14 15 16 17 18 19 20

21 22 23 24 25 26

Reading Passage 2

Young Children’s Sense of Identity

A sense of ‘self’ develops in young children by degrees. The process can usefully be
thought of in terms of the gradual emergence of two somewhat separate features: the self
as a subject, and the self as an object. William James introduced the distinction in 1892,
and contemporaries of his, such as Charles Cooley, added to the developing debate. Ever
since then psychologists have continued building on the theory.

According to James, a child’s first step on the road to self-understanding can be seen as
the recognition that he or she exists. This is an aspect of the self that he labeled ‘self-as-
subject’, and he gave it various elements. These included an awareness of one’s own
agency (i.e. one’s power to act) and an awareness of one’s distinctiveness from other
people. These features gradually emerge as infants explore their world and interact with
caregivers. Cooley (1902) suggested that a sense of the self-as-subject was primarily
concerned with being able to exercise power. He proposed that the earliest examples of
this are an infants attempts to control physical objects, such as toys or his or her own
limbs. This is followed by attempts to affect the behavior of other people. For example,
infants learn that when they cry or smile someone responds to them.

Another powerful source of information for infants about the effects they can have on the
world around them is provided when others mimic them. Many parents spend a lot of
time, particularly in the early months, copying their infant’s vocalizations and
expressions. In addition, young children enjoy looking in mirrors, where the movements
they can see are dependent upon their own movements.This is not to say that infants
recognize the reflection as their own image (a later development). However, Lewis and
Brooks-Gunn (1979) suggest that infants’ developing understanding that the movements
they see in the mirror are contingent on their own, leads to a growing awareness that they
are distinct from other people. This is because they, and only they can change the
reflection in the mirror.
D

This understanding that children gain of themselves as active agents continue to develop
in their attempts to co-operate with others in play. Drum (1988) points out that it is in
such day-to-day relationships and interactions that the child’s understanding of his· or
herself emerges. Empirical investigations of the self-as- subject in young children are,
however, rather scarce because of difficulties of communication: even if young infants
can reflect on their experience, they certainly cannot express this aspect of the self
directly.

Once children have acquired a certain level of self-awareness, they begin to place
themselves in a whole series of categories, which together play such an important part in
defining them uniquely as ‘themselves’. This second step in the development of a full
sense of self is what lames called the ‘self-as-object’. This has been seen by many to be
the aspect of the self which is most influenced by social elements, since it is made up of
social roles (such as student, brother; colleague) and characteristics which derive their
meaning from comparison or interaction with other people (such as trustworthiness,
shyness, sporting ability).

Cooley and other researchers suggested a close connection between a person’s own
understanding of their identity and other people’s understanding of it. Cooley believed
that people build up their sense of identity from the reactions of others to them, and from
the view, they believe others have of them He called the self- as-object the ’looking-glass
self’, since people come to see themselves as they are reflected in others. Mead (1934)
went even further, and saw the self and the social world as inextricably bound together.
The self is essentially a social structure, and it arises in social experience. It is impossible
to conceive of a self-arising outside of social experience.’

Lewis and Brooks-Gunn argued that an important developmental milestone is reached

when children become able to recognize themselves visually without the support of
seeing contingent movement. This recognition occurs around their second birthday. In
one experiment, Lewis and Brooks-Gunn (1979) dabbed some red powder on the noses of
children who were playing in front of a mirror, and then observed how often they touched
their noses. The psychologists reasoned that if the children knew what they usually
looked like, they would be surprised by the unusual red mark and would start touching it.
On the other hand, they found that children of 15 to 18 months are generally not able to
recognize themselves unless other cues such as movement are present.
H

Finally perhaps the most graphic expressions of self-awareness, in general, can be seen in
the displays of rage which are most common from 18 months to 3 years of age. In a
longitudinal study of groups of three or four children, Bronson (1975) found that the
intensity of the frustration and anger in their disagreements increased sharply between the
ages of 1 and 2 years. Often, the children’s disagreements involved a struggle over a toy
that none of them had played with before or after the tug-of-war: the children seemed to
be disputing ownership rather than wanting to play with it. Although it may be less
marked in other societies, the link between the sense of ’self’ and of ‘ownership’ is a
notable feature of childhood in Western societies.

Question 14-19

Reading Passage has eight paragraphs, A-H.

Which paragraph contains the following information?
Write the correct letter, A-H

NB You may use any letter more than once.

14. an account of the method used by researchers in a particular study

15. the role of imitation in developing a sense of identity

16. the age at which children can usually identify a static image of themselves

17. a reason for the limitations of scientific research into ‘self-as-subject’

18. reference to a possible link between culture and a particular form of behaviour

19. examples of the wide range of features that contribute to the sense of ‘self-as-object’
Question 20 - 23
Look at the following findings and the list of researchers below.
Match each finding with the correct researcher or researchers, A-E.
Write the correct letter, A-E

List of Findings
A James
B Cooley
C Lewis and Brooks-Gunn
D Mead
E Bronson

20. A sense of identity can never be formed without relationships with other people.

21. A child’s awareness of self is related to a sense of mastery over things and people.

22. At a certain age, children’s sense of identity leads to aggressive behaviour.

23. Observing their own reflection contributes to children’s self awareness.

Question 24-26
Complete the summary below.
Choose ONE WORD ONLY from the passage for each answer.

How children acquire a sense of identity

First, children come to realise that they can have an effect on the world around them, for
example by handling objects, or causing the image to move when they face a 24
________. This aspect of self-awareness is difficult to research directly, because of 25
________ problems.

Secondly, children start to become aware of how they are viewed by others. One
important stage in this process is the visual recognition of themselves which usually
occurs when they reach the age of two. In Western societies at least, the development of
self awareness is often linked to a sense of 26 ________, and can lead to disputes.
 27 28 29 30 31 32 33

34 35 36 37 38 39 40

READING PASSAGE 3
You should spend about 20 minutes on Questions 27-40 which are based on Reading
Passage 3 below.
UK companies need more effective boards of directors

A
After a number of serious failures of governance (that is, how they are managed at the
highest level), companies in Britain, as well as elsewhere, should consider radical
changes to their directors’ roles. It is clear that the role of a board director today is not
an easy one. Following the 2008 financial meltdown, which resulted in a deeper and
more prolonged period of economic downturn than anyone expected, the search for
explanations in the many post-mortems of the crisis has meant blame has been spread
far and wide. Governments, regulators, central banks and auditors have all been in the
frame. The role of bank directors and management and their widely publicised failures
have been extensively picked over and examined in reports, inquiries and
commentaries.
B
The knock-on effect of this scrutiny has been to make the governance of companies in
general an issue of intense public debate and has significantly increased the pressures
on, and the responsibilities of, directors. At the simplest and most practical level, the
time involved in fulfilling the demands of a board directorship has increased
significantly, calling into question the effectiveness of the classic model of corporate
governance by part-time, independent non-executive directors. Where once a board
schedule may have consisted of between eight and ten meetings a year, in many
companies the number of events requiring board input and decisions has dramatically
risen. Furthermore, the amount of reading and preparation required for each meeting is
increasing. Agendas can become overloaded and this can mean the time for
constructive debate must necessarily be restricted in favour of getting through the
business.
C
Often, board business is devolved to committees in order to cope with the workload,
which may be more efficient but can mean that the board as a whole is less involved in
fully addressing some of the most important issues. It is not uncommon for the audit
committee meeting to last longer than the main board meeting itself. Process may take
the place of discussion and be at the expense of real collaboration, so that boxes are
ticked rather than issues tackled.
D
A radical solution, which may work for some very large companies whose businesses
are extensive and complex, is the professional board, whose members would work up
to three or four days a week, supported by their own dedicated staff and advisers. There
are obvious risks to this and it would be important to establish clear guidelines for such
a board to ensure that it did not step on the toes of management by becoming too
engaged in the day-to-day running of the company. Problems of recruitment,
remuneration and independence could also arise and this structure would not be
appropriate for all companies. However, more professional and better-informed boards
would have been particularly appropriate for banks where the executives had access to
information that part-time non-executive directors lacked, leaving the latter unable to
comprehend or anticipate the 2008 crash.
E
One of the main criticisms of boards and their directors is that they do not focus
sufficiently on longer-term matters of strategy, sustainability and governance, but
instead concentrate too much on short-term financial metrics. Regulatory requirements
and the structure of the market encourage this behaviour. The tyranny of quarterly
reporting can distort board decision-making, as directors have to ‘make the numbers’
every four months to meet the insatiable appetite of the market for more date. This
serves to encourage the trading methodology of a certain kind of investor who moves in
and out of a stock without engaging in constructive dialogue with the company about
strategy or performance, and is simply seeking a short-term financial gain. This effect
has been made worse by the changing profile of investors due to the globalisation of
capital and the increasing use of automated trading systems. Corporate culture adapts
and management teams are largely incentivised to meet financial goals.
F
Compensation for chief executives has become a combat zone where pitched battles
between investors, management and board members are fought, often behind closed
doors but increasingly frequently in the full glare of press attention. Many would argue
that this is in the interest of transparency and good governance as shareholders use
their muscle in the area of pay to pressure boards to remove underperforming chief
executives. Their powers to vote down executive remuneration policies increased when
binding votes came into force. The chair of the remuneration committee can be an
exposed and lonely role, as Alison Carnwath, chair of Barclays Bank’s remuneration
committee, found when she had to resign, having been roundly criticised for trying to
defend the enormous bonus to be paid to the chief executive; the irony being that she
was widely understood to have spoken out against it in the privacy of the committee.

G
The financial crisis stimulated a debate about the role and purpose of the company and
a heightened awareness of corporate ethics. Trust in the corporation has been eroded
and academics such as Michael Sandel, in his thoughtful and bestselling book What
Money Can’t Buy, are questioning the morality of capitalism and the market economy.
Boards of companies in all sectors will need to widen their perspective to encompass
these issues and this may involve a realignment of corporate goals. We live in
challenging times.

Questions 27-33
Reading Passage 3 has seven paragraphs, A-G
Choose the correct heading for each paragraph from the list of headings below.
Write the correct number, i-viii, in boxes 27-33 on your answer sheet.
List of Headings
i Disputes over financial arrangements regarding senior managers
ii The impact on companies of being subjected to close examination
iii The possible need for fundamental change in every area of business
iv Many external bodies being held responsible for problems
v The falling number of board members with broad enough experience
vi A risk that not all directors take part in solving major problems
vii Broads not looking far enough ahead
viii A proposal to change the way the board operates
27 Paragraph A
28 Paragraph B
29 Paragraph C
30 Paragraph D
31 Paragraph E
32 Paragraph F
33 Paragraph G

Questions 34-37
Do the following statements agree with the claims of the writer in Reading Passage 3?
In boxes 34-37 on your answer sheet, write
YES if the statement agrees with the claims of the writer
NO if the statement contradicts the claims of the writer
NOT GIVEN if it is impossible to say what the writer thinks about this
34 Close scrutiny of the behaviour of boards has increased since the economic
downturn.
35 Banks have been mismanaged to a greater extent than other businesses.
36 Board meetings normally continue for as long as necessary to debate matters in
full.
37 Using a committee structure would ensure that board members are fully informed
about significant issues.

Questions 38-40
Complete the sentences below.
Choose ONE WORD ONLY from the passage for each answer.
Write your answers in boxes 38-40 on your answer sheet.
38 Before 2008, non-executive directors were at a disadvantage because of their lack
of ………………………..
39 Boards tend to place too much emphasis on …………………………. considerations
that are only of short-term relevance.
40 On certain matters, such as pay, the board may have to accept the views of
………………………..