 Secretes mucus to lubricate the
Special Senses
The Senses
 General senses of touch (tactile)
 Temperature- thermoreceptors (heat)
 Pressure- mechanoreceptors
(movements)
 Pain – mechanoreceptors
Special Senses
 Smell- chemoreceptors (chemicals)
 Taste- chemoreceptors
 Sight- photoreceptors (light)
 Hearing- mechanoreceptors
 Equilibrium- (balance)
mechanoreceptors
The eye and vision
- 70 percent of all sensory receptors are
in the eyes.
- Each eye has over a million nerve fibers
- Protection for the eyes
- Most of the eye is enclosed in a bony
orbit. Made up of lacrimal (medial),
ethmoid (posterior), sphenoid (lateral),
frontal (superior), zygomatic and
maxilla (inferior)
- A cushion of fat surrounds most of the
eye.
Accessory Structures of the Eye
Eyelid- brush particles out of eye or cover
eye
Eyelashes- trap particles and keep them out
of the eye.
Ciliary glands- modified sweat glands
between the eyelashes
 Secrete acidic sweat to kill
bacteria lubricate eyelashes.
Conjunctiva- membrane that lines eyelids.
 Connects to the surface of the
eye- forms a seal.
eye.
Conjunctivitis- inflammation of the
conjunctive
 Caused by bacterial or viral
infection
 Highly contagious
- Lacrimal apparatus
 Lacrimal Gland- produces fluid
 Lacrimal canals- drains lacrimal
fluid from the eyes
 Nasolacrimal- empties lacrimal
fluid into the nasal cavity.
Functions of Lacrimal Apparatus
- Properties of lacrimal fluid
 Dilute salt solution
 Contains antibodies (fight
antigens- fight substances) and
lysozyme (enzyme that destroys
bacteria)
- Protects, moistens, and lubricates the
eye
- Empties into the nasal cavity.
Extrinsic Eye Muscle
- Muscle attach to the outer surface of
the eye
- Produce eye movement
When Extrinsic Eye Muscles Contract
Superior oblique- eye looks out and down
Superior rectus- eyes look up
Lateral rectus- eyes look outward
Medial rectus- eyes look inward
Inferior rectus- eyes look down
Inferior oblique- eyes look in and up
Anatomy of the eye
Structure of the Eye
The wall is composed of three tunics
- Fibrous tunic- outside layer
- Choroid middle layer – middle layer
- Sensory tunic – inside layer
The Fibrous Tunic
Sclera
- White connective tissue layer
- Seen anteriorly as the “white of the
eye”
- Semi transparent
Choroid layer
- Blood-rich nutritive tunic
- Pigment prevents light from scattering
(opaque-blocks light from getting in
has melanin)
- Modified anteriorly into two structures
 Ciliary body- smooth muscle
(contracts to adjust shape of
lens)
 Iris- pigmented layer that gives
eye color (contracts to adjust
the size of the pupil- regulates
into the eye)
 Pupil- rounded opening of the
iris
Sensory tunic (Retina)
- Contains receptor cells
(photoreceptors)
 Rods
 Cones
- Signals leave retina toward the brain
through the optic nerve
- Signals pass from photoreceptors via a
two-neuron chain
- Bipolar neurons and Ganglion cells
Visual Pigments
 Rhodopsin- visual purple, in high
concentration in RODS
- Composed of opsin and retinal (a
derivative of vitamin A) proteins
- When light hits the protein its
“bleaches”- turns yellow and colorless.
It straightens and breaks down into
opsin and retinal.
- There are three types of opsins besides
rhodopsin, with absorption for
yellowish-greenish (photopsin I), green
(photopsin II), and bluish- violet
(photopsin III) light.
Neurons of the Retina and Vision
Rods
- Most are found towards the edge of
the retina
- Allow dim light vision and peripheral
vision (more sensitive to light, do not
respond in bright light)
- Perception is all in gray tones
Cones
- Allow for detailed color vision
- Densest in the color of the retina
- Fovea centralis- are of the retina with
only cones
- Respond best in bright light
- No photoreceptor cells are the optic
disk, or blind spot.
Cone Sensitivity
- There are three types of cones
- Different cones are sensitive to
wavelengths
 Red- long
 Green- medium
 Blue- short
 - Color blindness is the result of lack of
one or more cone type.
How do we see colors?
- To see any color, the brain must
compare the input from different kinds
of cone cells- and make other
comparisons as well.
- The lightning-fast work of judging a
color begins in the retina, which has
three layers of cells. Signals the red and
green cones in the first layers in the
first layer are compared by specialized
red-green “opponents” cells in the
second layer. These opponent cells
compute the balance between red and
green light coming from a particular
part of visual field. Other opponents’
cells then compare signals from blue
cones with combined signals from red
and green cones.
Colorblindness
- An inherited trait that transferred on
the sex chromosomes (23rd pair) sex-
linked trait
- Occurs more often in males
- Cannot be cured or corrected
- Comes from a lack of one or more
types of color receptors.
- Most are green or red or both and that
is due to a lack of red receptors.
- Another possibility is it to have the
color receptors missing entirely, which
would result in black and white vision.
Lens
- Biconvex crystal- like structure
- Held in a place by a suspensory
ligament attached to the ciliary body
- Refracts light greatly
Internal Eye Chamber Fluid
Aqueous chamber
- Watery fluid found in the chamber
between the lens and cornea
- Similar to blood plasma
- Helps maintain intraocular pressure
- Provides nutrients for the lens and
cornea
- Reabsorbed into venous blood through
the canal of Schlemm
Vitreous humor
- Gel like substance behind the lens
- Keeps the eye from collapsing
- Lasts a lifetime and is not replaced.
- Refracts light slightly
- Holds lens and retina in place
Lens Accommodation
- Light must be focused to a point on the
retina for optimal vision
- The eye is set for optimal vision (over
20 feet away).
- 20/20 vision- at 20 feet you would see
what a normal eye would see at 20 feet
(20/100 at 20, normal person would
see at 100)
- The lens must change shapes to focus
for closer objects
Myopia
- Nearsightedness, or myopia is the
difficulty seeing objects at a distance.
Myopia occurs when the eyeball is
slightly longer than usually from the
from the front to back. This causes the
light rays to focus at a point in front of
the retina, rather than directly on the
surface. Concave lenses are used to
correct them.
Hyperopia
- Hyperopia, or farsightedness, is when
light entering the eye focused behind
the retina.
- Hyperoptic eyes are shorter than
normal.
- Hyperopia is treated using a convex
lens.
Images formed on the Retina
 - If the images is focused at the spot
where the optic disc is located, nothing
will be seen. This is known as the blind
spot. There are no photoreceptors
there, as nerves and blood vessels pass
through this point.
The middle ear or tympanic cavity
Visual pathway
- Photoreceptors of the retina
- Optic nerve
- Optic nerve crosses at the optic
chiasma
- Optic tracts
- Thalamus (axons from optic radiation)
- Visual cortex of the occipital lobe
Eye reflexes
- Internal muscles are controlled by the
autonomic nervous system
- Bright light causes pupils to constrict
through action of radial (iris) and ciliary
Bones of the Tympanic cavity
muscles
- Viewing close objects causes
accommodation
- External muscles control eye
movement to follow objects- voluntary
controlled at the frontal eye field
- Viewing close objects causes
convergence (eye moving medially)
The Ear
- Houses two senses
- Hearing (interpreted in the auditory
cortex of the temporakl lobe)
- Equilibrium (balance) (interpreted in
the cerebellum)
- Receptors are mechanoreceptors
- Differents organs houses receptors for
each senses
Anatomy of the Ear
- The ear is divided into three areas
 Outer (external) ear
 Middle ear
 Inner ear
The external ear
- Involved in hearing only
- Structures of the external ear
 Pinna (auricle)- collects sound
 External auditory canal- channels
sounds inward
- Air-filled cavity within the temporal
bone only involved in the sense of
hearing.
- The tube associated with the inner ear
- The opening from the auditory canal is
covered by the tympanic membrane
(eardrum)
- The auditory tube connecting the
middle ear with the throat (also known
as the eustacian tube)
- Allows for equalizing pressure during
yawning or swallowing
- The tube is otherwise collapsed
Three bones span the cavity
 Malleus (hammer)
 Incus (anvil)
 Stapes (stirrip)
- Vibrations from the eardrum move the
malleus
- Theses bones transfer sound in the
inner ear
Inner Ear or Bony Labyrinth
- Also known as osseous labyrinth
twisted bony tubes
- Includes sense organs for hearing and
balance
- Filled with perilymph
- Vibrations of the stapes push and pull
on the membranous window, moving
the perilymph through the cochlea.
The round window is a membrane at
the opposite end to relieve pressure.
- A maze of bony chambers within the
temporal
 Cochlea
  Upper chamber is the scala
vestibuli
 Lower chamber is the scala
tympani
 Vestibule
 Semicircular canals
Organ of Corti
- Located within cochlea
- Receptors= hair cells on the basilar
membrane
- Gel like tectorial membrane is capable
of bending hair cells (endolymph in the
membranous labyrinth of the cochlear
duct flows over it and pushes on the
membrane)
Mechanism of Hearing
- Vibrations from sound waves move
tectorial membrane (pass through the
endolymph fluid filling the
membranous labyrinth in the cochlear
duct)
- Hair cells are bent by the membrane
- An action potential starts in the
cochlear nerve
- The signal is transmitted to the
midbrain for auditory reflexes and then
directed to the auditory cortex of the
temporal lobe)
- Continued stimulation can lead to
adaptation (over stimulation to the
brain makes it stop interpreting the
sounds)
Organs of Equilibrium
- Receptor cells are in two structures
 Vestibule
 Semicircular canals
- Equilibrium has two functional parts
 Static equilibrium- in the
vestibule
 Dynamic equilibrium- in the
semicircular canals
Static Equilibrium
 Maculae- receptors in the vestibules
- Report on the position of the head
- Send information via the vestibular
nerve
 Anatomy of maculae
- Hair cells are embedded in the otolithic
membrane
- Otoliths (tiny stone) float in a gel
around the hair cells
Functions of maculae
- Movements cause otoliths to bend the
hair cells (gravity moves the “rocks”
over and pull the hairs)
Dynamic Equilibrium
- Whole structure of ampulla
- Crista ampullaris-receptors in the
semicircular canals
- Tuft of hair cells
- Actions of angular head movement
- The cupula stimulates the hair cells
- Movement of endolymph pushes the
cupula over and pulls the hairs
- An impulse is sent via the vestibular
nerve to the cerebellum
Chemical senses- Taste and Smell
- Both senses use chemoreceptors
- Stimulated by chemicals in solution
- Taste has four types of receptors
- Smell can differentiate a large range of
chemicals
- Both senses complement each other
and respond to many of the same
stimuli
Olfaction- The sense of smell
- Olfactory receptors are in the roof of
the nasal cavity
- Neurons with long cilia
- Chemicals must be dissolved in mucus
for detection
The sense of taste
- Taste buds house the receptors organs
- Location of the taste buds
 Most are on the tongue
  Soft palate - All special senses are functional at birth
 Cheeks
Endocrine Glands
The tongue and taste
- Cells, tissues, organs, collectively called
- The tongue is covered with projection endocrine glands
called papillae - That secretes substances called
 Filiform papillae- sharp has no hormones into internal environment
taste buds - Hormones diffuse from the interstitial
 Fungiform papillae- rounded fluid into the bloodstream, and
with taste buds eventually act on cells called target
 Circumvallate papillae- large cells
papillae with taste buds
Hormone
- Taste buds are found on the side
papillae. - Greek word meaning to “arouse”
- They “arouse”, or to bring about their
Structure of taste buds
effects on the body’s cells primarily by
 Gustatory cells are the receptors altering cellular activity- that is, by
- Have gustatory hair (long microvilli) increasing or decreasing the rate of a
- Hairs are stimulated by chemical normal, or usual, metabolic process
dissolved in saliva rather than by stimulating performance
- Impulse are carried to the gustatory of a new one.
complex (parietal complex) by several
Effect of hormones
cranial nerves because taste buds are
found in different areas 1. Changes in plasma membranes
 Facial nerve permeability or electrical state.
 Glossopharyngeal nerve 2. Synthesis of proteins or certain
 Vagus nerve regulatory molecules (such as
enzymes)
Taste sensation 3. Activation or inactivation of enzymes
- Sweet receptors 4. Stimulation of mitosis
 Sugar 5. Promotion of secretory activity
 Saccharine Hormonal Stimulus
 Some amino acids
- Sour receptors 1. The hypothalamus that…
 Acids 2. Stimulate the anterior pituitary gland to
- Bitter receptors secrete hormones that…
 Alkaloids 3. Stimulate other endocrine glands to
- Salty receptors secrete hormones
 Metal ions Humoral Stimulus
- Umami
 Glutamate, aspartate (MSG, 1. Capillary blood contains low
meats) concentration of Ca2+, which
stimulates…
Developmental aspects of the special senses 2. …secretion of parathyroid hormones
- Formed early in embryonic (PTH) by parathyroid glands
development Neural stimulus
- Eyes are out growth of the brain
 1. Preganglionic sympathetic fiber
stimulates adrenal medulla cells…
2. …to secrete catecholamines
(epinephrine and norepinephrine)
A comparison between the nervous system
and the endocrine system
Cells
Nervous system: Neurons
Endocrine system: Epithelial and others
Chemical signals
Nervous system: Neuro transmitter
Endocrine system: Hormone
Specificity of response
Nervous system: Receptors on postsynaptic cell
Endocrine system: Receptors on target cells
Speed of on set
Nervous system: Seconds
Endocrine system: Seconds to hours
Duration of Action
Nervous system: Very brief unless neuronal
activity continues
Endocrine system: May be brief or may last for
days.
Pituitary Gland (hypophysis)
- At the base of the brain, where a
pituitary stalk (infundibulum) attaches
it to the hypothalamus.
- About 1 cm. in diameter
- Consists of:
 Anterior pituitary or anterior lobe
 Posterior pituitary or posterior
lobe
Intermediate lobe (pars intermedia)
- In the fetus a narrow region develops
between the anterior and posterior
lobes of the pituitary gland.
- Produces melanocytes- stimulating
hormone (MSH)- regulate the synthesis
of melanin- the pigment in skin and in
parts of the eyes and brain.
- In most adults, this intermediate lobe
is no longer a distinct structure, but its
secretory cells persist in the two-
remaining lobe.
Anterior Pituitary Hormones
- The anterior pituitary is enclosed in a
capsule of dense connective tissue and
consists of largely epithelium
- Five types of secretory cells in the
epithelium
- Four of these cell types secrete
different hormone
- Growth Hormone (GH)
- Prolactin (PRL)
- Thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH)
- Adrenocorticotropic ACTH
Two hormones – GH secretion
1. GH- releasing hormone (GHRH)
2. GH release- inhibiting hormone
(GHHH)
- Nutritional state also influences control
of GH
Growth Hormone (GH)
- Stimulates cells to enlarge and divide
more frequently
- Enhances the movement of amino
acids across cell membranes
- Speeds the rate at which cells utilize
carbohydrates and fat.
- Effect on amino acids is important in
stimulating growth.
Pituitary dwarfism
- Insufficient secretion of growth
hormone (gH) during childhood limits
growth
- Body parts are normally proportioned
- Mentally development is normal- the
individual is just very small, typically,
 hormone therapy can stimulate some
growth.
Gigantism
- Over secretion of gH during childhood
- Height may exceed 8 feet
- This rare condition is usually result of a
pituitary gland tumor
- Over secretion of other pituitary
hormones
- A person who has gigantism often has
several metabolic disturbances
Acromegaly
- Overproduction of growth hormone in
adulthood
- Enlarged heart, bones, thyroid gland,
facial features hands and head.
- Early symptoms include headache,
joint pain, fatigue, and depression.
Prolactin
- Stimulates and sustains a woman’s milk
production following the birth of an
infant
- No normal or physiological role in
human males has been established.
- Abnormally elevated levels of PRL can
disrupt sexual function in both sexes.
- produce the two hormones associated
Thyroid- stimulating hormone (TSH)
- Controls thyroid gland secretions
- The hypothalamus partially regulates
TSH secretion by producing
thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH)
- Circulating thyroid hormone inhibit
release of
- TRH and TSH, As the blood
concentration of thyroid hormones
increases, secretion of TRH and TSH
decreases.
Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)
- Controls the manufacture and
secretion of certain hormones from the
outer layer, or cortex, of the adrenal
gland.
- ACTH secretion is regulated in part by
corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH),
which the hypothalamus releases in
response in response to decreased
concentrations of adrenal cortical
hormones.
- Also, stress may increase ACTH
secretion stimulating the release of
CRH.
Follicle- stimulating hormone (FSH) and
luteinizing hormone (LH)
- Gonadotropins
- Exert their action on gonads, or
reproductive organs
- Testes in the male and the ovaries in
the female
- Discusses the functions of these
gonadotropins and the ways they
interact.
Posterior Pituitary
- Consists mostly of axons and neuroglia,
unlike the anterior pituitary, which is
composed primarily of glandular
epithelial cells.
- Specialized neurons in hypothalamus
with the posterior pituitary
 Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) and
oxytocin (OT)
- Transported down axons through the
pituitary stalk to the posterior lobe, are
stored in vesicles (secretory granules)
near the end of the axons.
- Impulses from the hypothalamus
release the hormones into the blood.
- If an injury or tumor damages any parts
of the ADH- regulating mechanism, too
little ADH may be synthesized or
released- diabetes insipidus.
- An affected individual may produce as
much as 20 liters of very dilute urine
 per day, and solute concentrations in Hormonal controls of ionic calcium in the
body fluids rise. blood
- If pregnant woman near or at her “due Stimulus
Stimulus
date” has certain signs of approaching
birth, but is not yet experiencing
uterine contractions (labor pains)-
given a form of oxytocin.
- Oxytocin- stimulate contractions; may Parathyroid glands
Calcitonin
also be administered to the mother releases Parathyroid
following childbirth to contract the hormone (PTH)
uterus sufficiently to squeeze broken
blood vessels closed, minimizing the
hemorrhage. Calcitonin stimulates
calcium salt deposits
Thyroid Hormones in bone PTH
- The follicular cells of the thyroid gland
synthesize two hormones- thyroxine,
also known as T4 because it includes
three atoms of iodine.
Equilibrium Osteoclast degrades the
- Help regulate the metabolism of
carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins bone matrix and release
2+¿ ¿
- Increase the rate at which cells release Ca into blood
energy from carbohydrates
- Increase the rate of protein synthesis
- Stimulate breakdown and mobilization
of lipids. Equilibrium
- Major factors determining how many
calories the body must consume at rest Adrenal Glands
in order to maintain life- basal
metabolic rate (BMR) - Are closely associated with the kidneys.
- Required for normal growth and - Sits at top each kidney like a cap
development - Embedded in the mass of adipose
- Essential to nervous system maturation tissue that encloses the kidney

Parathyroid Gland Structure of the Glands

- Posterior surface of the thyroid gland  Very vascular; two parts

- Four parathyroid glands 1. Adrenal medulla- central potion
- A superior and an inferior gland 2. Adrenal cortex- cortical or outer

Parathyroid Hormone Hormones of the Adrenal Medulla

- Increase blood calcium concentration 1. Epinephrine

- Decreases blood phosphate ion 2. Norepinephrine
concentration - Have similar molecular structures and
- Affects the bones, kidneys, and physiological functions
intestine - Epinephrine, which makes up of 80% of
adrenal medullary secretion, is
synthesized from norepinephrine.
Comparative Effects of Epinephrine and
Norepinephrine
Heart
Epinephrine:
- Rate increases
- Force of contraction increases
Norepinephrine:
- Rate increases
- Force of contraction increases
Blood vessels
Epinephrine:
- Vasodilation, especially important in
skeletal muscle at onset fight-or-flight
response.
Norepinephrine:
- Vasoconstriction in skin and viscera
shifts blood flow to other areas, such
as exercising skeletal muscle.
Systematic blood pressure
Epinephrine: some increase due to
increased cardiac output
Norepinephrine: Some increase due to
increased cardiac output and
vasoconstriction (offset in some areas, such
as exercising skeletal muscle, by local
vasodilation due to other factors)
Airways
Epinephrine: dilation
Norepinephrine: some dilation
Reticulation formation of brainstem
Epinephrine: Activated
Norepinephrine: Little effect
Liver
Epinephrine: Promotes breakdown of
glucose, increase blood sugar
concentration
Norepinephrine: Little effect on blood
glucose level
Metabolic rate
Epinephrine: increases
Norepinephrine: increase
Hormones of the Adrenal Cortex
- The cells of the adrenal cortex produce
more than thirty different steroids,
including several hormones.
- Unlike the adrenal medullary
hormones, without which a person can
still survive, some adrenal cortical
hormones are vital.
- Without extensive electrolyte therapy
a person usually dies within a week.
- The most important adrenal cortical
hormones are aldosterone, cortisol,
and certain sex hormones.
Pancreas
- Two major types of secretory tissues.
- Exocrine gland that excretes digestive
juice.
- Endocrine gland that releases
hormones.
Structure of the Gland (Pancreas)
- an elongated, somewhat flattened
organ
- posterior to the stomach and behind
the parietal peritoneum
- a duct joins the pancreas to the
duodenum (the first section of the
small intestine)
- digestive juice, the exocrine secretion
of the pancreas
Pancreatic Islet or islets of the Langerhans
- best hidden endocrine glands in the
body are the pancreatic islets.
 - Little masses of hormone- producing
tissue are scattered among the
enzymes-producing acinar tissue of the
pancreas.
- Exocrine (enzyme- producing) part of
the pancreas act as part of the
digestive system.
Hormones of the Pancreatic Islets: Glucagon
- Stimulates the liver to break down
glycogen
- Convert certain noncarbohydrates,
such as amino acids, into glucose,
- Raising blood sugar concentration
- Elevates blood glucose than does
epinephrine
Hormone of the Pancreatic Islets: Insulin
- Stimulates the liver to form glycogen
from glucose
- Inhibits conversion of non-
carbohydrates into glucose
- Promotes facilitated diffusion of
glucose across cell membranes that
have insulin receptors
- Decrease blood glucose concentration.
- Promotes transport of amino acids into
cell
- Increases the rate protein synthesis
- Stimulates adipose cells to synthesize
and store fat
- Beta cells release insulin
- Insulin helps prevent high a blood
glucose concentration by
concentration by promoting glycogen
formation in the liver
- Entrance of glucose into adipose and
muscle cells
- When glucose concentration falls, such
between meals or during the night,
insulin secretion decreases
Other Endocrine Glands
 Pineal gland
 Thymus
 Reproductive organs
 Certain glands of the digestive
tract, heart, and kidneys
Pineal gland
- Is a small structure located deep
between the cerebral hemispheres,
where it attaches to the upper part of
the thalamus near the roof of the third
ventricle.
Thymus
- Lies in the mediastinum to the sternum
and between the lungs
- Relatively large in young children but
shrinks with age
- Secretes a group of hormones called
thymosin that affects the production
and differentiation of certain white
blood cells (lymphocytes)
- Plays an important role in immunity
Reproductive organs
1. Testes- produce testosterone
2. The ovaries- estrogen and progesterone
3. Placenta- estrogen, progesterone, and
gonadotropin
Heart
- Atrial natriuretic peptide, a hormone
that stimulates urinary sodium
excretion.
Kidneys
- Red blood cell growth hormone called
erythropoietin.
Stress and Health
1. Survival depends on the maintenance of
homeostasis
2. Factors that change the body’s internal
environment can threaten life.
3. When sensory receptors detect such
changes, impulses to the hypothalamus
trigger physiological responses that
preserve homeostasis.
4. These responses- increased activity in
the sympathetic division of the
 autonomic nervous system and Short term “fight or flight” or alarm stage
increased secretion of adrenal and
other hormones. Stress
5. A factor that can stimulate such a Signals from
response is called a stressor, and the
sensory receptors
condition produces in the body called
stress.
Hypothalamus
Types of Stress
A. Physical factors
- Exposure to extreme heat or cold Sympathetic Norepinephrine
- Decreased oxygen concentration impulses released
- Infections
- Injuries Short term “fight or flight” or alarm stage
- Prolonged heavy exercise
- Loud sounds Adrenal 1. Blood glucose increases
B. Psychological 2. Blood glycerol and fatty acids
medulla
- Thoughts about real or imagined increases.
dangers, 3. Heart rate increases
- Personal losses 4. Blood pressure increases
- Unpleasant social interaction Epinephrine and 5. Breathing rate increases
- Feeling of anger, fear, grief, anxiety, norepinephrine 6. Air passages dilate
depression, and guilt released 7. Pupils dilate.
- Pleasant, stimuli such as friendly social
8. Blood flow redistribution
contact, feelings of joy and happiness,
or sexual arousal.
Response to Stress or stress response or Long term adjustment or resistance stage
general adaptation syndrome *two stages*
Stress
1. Immediate “alarm”- “fight or flight”
- Raising blood concentrations of Signals from
glucose, glycerol, fatty acids sensory receptors
- Increasing heart rate, blood pressure, Hypothalamus
and breathing rate
- Dilating air passages CRH released
- Shunting blood from the skin and
digestive organs to the skeletal muscles Anterior pituitary
- Increasing epinephrine secretion from
the adrenal medulla
ACTH released
2. Long-term “resistance” stage
Adrenal cortex

Anterior pituitary

Long term adjustment or resistance stage

1. Blood concentration or amino acids
increases
2. Release of fatty acids increases
3. Glucose formed from non-carbohydrates-
amino caids (from proteins) and glycerol
(from fats)- increases
The Endocrine System Steroid Hormone Action
- Second messenger system of the body
- Uses chemical messages (hormones)
that are released into the blood
- Hormones control several major
processes
 Reproduction
 Growth and development
 Mobilization of body defenses
 Maintenance of much of
homeostasis
 Regulation of metabolism
Hormone Overview Non steroid Hormone Action

- Hormone are produced by specialized

cells
- Cells secrete hormones into
extracellular fluids
- Blood transfers hormones to target
sites
- These hormones regulate the activity
of other cells
The Chemistry of Hormones
- Amino acid-based hormones
- Steroids- made from cholesterol Control of hormone Release
- Prostaglandins- made from highly - Hormone levels in the blood are
active lipids maintained by negative feedback
Mechanism of Hormone Action - A stimulus or low hormone levels in the
blood triggers the release of more
- Hormones affect only certain tissues or hormone
organs (target cells or organs) - Hormone release stops once an
- Target cells must have specific protein appropriate level in the blood is
receptors reached.
- Hormone binding influences the
working of the cells Hormonal stimuli of endocrine glands

Effect caused by hormones - Endocrine glands are activated by

- Changes in plasma membranes
permeability or electrical state
- Synthesis of protein, such as enzymes
- Activation of inactivation of enzymes
- Stimulation of mitosis
other hormones.
- Changing blood levels of certain ions
stimulate hormone release.
Neural stimuli endocrine glands
- Nerve impulses stimulate hormone
release
- Most are under control of the
sympathetic nervous system.
Location of major endocrine organs Function of other anterior pituitary
hormones
Prolactin (PRL)
- Stimulates and maintain milk
production following childbirth
- Function in males in unknown
Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)
- Regulates endocrine activity of the
adrenal cortex
Thyroid- stimulating hormone (TSH)
- Influencing growth and activity of the
thyroid
Gonadotropic hormones
- Regulate hormonal activity of the
gonads
- Follicle- stimulating hormone (FSH)
Hormones of the anterior pituitary  Stimulates follicle development in
ovaries
 Stimulates sperm development in
tastes
Luteinizing hormone (LH)
- Triggers ovulation
- Causes rapture follicle become the
corpus luteum
- Stimulates testosterone production in
males
 Referred to as interstitial cell-
stimulating hormone (ICSH)
Pituitary- Hypothalamus Relationship
- Release of hormone is controlled by
releasing and inhibiting hormones
Growth Hormone (GH) produced by the hypothalamus
- Hypothalamus produces two hormones
- General metabolic hormone
that are transported to neurosecretory
- Major effects are directed to growth of
cells of the posterior pituitary
skeletal muscles and ling bones
- The posterior pituitary is not strictly an
- Causes amino acids to be built into
endocrine gland. But does release
proteins
hormones.
- Causes fats to be broken down for a
source of energy.
Hormones of the posterior pituitary Adrenal Glands
Oxytocin
- Stimulates concentrations of the uterus
during labor
- Causes milk ejection
Antidiuretic hormone (ADH)
- Can inhibit urine production
Mineralocorticoids (mainly aldosterone)
- In large amounts, causes
vasoconstriction leading to increased
blood pressure (vasopressin)
Thyroid Gland
- Found at the base of the throat
- Consists of two lobes and connecting
isthmus
- Produces hormones
 Thyroid hormone
Glucocorticoids
 Calcitonin
cortisol)
Thyroid Hormone
- Major metabolic hormone
- Composed of two active iodine-
containing hormone’
 Thyroxine (T4) secreted by thyroid
follicles
 Triiodothyronine (T3)- conversion Sex hormone
T4 at target tissues
Calcitonin
- Decreased blood calcium levels by
causing its deposition on bone
- Antagonistic to parathyroid hormone
- Produced by C (parafollicular) cells
Parathyroid glands
- Tiny masses on the posterior of the
thyroid
- Secrete parathyroid hormone
 Stimulate osteoclast to remove
calcium from bone
 Stimulate the kidneys and intestine
to absorb more calcium
 Raise calcium levels in the blood
- Two glands
 Cortex- outer glandular region in
three layers
 Medulla- inner neural tissue region
- Sits on top of the lungs
Hormones of the Adrenal Cortex
 Produced in outer adrenal cortex
 Regulate mineral content in blood,
water and electrolyte balance
- Target organ is the kidney
- Production stimulated by renin and
aldosterone
- Production inhibited by atrial
natriuretic peptide
(including cortisone and
- Produced in the middle layer of the
adrenal cortex
- Promote normal cell membrane
- Help resist long-term stressors
- Released in response to increased
blood levels of ACTH
- Produced in the inner layer of the
adrenal cortex
- Androgens (male) and some estrogen
(female)
Hormones of the Adrenal Medulla
- Produces two similar hormones
(catecholamines)
 Epinephrine
 Norepinephrine
- These hormones prepare the body to
deal with short-term stress
Pancreatic Islets
- The pancreas is a mixed gland
- The islets if the pancreas produce
hormones
  Insulin- allows glucose to cross plasma - Promotes growth and maturation of
membranes into cells from beta cells male reproductive system
 Glucagon- allows glucose to enter the - Required for sperm cell production.
blood from alpha cells
 These hormones are the antagonists
that maintain blood sugar homeostasis
Pineal Gland
- Found on the third ventricle of the
brain
- Secretes melatonin
- Helps establish the body’s wake and
sleepy cycles
- May have other as-yet-unsubstantiated
functions
Thymus
- Located posterior to the sternum
- Largest in infants and children
- Produces thymosin
- Mature some type of white blood cells
- Important in developing the immune
system
Hormones of the ovaries
Estrogen
- Stimulates the development of
secondary female characteristics
- Matures female reproductive organs
- Helps prepare the breast to produce
milk.
Progesterone
- Acts with estrogen to bring about the
menstrual cycle
- Helps in the implantation of an embryo
in the uterus
Hormones of the Testes
- Interstitial cells of testes are hormone
producing
- Produce several androgens
- Testosterone is the most important
androgen
- Responsible for adult male secondary
sex characteristics