed a more reliable and way of printing using a cast
type. Gutenberg utilized wooden machines that extracted
juices from fruits, attached to them a metal impression of
the letters, and pressed firmly the cast metal into a piece
of paper, which then made an extract impression on paper.
2. Gunpowder and Canon- appeared around the 9th century
A.D, followed by vigorous development of explosive
weapons from 1040 A.D about three centuries before it
appeared in Europe. From fire-lance using a rocket
combination and bamboo tube as close combat weapon,
all barrier guns and cannon were constructed at the
beginning of the 12th century A.D.
3. Water mill – it was an integral part of the feudal
economy. By using suitable mechanism, its rotary motion
could be converted to reciprocal motion making it a
source of general power.
4. Windmill was used primarily for blowing bellows, filling
cloth, forging iron, sawing, weaving and threshing.
5. Mechanical clock- tells time using gears driven by
weights that pull the gears at the right pace.
6. Horse Harness and Horse shoe allowed the horse to
increase its” attractive” effort five times and for
protection. This innovation came from the 7 th century A.D
china reaching Europe early in the eleventh century,
resulting in the horse taking the place of oxen at the
plough. In addition, the introduction of the horses’ modes
put the horse on the road for pack and wagon.
7. Distillation and Alcohol- the first preparation of strong
spirits of wine was made in Europe in the 12 th century. As
the distillation of perfumes and oil was already known,
alcohol was probably produced by accident in the course
of some medical preparation.
8. Universities and Scholastics- By the twelfth century,
these schools swelled to become universities with set of
courses and teaching the seven liberal arts, philosophy
and theology. The first and most famous of these was the
University of Paris in 1160. In the eleventh century A.D,
medical school had been existence in Salermo.
9. Church, medieval towns, Iron-chain suspension bridges,
segmental arch structures were built.
10. Canon of Medicine- authored by Avicenna, an Arab
physician. It contained a good summary of the period’s
medical knowledge and accurate descriptions of
meningitis, tetanus and other diseases.
11. War Weapons such as cross bows, long bows was
developed so that they could attack the enemies at long
ranges, keeping themselves safe with the protection of
wall and fortresses. Soldiers wear body armors and
chainmail to protect themselves.
12. Lenses with spectacles- The discovery of lenses resulted
in the invention of spectacles in Italy around 1350 A.D.
This gave impetus to the study of light or optics.
Grosseteste, Dietrich and Roger Bacon explained how a
lens could focus light rays and magnify things. The
demand for spectacles gave rise to lens grinding/trading
and spectacle-makers.
13. The sternpost rudder apparently came also from China.
This led to the development of the sail that could be
adjusted such that ship voyages could be made in rougher
weather.
14. Mariner’s Magnetic Compass- the ability of a natural
magnet to show direction was known o the Chinese
several centuries ago or about sixth century A.D before it
passed to the West or Europe.
15. Flying Buttress- one of the architectural innovations
associated with Gothic churches. This allowed buildings
to have much higher ceilings and larger windows.
16. Library of Malatesta Novello in Cesena- considered to be
first ever public library in the world.
17. Coffee House became popular in Arabic and Ottoman
lands.
Renaissance ( 14th century -16th century)
 The period of rebirth
 Beginning of the cultural movement
 Rediscovery of ancient texts was accelerated after the
fall of Constantinople in 1453.
 Technology for printing books was regarded as the most
important invention that facilitated dissemination of
knowledge and new ideas.
 Paracelsus- an alchemist and physician of the
Renaissance. Medieval alchemists worked with two
main elements: Sulphur and mercury.
 The astronomy was based on geocentric model (earth-
centered) described by Claudius Ptolemy.
 Nicolas Copernicus published “On the Revolutions of
the Heavenly Spheres”.
 Andreas Vesalius described the anatomy of the brain’s
function. He wrote the book “On the Fabric of the
Human Body”.
Modern Times

 The booming world population during the nineteenth
century onwards demanded that more goods be produced
at a faster rate. People needed efficient means of
transportation to trade more goods and cover a larger
distance. Machines that required animals to operate must
thus be upgraded. Faster and easier means to
communicate and compute should be developed to
established connections between and among nations. All
these needs resulted in the development of industries.
However, due to massive industrialization, the modern
times again faced more complicated problems. Food
processing and medicine posed some of the bigger
challenges since health was of great concern.
1.Pasteurization- invented by Louis Pasteur, a French
biologist, microbiologist and chemist, the process of heating
dairy products to kill the harmful bacteria that allow them to
spoil faster.
2. Petroleum Refinery- is widely used in powering
automobiles, factories, and power plants.
Kerosene was referred to as the “illuminating oil” because it
was used at first to provide lighting homes. It was invented by
Samuel M. Kier.
3. Telephone- invented by Alexander Graham Bell, a way to
easily maintain connection and communication with each
other in real time.
4. Calculator- a faster way to compute more complicated
equations.
5. Electricity- the heart of many modern technologies, is the
set of physical phenomena associated with presence and
motion of electric charge.
6. Electric power- where electric current is used to energize
equipment.
7. Electronics- which deals with electrical circuits that involve
active electrical components such as vacuum tubes, transistors,
diodes and integrated circuits, and associated passive
interconnection technologies.
8. Smartwatches- a variation of regular watches but coming
with a whole bunch of features as your smartphone.
9. Robotics- is an interdisciplinary branch of engineering and
science that includes mechanical engineering, electronics
engineering, computer science and others. It deals with the
design, construction, operation and use of robots, as well as
computer systems for their control, sensory feedback and
information processing.
10. Incandescent light bulb- is an electric light with a wire
filament heated to such a high temperature that it glows with
visible light (incandescence). It is widely used in household
and commercial lighting, for portable lighting such as table
lamps, car headlamps and flashlights and for decorative and
advertising lighting.
11. Airplane- is a powered fixed-wing aircraft that is propelled
by thrust from a jet engine, propeller or rocket engine. The
Wright brothers invented and flew the first airplane in 1903,
recognized as “the first sustained and controlled heavier-than-
air powered flight. It is used to transport parcels as well as
people to other side of the world in less than a day or weeks.
12. Computer- is a device that can be instructed to carry out
sequences of arithmetic or logical operations automatically via
computer programming. It is also used as control systems for a
wide variety of industrial and consumer devices. Charles
Babbage, an English mechanical engineer and polymath,
originated the concept of a programmable computer.
13. Universal Serial Bus (USB) flash drive- also known as
thumb drive pen, pen drive, gig stick, flash stick, jump drive,
disk key, disk on key- is a data storage device that includes
flash memory with an integrated USB interface.
14. Cellphone or mobile phone- a device that has at least the
same functions of a standard wired telephone but is smaller
and more mobile.
15. Internet- is the global system of interconnected computer
networks that use the internet protocol suite ( TCP/IP) to link
devices worldwide. It carries a vast range of information
resources and services such as the inter-linked hypertext
documents and applications of the World Wide Web (WWW).
Electronic mail, telephony and file sharing.
16. Television- is a telecommunication medium used for
transmitting moving images in monochrome (black and white)
or in color, and in two or three dimensions and sound. It is a
mass medium for advertising, entertainment and news.
17. Veterinary medicine was for the first time, truly separated
from human medicine in 1761, when French Veterinarian
Claude Bourgelat founded the world’s first veterinary school
in Lyon, France
18. Penicillin- discovered by Alexander Fleming in September
1928, marks the start of modern antibiotics.
19. Genomics- is an interdisciplinary field of science focusing
on the structure, function, evolution, mapping and editing of
genomes- is an organism’s complete set of DNA, including all
of its genes.
20. Biotechnology- is the broad area of science involving
living systems and organisms to develop or make products, or
any technological application that uses biological systems,
living organisms or derivatives thereof, to make or modify
products for specific use.
21. Automobile ( car)- is a wheeled motor vehicle used for
transportation
22. Nuclear weapon- is an explosive device that derives its
destructive force from nuclear reactions, either fission or from
a combination of fission and fusion reactions.
23. Nuclear power- is the use of nuclear reactions that release
nuclear energy to generate heat, which most frequently is then
used in steam turbines to produce electricity in a nuc;ear
power plant.
24. Satellites- is an artificial object which has been
intentionally placed into orbit. They are used for many
purposes such as military and civilian Earth observation,
telecommunication, navigation, weather forecast and space
telescopes.
25. Vaccine- is a biological preparation that provides active
acquired immunity to a particular disease.
26. telegraphy-is the long distance transmission of textual or
symbolic messages without the physical exchange of an object
bearing the message.
27. Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) scanner- is a medical
imaging technique used in radiology to form pictures of the
anatomy and the physiological processes of the body in both
health and disease.
28. Computed tomography (CT) scan- makes use of computer-
processes combinations of many X-ray measurements taken
from different angles to produce cross-sectional images of
specific areas of scanned object, allowing the user to see the
object without cutting.
29. Liquid-crystal display (LCD projector)- is a type of video
projector for displaying video, images or computer data on a
screen or other flat surface.
30. Bluetooth- is a wireless technology standard for
exchanging data over short distances from fixed and mobile
devices and building personal area networks.
31. Wi-Fi- is a technology for radio wireless local area
networking of devices.
32. Printer- is a peripheral device which makes a persistent
human-readable representation of graphics or text on paper.
33. Camera- is an optical instrument for recording or capturing
images, which may be stored locally, transmitted to another
location or both.
34. Closed-circuit television (CCTV)- also known as video
surveillance, is the use of video cameras to transmit a signal to
a specific place, on a limited set of monitors.
35. Submarine- is a watercraft capable of independent
operation underwater. It is used in military, marine science,
search-and-rescue and tourism.
36. Stethoscope- is an acoustic medical device for
auscultation, or listening to the internal sounds of an animal or
human body.
37. Laptop or notebook computer- is a small, portable personal
computer with a “clamshell”form factor having typically a thin
LCD or LED computer screen mounted on the inside of the
upper lid of the “clamshell”and an alphanumeric keyboard on
the inside of the lower lid.
38. Credit card- is a payment card issued to users to enable the
cardholder to pay a merchant for goods and services.
39. Steam engine- is a heat engine that performs mechanical
work using steam as its working fluid.
40. Light Amplification by stimulated emission of radiation
(Laser)- is a device that emits light through a process of
optical amplification based on the stimulated emission of
electromagnetic radiation.
Scientific Revolution
It has been established that most, if not all, of the discoveries
and inventions in science and technology during each time
period were due to human needs and wants.
Brilliant minds responded to the call of the times and created
things that could make life easier for the people.
There have also been instances when advancements in science
and technology changed people’s perceptions and beliefs.
Much of these events happened in a period now known as the
Intellectual Revolution.
Scientific Revolution is used to refer to the great intellectual
achievements of science from sixteenth to seventeenth century
marking a radical change in the assumptions attitudes and
methods in scientific inquiry.
Scientific revolution was the golden age for people committed
to scholarly life in science but it was also a deeply trying
moments to some scientific individuals that led to their painful
death or condemnation from the religious institutions who
tried to preserve their faith, religion and theological views.
The Scientific Revolution develops as an offshoot of the
Renaissance. The same questioning spirit that fueled the
Renaissance led scientists to question traditional beliefs and
the Church about the workings of the universe. It was a new
way of thinking about the natural world.
Before 1500, the Bible and Aristotle were the only authorities
accepted as truth
A geocentric model of the universe, in which the Earth is at
the center was supported during the Middle Ages
Until the mid 1500’s, European scholars accepted and
believed the teachings of Ptolemy, an ancient Greek
astronomer.
Ptolemy taught that the Earth was the center of the universe.
People felt this was common sense, and the geocentric theory
was supported by the Church.
It was not until some startling discoveries caused Europeans to
change the way they viewed the
physical world.
Industrial revolution- refers to complex technological
innovations from 1750 to 1895 characterized by the
substitutions of machines for human skill and machine power
for that of human and animal bringing a shift from handicraft
to manufacture and marking the birth of
modern economy.
Causes or Genesis of the Scientific Revolution
 The remarkable achievements of specific individuals such
as Nicolas Copernicus, Francis Bacon, Rene Descartes,
Andreas Vesalius, Johannes Kepler, Galileo Galilei,
Robert Hooke and Isaac Newton.
 The philosophy of new science, a new way of doing
science using what is known as the scientific method
advocated by Francis Bacon and Rene Descartes among
others.
 The desire to break away from the ideas of the feudal
middle ages and the Aristotelian view.
 The establishments of the universities from the 12th
century which were later engaged in the critical analysis
of the Aristotelean views.
 The Renaissance hopeful period of concerned with the
present life as well as the empirical and mundane interest
in the natural world and humanity.
 Important inventions such as mechanical clock, lenses,
telescope, microscope etc.
 The combinations and cooperation’s of the skills of the
craftsmen and the intellectual, computational and logical
method of the scholars.
 Printing press spread new ideas
 Age of Exploration fueled a great deal of scientific
research because of technology needed for navigation
 Translation of the works of Muslim scholars opened the
minds of European thinkers to new scientific knowledge
Nicolaus Copernicus
• Copernicus was a Polish mathematician and astronomer who
studied in Italy.
• In 1543 Copernicus published De revolutionibus orbium
coelestium (On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres).
• In his book, Copernicus made two conclusions: The universe
is heliocentric, or sun-centered. The Earth is merely one of
several planets revolving around the sun.
Copernicus’ model of the solar system:
1. Sun
2. Moon
3. Mercury
4. Venus
5. Earth
6. Mars
7. Jupiter
8. Saturn
 Copernicus came to these conclusions using mathematical
formulas.
 The Copernican conception of the universe marked the start
of modern science and astronomy.
 Up to the time of Copernicus, people thought that there was
a sort of crystal sphere that kept the planets, moon, and stars in
orbit around the Earth. It was Copernicus that
proposed the idea that the Earth revolved around the sun, and
not vice versa... The sun was the center of the Universe, not
the Earth.
 Most scholars rejected Copernicus’s theory.
 Most scholars rejected his theory because it went against
Ptolemy, the Church, and because it called for the Earth to
rotate on its axis.
 Many scientists of the time also felt that if Ptolemy’s
reasoning about the planets was wrong, then the whole system
of human knowledge could be wrong.
Tycho Brahe
 In the late 1500s, the Danish astronomer Tycho Brahe
provided evidence that
supported Copernicus’ heliocentric theory.
 Brahe set up an astronomical observatory.
 Every night for years he carefully observed the sky,
accumulating data about the
movement of the stars and planets.
Johannes Kepler
• After Brahe’s death, his assistant, the German astronomer
and mathematician Johannes Kepler, used Brahe’s data to
calculate the orbits of the planets revolving around the sun.
• Kepler’s calculations supported Copernicus’ heliocentric
theory.
• His calculations also showed that the planets moved in oval
shaped orbits, and not perfect circles, as Ptolemy and
Copernicus believed.
• Kepler’s finding help explain the paths followed by man-
made satellites today.
Galileo Galilei
• Galileo Galilei was an Italian astronomer who built upon the
scientific foundations laid by Copernicus and Kepler.
• Galileo assembled the first telescope which allowed him to
see mountains on the moon and fiery spots on the sun.
• He also observed four moons rotating around Jupiter –
exactly the way Copernicus said the Earth rotated around the
sun.
• Galileo also discovered that objects fall at the same speed
regardless of weight.
• The Church punished him for his belief in this idea. He was
questioned by the Inquisition and forced to confess that his
ideas were wrong.
• The Church came against Galileo because it claimed that the
Earth was fixed and unmoving.
• When threatened with death before the Inquisition in 1633,
Galileo recanted his beliefs, even though he knew the Earth
moved.
• Galileo was put under house arrest, and was not allowed to
publish his ideas.
Sir Isaac Newton
• Sir Isaac Newton was an English scholar who built upon the
work of Copernicus and Galileo.
• Newton was the most influential scientist of the Scientific
Revolution.
• He used math to prove the existence of gravity - a force that
kept planets in their orbits around the sun, and also caused
objects to fall towards the earth.
• Newton published his scientific ideas in his book
Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy.
• He discovered laws of light and color, and formulated the
laws of motion:
1. A body at rest stays at rest
2. Acceleration is caused by force
3. For every action there is an equal opposite reaction
• He invented calculus: a method of mathematical analysis.
Charles Darwin
• Studied medicine at Edinburgh, theology at Cambridge
• Interest in natural history
• Taught by a freed black slave who told him exciting tales of
the South American Rainforest
• Darwin developed the biological theory of evolution that
explains how modern organisms evolved over long periods of
time through descent from common ancestors
• In 1831, he began a 5 year voyage on the HMS Beagle that
would change his life.
• Darwin observed that the characteristics of many animals
and plants varied noticeably among the different Galapagos
Islands. Among the tortoises, the shape of the shell
corresponds to different habitats.
• Darwin thought about the patterns he’d seen on his voyage
• He realized that there were many similarities between the
animals he’d seen.
• There was evidence that suggested that species were not
fixed and that they could change by some natural process.
Artificial Selection
• To find an explanation for change in nature, Darwin studied
the changes produced by plant and animal breeders
• Some plants bear larger or smaller fruits than others
• Some cows give more or less milk than others in their herd
• This told Darwin that variation could be passed from parents
to offspring and used to improve crops and livestock
• In artificial selection, nature provides the variations, and
humans select the ones they find useful
• Darwin knew that variation occurs in wild species as well as
domesticated species
• He realized that that natural variation provided the raw
material for evolution
• Darwin wanted to gather as much evidence as he could to
support his ideas before he made them public
• In 1858, Darwin read an essay by Alfred Wallace whose
thoughts about evolution were almost identical to his!
• In order to not get “scooped”, Darwin decided to present his
work at a scientific meeting in 1858 along with some of
Wallace’s essay
• The next year, Darwin published his complete work on
evolution: On the Origin of Species
• Struggle for Existence
• From Malthus’ theory of supply and demand, Darwin
reasoned that if more individuals are produced than can
survive, they will have to compete for food, living space and
other necessities of life
• Darwin described this as the struggle for existence
• Variation and Adaptation
• Individuals have natural variations among their inheritable
traits
• Some variations are better suited to life in their environment
than others
• Fast predators capture prey more efficiently
• Prey that are faster, better camouflaged or better protected
avoid being caught.
Variation and Adaptation
• Any heritable characteristic that increases an organisms
ability to survive and reproduce in its environment is called an
adaptation
• Examples of Adaptations:
• Tiger’s claws
• Camouflage colors
• Plant structures
• Avoidance behaviors
Survival of the Fittest
• Darwin felt that there must be a connection between an
animal’s environment and how it survives
• Ability to survive and reproduce in a specific environment is
called FITNESS
• Fitness depends upon how well an organism is suited for its
environment
• Fitness is a result of ADAPTATION
• Good adaptations allow organisms to survive and are passed
on to their offspring.
• Good fitness: Reproduce
• Low Fitness: Few offspring/extinction
• Darwin thought that this seemed very similar to artificial
selection
• He referred to “survival of the fittest” as NaturalSelection
• Survival means more than just staying alive. It means
reproducing and passing adaptations on to the next gen.
• Natural Selection: Nature chooses
• Artificial selection: Man chooses
• Favorable characteristics are inherited over several
generations.
• Natural Selection is the process by which organisms with
variations most suited to their local environment survive and
leave more offspring
• Natural Selection occurs in any situation in which more
individuals are born than can survive
• Over time, natural selection results in changes in the
inherited characteristics of a population.
• These changes increase a species’ fitness in its environment.
• A single “tree of life” links all living things
• This is known as the principle of common descent.
• Darwin argued that living things have been evolving on
Earth for millions of years.
• Today, fields like genetics and molecular biology support
Darwin’s basic ideas about evolution
DARWIN'S FOUR POSTULATES
• individuals within species vary
• some of these variations are passed on to offspring
• individuals vary in their ability to survive and reproduce
• Individuals with the most favorable adaptations are more
likely to survive and reproduce.
• Natural selection produces organisms with different
structures than their ancestor, different niches, and new
habitats.
• Each living species has descended, with changes, over time.
Lamarck’s Evolutionary Hypotheses
• Proposed that the use or disuse of organs caused organisms
to gain or lose traits over time.
• These new characteristics could be passed on to the next
generation.
• Suggest that species are not fixed
• Explain that evolution uses natural processes
• Recognize that there is a link between an organism’s
environment and its body structures
• Lamarck’s work paved the way for later biologists, including
Darwin.
Thomas Malthus
• In 1798, Thomas Malthus noticed that people were being
born faster than people were dying
• He reasoned that if the human population grew unchecked,
there would not be enough living space and food for everyone
• The forces that work against human population growth are
war, famine and disease
• He reasoned that what Malthus proposed for human
populations also applied to all living things.
• He observed that most organisms produce many more
offspring than survive.
• He wondered which individuals would survive ... and why
• If all the offspring that were produced did survive, they
would overrun the world.
ORGANIC EVOLUTION
• the slow and gradual process by which living organisms have
changed from the simplest unicellular form to the most
complex multi-cellular forms that are existing today.
Sigmund Freud
• An Austrian Neurologist who became fascinated with
studying hysteria.
• Father of psychoanalysis.
• Psychology was considered more of an art rather than a
science.
• Psychoanalysis- is the study that explains human behavior.
Levels of Consciousness: Iceberg theory
1. Conscious mind – like the top of the iceberg, only a small
portion of our mind is accessible to us.
2. Preconscious mind – material that is unconscious, but can
be easily brought into awareness. Moves back & forth easily
between conscious & unconscious.
3. Unconscious mind – is completely outside of our awareness
(could produce anxiety if made conscious).
Structures of Personality
• Id – “pleasure principle” unconscious impulses that want to
be gratified, without regard to
potential punishment.
- Original Core of an Individual personality
- Biological Driven
- Primarily Unconscious

2. Ego “reality principle” – tries to satisfy id impulses while

minimizing punishment & guilt.
- Self- Identity which arises out of ID
It controls voluntary motion and self- reservation behavior

3. Superego – the “moral principle” of our personality which

tells us right from wrong our
conscience.
- Developing out of the Ego
- Serves as conscience

• Conscious mind- consists of thoughts that focus on the

present state of the mind

• Preconscious mind- consists of what can be retrieved from

the memory

• Subconscious mind- consists of primitive desires, wishes or

impulse which is mediates by the
preconscious mind